The document discusses the relationship between language and the brain. It describes how neurolinguistics studies how the brain understands and produces language by combining neurology and linguistic theory. It identifies key language areas in the brain like Broca's area, Wernicke's area, the motor cortex, and the arcuate fasciculus. It then discusses aphasia, a language disorder caused by brain damage, and its various forms like Broca's aphasia and Wernicke's aphasia. The critical period hypothesis is mentioned, which proposes there is a fixed period in childhood for acquiring a native language.

1. Language and The Brain
Groups :
1. Ahmad Murtaqi Jauhari (105110103111010)
2. Dian Aprilyani (105110101111096)
3. Dilah Ovy Safitri (105110101111088)
4. Brilliant Devanty (105110113111012)
5. Tiara Puspa Megawati (105110101111095)

2.  Neurolinguistics studies the relation of language
and communication to different aspects of brain
function, i.e. it tries to explore how the brain
understands and produces language and
communication.
 This involves attempting to combine theory from
neurology/neurophysiology (how the brain is
structured and how it functions) with linguistic
theory (how language is structured and how it
functions).

3.  BROCA‟S AREA
 WERNICKE‟S AREA
 MOTOR CORTEX
 ARCUATE FASCICULUS

4. Broca‟s area is used to produce
production of speech. It was possible
to localize psychological
functions to brain convolutions.
Linguistic symptoms were caused by
lesions in the left hemisphere and that
language, thus, was lateralized, which
was totally unexpected.
And also Broca‟s area is said to have a
“motor representation” of speech.

5.  Wernicke‟s area is the posterior part of the
first or superior temporal gyrus and
adjacent areas (parts of the angular gyrus,
the supramarginal gyrus and the second
temporal gyrus are included) first temporal
convolution.
 Language comprehension disturbed
 Important parts of Wernicke‟s theory are:
1. The identification of symptom complexes.
2. The idea about flow of information (a sort of high
level “reflex arc”).
3. The idea of representation. Wernicke‟s area is
said to have an “auditory sound representation”
of speech.

6. Motor cortex is an area that generally
controls movement of the muscles (for
moving hands, feet, arms, etc.). Close to
Broca‟s area is the part of the motor cortex
that controls the articulatory muscles of the
face, jaw, tongue and larynx. Evidence
that this area is involved in the physical
articulation of speech.

7. A white matter tract that connects
Broca‟s Area and Wernicke‟s Area
through the Temporal, Parietal and
Frontal Lobes. Allows for coordinated,
comprehensible speech.

8. The localization view is having identified
these four components, it is tempting to
conclude that specific
aspects of language ability can be
accorded specific locations in the brain.
And it has been used to suggest that the
brain activity involved in hearing a word,
understanding it, then saying it, would
follow a definite pattern. This is certainly
an oversimplified version of what may
actually take place, but it is consistent
with much of what we understand about
simple language processing in the brain.

9.  The tip of the tongue phenomenon
It is in which we feel that some word is just eluding us,
that we know the word. It also showing speakers
generally have an accurate phonological outline of
the word, can get the initial sound correct and mostly
know the number of syllables in the word.
 Slips of the tongue
Slips of the tongue are sometimes called spoonerisms
after William Spooner, an Anglican clergyman at
Oxford University, who was renowned for his tongue
slips.
 Slips of the ear
Slips of the ear provide some clues to how the brain
tries tomake sense of the auditory signal it receives.

10.  Aphasia is one kind of language disorder
that results from damage to the parts of the
brain that contain language.
 Aphasia causes problems in the ability to
perceive, process, or produce language.
 Aphasia occurs in various forms and
degrees, depending upon the situation,
extent, and severity of the cerebral lesions
which is responsible.

11.  Aphasia is caused by damage to one or more
of the language areas of the brain.
 The cause of the brain injury is a stroke
 Other causes of brain injury are severe blows to
the head, brain tumors, brain infections, and
other conditions that affect the brain.
 Damage to the left side of the brain causes
aphasia for most right-handers and about half
of left-handers.

12.  Aphasia is rare in childhood and increases
in frequency with increasing age.
 Cerebral hemorrhage causes aphasia less
often.
 Intracranial tumour is a common cause of
aphasia during the first half of adult life,
when cerebral vascular lesions are rare.
 Abscess of the left temporal lobe may also
cause aphasia, as may traumatic lesions
involving the ‘speech areas’ (Lauria 1970).

13.  Neurosyphilis may cause aphasia, by
causing either cerebral infarction or general
paresis.
 In brain tumors, the syndromes of aphasia
seem to feature more semantic and
syntactic errors (Haas et al., 1982),

14. Modified from Geschwind (1970), the principal
forms of aphasia and related disorders can be
classified as follows:

15.  Expressive or motor aphasia, anterior
aphasia, or non-fluent aphasia)
 This is caused by the damage to Broca‟s
area, located at the base of the motor
cortex.
 Speak haltingly and have a hard time
forming complete words when they attempt
to produce language.
 Understand the speech of others fairly well.

16.  May have some difficulty matching the
correct semantic interpretation to the
syntactic order of the sentence
 Reading aloud produces the same
defective utