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Plant Nutrition ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],Figure 37.2 CO 2 , the source of carbon for Photosynthesis, diffuses into leaves from the air through stomata. Through stomata, leaves expel H 2 O and O 2 . H 2 O O 2 CO 2 Roots take in O 2  and expel CO 2 . The plant uses O 2  for cellular respiration but is  a net O 2  producer. O 2 CO 2 H 2 O Roots absorb H 2 O and minerals from the soil. Minerals
Macronutrients and Micronutrients ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
[object Object],[object Object],Figure 37.3 TECHNIQUE   Plant roots are bathed in aerated solutions of known mineral composition. Aerating the water provides the roots with oxygen for cellular respiration. A particular mineral, such as potassium, can be omitted to test whether it is essential. RESULTS   If the omitted mineral is essential, mineral deficiency symptoms occur, such as stunted growth and discolored leaves. Deficiencies of different elements may have different symptoms, which can aid in diagnosing mineral deficiencies in soil. Control:  Solution containing all minerals Experimental:  Solution without potassium APPLICATION   In hydroponic culture, plants are grown in mineral solutions without soil. One use of hydroponic culture is to identify essential elements in plants.
[object Object],Table 37.1
[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Symptoms of Mineral Deficiency ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
[object Object],[object Object],Figure 37.4 Phosphate-deficient Healthy Potassium-deficient Nitrogen-deficient
[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Fertilizers ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Soil Bacteria and Nitrogen Availability ,[object Object],[object Object],Figure 37.9 Atmosphere N 2 Soil N 2 N 2 Nitrogen-fixing bacteria Organic material (humus) NH 3  (ammonia) NH 4 +  (ammonium) H +  (From soil) NO 3 –  (nitrate) Nitrifying bacteria Denitrifying bacteria Root NH 4 + Soil Atmosphere Nitrate and  nitrogenous organic compounds exported in xylem to shoot system Ammonifying bacteria
Improving the Protein Yield of Crops ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
The Role of Bacteria in Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
[object Object],[object Object],Figure 37.10a (a) Pea plant root.  The bumps on this pea plant root are nodules containing  Rhizobium  bacteria. The bacteria fix nitrogen and  obtain photosynthetic products supplied by the plant. Nodules Roots
[object Object],[object Object],Figure 37.10b (b) Bacteroids in a soybean root nodule.  In this TEM, a cell from a root nodule of soybean is filled with bacteroids in vesicles. The  cells on the left are uninfected. 5  m Bacteroids within vesicle
[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
[object Object],Figure 37.11 Infection thread Rhizobium bacteria Dividing cells in root cortex Bacteroid 2   The bacteria penetrate the cortex within the Infection thread. Cells of the cortex and pericycle begin dividing, and vesicles containing the bacteria bud into cortical cells from the branching infection thread. This process results in the formation of bacteroids. Bacteroid Bacteroid Developing root nodule Dividing cells in pericycle Infected root hair 1 2 3 Nodule vascular tissue 4 3   Growth continues in the affected regions of the cortex and pericycle, and these two masses of dividing cells fuse, forming the nodule. Roots emit chemical signals that attract  Rhizobium  bacteria. The bacteria then emit signals that stimulate root hairs to elongate and to form an infection thread by an invagination of the plasma membrane. 1 4 The nodule develops vascular tissue that supplies nutrients to the nodule and carries nitrogenous compounds into the vascular  cylinder for distribution throughout the plant.
The Molecular Biology of Root Nodule Formation ,[object Object],[object Object]
Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation and Agriculture ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Mycorrhizae and Plant Nutrition ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
The Two Main Types of Mycorrhizae ,[object Object],[object Object],Figure 37.12a a Ectomycorrhizae.  The mantle of the fungal mycelium ensheathes the root. Fungal hyphae extend from the mantle into the soil, absorbing water and minerals, especially phosphate. Hyphae also extend into the extracellular spaces of the root cortex, providing extensive surface area for nutrient exchange between the fungus and its host plant. Mantle (fungal sheath) Epidermis Cortex Mantle (fungal sheath) Endodermis Fungal hyphae between cortical cells (colorized SEM) 100 m (a)
[object Object],[object Object],Figure 37.12b Epidermis Cortex Fungal hyphae Root hair 10 m (LM, stained specimen) Cortical cells Endodermis Vesicle Casparian strip Arbuscules 2   Endomycorrhizae.  No mantle forms around the root, but microscopic fungal hyphae extend into the root. Within the root cortex, the fungus makes extensive contact with the plant through branching of hyphae that form arbuscules, providing an enormous surface area for nutrient swapping. The hyphae penetrate the cell walls, but not the plasma membranes, of cells within the cortex. (b)
Agricultural Importance of Mycorrhizae ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
[object Object],Figure 37.13 Staghorn fern, an epiphyte EPIPHYTES PARASITIC PLANTS CARNIVOROUS PLANTS Mistletoe, a photosynthetic parasite Dodder, a nonphotosynthetic  parasite Host’s phloem Haustoria Indian pipe, a nonphotosynthetic parasite Venus’ flytrap Pitcher plants Sundews Dodder
Angiosperm Reproduction and Biotechnology ,[object Object],[object Object],Figure 38.1
[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
[object Object],Figure 38.2a, b Anther at tip of stamen Filament Anther Stamen Pollen tube Germinated pollen grain ( n ) (male gametophyte) on stigma of carpel Ovary (base of carpel) Ovule Embryo sac ( n ) (female gametophyte) FERTILIZATION Egg ( n ) Sperm ( n ) Petal Receptacle Sepal Style Ovary Key Haploid ( n ) Diploid (2 n ) (a)  An idealized flower. (b)  Simplified angiosperm life cycle. See Figure 30.10 for a more detailed version of the life cycle, including meiosis. Mature sporophyte plant ( 2n ) with flowers Seed (develops from ovule) Zygote (2 n ) Embryo (2 n ) (sporophyte) Simple fruit (develops from ovary) Germinating seed Seed Carpel Stigma
Flower Structure ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Gametophyte Development and Pollination ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
[object Object],[object Object],3 A pollen grain becomes a  mature male gametophyte  when its generative nucleus  divides and forms two sperm. This usually occurs after a  pollen grain lands on the stigma  of a carpel and the pollen  tube begins to grow. (See Figure 38.2b.)  Development of a male gametophyte  (pollen grain) (a) 2 Each microsporo- cyte divides by  meiosis to produce  four haploid  microspores,  each of which  develops into  a pollen grain. Pollen sac (microsporangium) Micro- sporocyte Micro- spores (4) Each of 4 microspores Generative cell (will form 2 sperm) Male Gametophyte (pollen grain) Nucleus  of tube cell Each one of the  microsporangia  contains diploid  microsporocytes  (microspore  mother cells). 1 75 m 20 m Ragweed pollen grain Figure 38.4a MEIOSIS MITOSIS KEY to labels Haploid ( 2n ) Diploid ( 2n )
[object Object],[object Object],Key to labels MITOSIS MEIOSIS Ovule Ovule Integuments Embryo sac Mega- sporangium Mega- sporocyte Integuments Micropyle Surviving megaspore Antipodel Cells (3) Polar Nuclei (2) Egg (1) Synergids (2) Development of a female gametophyte  (embryo sac) (b) Within the ovule’s megasporangium  is a large diploid  cell called the  megasporocyte  (megaspore mother cell). 1 Three mitotic divisions  of the megaspore form  the embryo sac, a  multicellular female  gametophyte. The  ovule now consists of  the embryo sac along  with the surrounding  integuments (protective  tissue). 3 Female gametophyte (embryo sac) Diploid ( 2n ) Haploid ( 2n ) Figure 38.4b 100 m The megasporocyte divides by  meiosis and gives rise to four haploid cells, but in most  species only one of these  survives as the megaspore. 2
Mechanisms That Prevent Self-Fertilization ,[object Object],[object Object],Figure 38.5 Stigma Anther with pollen Stigma Pin flower Thrum flower
[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Double Fertilization ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
[object Object],Stigma Polar nuclei Egg Pollen grain Pollen tube 2 sperm Style Ovary Ovule (containing female  gametophyte, or embryo sac) Micropyle Ovule Polar nuclei Egg Two sperm about to be discharged Endosperm nucleus (3 n )  (2 polar nuclei plus sperm) Zygote (2 n ) (egg plus sperm) Figure 38.6 If a pollen grain germinates, a pollen tube grows down the style toward the ovary. 1 The pollen tube discharges two sperm into the female gametophyte (embryo sac) within an ovule. 2 One sperm fertilizes the egg, forming the zygote. The other sperm combines with the two polar nuclei of the embryo sac’s large central cell, forming a triploid cell that develops into the nutritive tissue called endosperm. 3
From Ovule to Seed ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Endosperm Development ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Embryo Development ,[object Object],[object Object],Figure 38.7 Ovule Terminal cell Endosperm nucleus Basal cell Zygote Integuments Zygote Proembryo Cotyledons Shoot apex Root apex Seed coat Basal cell Suspensor Endosperm Suspensor
Structure of the Mature Seed ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],Figure 38.8a (a) Common garden bean, a eudicot with thick cotyledons.  The fleshy cotyledons store food absorbed from the endosperm before  the seed germinates. Seed coat Radicle Epicotyl Hypocotyl Cotyledons
[object Object],[object Object],Figure 38.8b Seed coat Endosperm Cotyledons Epicotyl Hypocotyl Radicle (b) Castor bean, a eudicot with thin cotyledons.  The narrow, membranous cotyledons (shown in edge and flat views) absorb food from the endosperm when the seed germinates. Figure 38.8b Seed coat Endosperm Cotyledons Epicotyl Hypocotyl Radicle (b) Castor bean, a eudicot with thin cotyledons.  The narrow, membranous cotyledons (shown in edge and flat views) absorb food from the endosperm when the seed germinates.
[object Object],[object Object],Figure 38.8c (c)   Maize, a monocot.  Like all monocots, maize has only one cotyledon. Maize and other grasses have a large cotyledon called a scutellum. The rudimentary shoot is sheathed in a structure called the coleoptile, and the coleorhiza covers the young root. Scutellum (cotyledon) Coleoptile Coleorhiza Pericarp fused with seed coat Endosperm Epicotyl Hypocotyl Radicle
From Ovary to Fruit ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
[object Object],[object Object],Figure 38.9a–c  Pineapple fruit Raspberry fruit Pea fruit Stamen Carpel (fruitlet) Stigma Ovary Raspberry flower Each segment develops from the carpel of one flower Pineapple inflorescence Stamen Carpels Flower Ovary Stigma Stamen Ovule Pea flower Seed Simple fruit.  A simple fruit  develops from a single carpel (or  several fused carpels) of one flower  (examples: pea, lemon, peanut).  (a) Aggregate fruit.  An aggregate fruit  develops from many separate  carpels of one flower (examples:  raspberry, blackberry, strawberry). (b) Multiple fruit.  A multiple fruit  develops from many carpels  of many flowers (examples:  pineapple, fig). (c)
Seed Germination ,[object Object],[object Object]
From Seed to Seedling ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],Figure 38.10a Foliage leaves Cotyledon Hypocotyl Radicle Epicotyl Seed coat Cotyledon Hypocotyl Cotyledon Hypocotyl Common garden bean.  In common garden  beans, straightening of a hook in the  hypocotyl pulls the cotyledons from the soil. (a)
[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],Figure 38.10b Foliage leaves Coleoptile Coleoptile Radicle Maize.  In maize and other grasses, the shoot grows  straight up through the tube of the coleoptile. (b)
[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Mechanisms of Asexual Reproduction ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Vegetative Propagation and Agriculture ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
[object Object],[object Object],Figure 38.13 50 m
[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Artificial Selection ,[object Object],[object Object]
[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],Figure 38.14
[object Object],[object Object]
Reducing World Hunger and Malnutrition ,[object Object],[object Object],Figure 38.15 Ordinary rice Genetically modified rice Figure 38.16
The Debate over Plant Biotechnology ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Possible Effects on Nontarget Organisms ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Plant Responses to Internal and External Signals ,[object Object],[object Object],Figure 39.1
[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],Figure 39.2a (a) Before exposure to light.  A dark-grown potato has tall, spindly stems and nonexpanded leaves—morphological adaptations that enable the shoots to penetrate the soil. The roots are short, but there is little need for water absorption because little water is lost by the shoots.
[object Object],[object Object],Figure 39.2b (b) After a week’s exposure to natural daylight.  The potato plant begins to resemble a  typical plant with broad green leaves, short sturdy stems, and long roots. This transformation begins with the reception of light by a specific pigment, phytochrome.
[object Object],[object Object],Figure 39.3 CELL WALL CYTOPLASM    1   Reception 2   Transduction 3   Response Receptor Relay molecules Activation of cellular responses Hormone or environmental stimulus Plasma membrane
Reception ,[object Object],[object Object]
Transduction ,[object Object],[object Object]
[object Object],Figure 39.4 1   Reception    2   Transduction 3   Response CYTOPLASM Plasma membrane Phytochrome activated by light Cell wall Light cGMP Second messenger produced Specific protein kinase 1 activated Transcription factor 1 NUCLEUS P P Transcription Translation De-etiolation (greening) response proteins Ca 2+ Ca 2+  channel opened Specific protein kinase 2 activated Transcription factor 2 1   The light signal is detected by the phytochrome receptor, which then activates at least two signal transduction pathways. 2   One pathway uses cGMP as a second messenger that activates a specific protein kinase.The other pathway involves an increase in cytoplasmic Ca 2+  that activates another specific protein kinase. 3   Both pathways lead to expression of genes for proteins that function in the de-etiolation (greening) response.
Response ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Transcriptional Regulation ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
The Discovery of Plant Hormones ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
A Survey of Plant Hormones
[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Auxin ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
[object Object],Figure 39.8  Expansin CELL WALL Cell wall enzymes Cross-linking cell wall polysaccharides Microfibril H + H + H + H + H + H + H + H + H + ATP Plasma membrane Plasma membrane Cell wall Nucleus Vacuole Cytoplasm H 2 O Cytoplasm 1   Auxin increases the activity of proton pumps. 4   The enzymatic cleaving of the cross-linking polysaccharides allows the microfibrils to slide. The extensibility of the cell wall is increased. Turgor causes the cell to expand. 2   The cell wall becomes more acidic. 5   With the cellulose loosened, the cell can elongate. 3  Wedge-shaped expansins, activated by low pH, separate cellulose microfibrils from cross-linking polysaccharides. The exposed cross-linking polysaccharides are now more accessible to cell wall enzymes.
Lateral and Adventitious Root Formation ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Cytokinins ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Control of Apical Dominance ,[object Object],[object Object],Figure 39.9a Axillary buds
[object Object],[object Object],Figure 39.9b “ Stump” after removal of apical bud Lateral branches
Gibberellins ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
[object Object],[object Object],Figure 39.10
[object Object],[object Object],Germination Figure 39.11 2 2   The aleurone responds by synthesizing and secreting  digestive enzymes that hydrolyze stored nutrients in the endosperm. One example is -amylase, which hydrolyzes starch. (A similar enzyme in our saliva helps in digesting bread and other starchy foods.) Aleurone Endosperm Water Scutellum (cotyledon) GA GA  -amylase Radicle Sugar 1   After a seed imbibes water, the embryo releases gibberellin (GA) as a signal to the aleurone, the thin outer layer of the endosperm. 3   Sugars and other nutrients absorbed from the endosperm by the scutellum (cotyledon) are consumed during growth of the embryo into a seedling.
2   The aleurone responds by synthesizing and secreting  digestive enzymes that hydrolyze stored nutrients in the endosperm. One example is -amylase, which hydrolyzes starch. (A similar enzyme in our saliva helps in digesting bread and other starchy foods.) Aleurone Endosperm Water Scutellum (cotyledon) GA GA  -amylase Radicle Sugar 2 1   After a seed imbibes water, the embryo releases gibberellin (GA) as a signal to the aleurone, the thin outer layer of the endosperm. 3   Sugars and other nutrients absorbed from the endosperm by the scutellum (cotyledon) are consumed during growth of the embryo into a seedling.
Abscisic Acid ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Ethylene ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Leaf Abscission ,[object Object],[object Object],Figure 39.16 0.5 mm Protective layer Abscission layer Stem Petiole
Photomorphogenesis- plant response to light ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],Wavelength (nm) 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.2 0 450 500 550 600 650 700 Light Time = 0 min. Time = 90 min. 0.4 400 Phototropic effectiveness relative to 436 nm
[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
[object Object],[object Object],A phytochrome consists of two identical proteins joined to form one functional molecule. Each of these proteins has two domains.  Chromophore Photoreceptor activity.  One domain, which functions as the photoreceptor, is covalently bonded to a nonprotein pigment, or chromophore. Kinase activity.  The other domain has protein kinase activity. The photoreceptor domains interact with the kinase domains to link light reception to cellular responses triggered by the kinase. Figure 39.19
[object Object],[object Object],Figure 39.20 Synthesis Far-red light Red light Slow conversion in darkness (some plants) Responses: seed germination, control of flowering, etc. Enzymatic destruction P fr P r
Phytochromes and Shade Avoidance ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Biological Clocks and Circadian Rhythms ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],Noon Midnight
[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Photoperiodism and Responses to Seasons ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Flowering times ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Gravity ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
[object Object],[object Object],Figure 39.25a, b Statoliths 20 m (a) (b)
Mechanical Stimuli ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
[object Object],[object Object],Figure 39.27a–c (a) Unstimulated (b) Stimulated Side of pulvinus with flaccid cells Side of pulvinus with turgid cells Vein 0.5 m (c) Motor organs Leaflets after stimulation Pulvinus (motor organ)
Environmental Stresses ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Drought ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Flooding ,[object Object],[object Object],Figure 39.28a, b Vascular cylinder Air tubes Epidermis 100 m 100 m (a) Control root (aerated) (b) Experimental root (nonaerated)
Salt Stress ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Defenses Against Herbivores ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
[object Object],[object Object],Figure 39.29 Recruitment of parasitoid wasps that lay their eggs within caterpillars 4 3 Synthesis and release of volatile attractants 1 Chemical in saliva 1 Wounding 2 Signal transduction pathway
Defenses Against Pathogens ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
[object Object],[object Object]
[object Object],[object Object],Signal molecule (ligand) from  Avr  gene product Avr  allele Plant cell is resistant Avirulent pathogen R Figure 39.30a ,[object Object],(a) If an  Av r allele in the pathogen corresponds to an  R  allele in the host plant, the host plant will have resistance, making the pathogen avirulent.   R  alleles probably code for receptors in the plasma membranes of host plant cells.  Avr  alleles produce compounds that can act as ligands, binding to receptors in host plant cells.
[object Object],[object Object],R Figure 39.30b No  Avr  allele; virulent pathogen Plant cell becomes diseased Avr  allele No  R  allele; plant cell becomes diseased Virulent pathogen Virulent pathogen No  R  allele; plant cell becomes diseased (b) If there is no gene-for-gene recognition because of one of the above three conditions, the pathogen will be virulent, causing disease to develop.
Plant Responses to Pathogen Invasions ,[object Object],[object Object],3 In a hypersensitive response (HR), plant cells produce anti- microbial molecules, seal off infected areas by modifying their walls, and then destroy themselves. This localized response produces lesions and protects other parts of an infected leaf. 4   Before they die, infected cells release a chemical signal, probably salicylic acid. 6  In cells remote from the infection site, the chemical initiates a signal transduction pathway. 5   The signal is distributed to the  rest of the plant. 2  This identification step triggers a signal transduction pathway. 1   Specific resistance is based on the binding of ligands from the pathogen to receptors in  plant cells. 7 Systemic acquired resistance is activated: the production of molecules that help protect the cell against a diversity of pathogens for several days. Signal 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Avirulent pathogen Signal transduction pathway Hypersensitive response Signal transduction pathway Acquired resistance R-Avr  recognition and hypersensitive response Systemic acquired resistance Figure 39.31
Systemic Acquired Resistance ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

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  • 85. 2 The aleurone responds by synthesizing and secreting digestive enzymes that hydrolyze stored nutrients in the endosperm. One example is -amylase, which hydrolyzes starch. (A similar enzyme in our saliva helps in digesting bread and other starchy foods.) Aleurone Endosperm Water Scutellum (cotyledon) GA GA  -amylase Radicle Sugar 2 1 After a seed imbibes water, the embryo releases gibberellin (GA) as a signal to the aleurone, the thin outer layer of the endosperm. 3 Sugars and other nutrients absorbed from the endosperm by the scutellum (cotyledon) are consumed during growth of the embryo into a seedling.
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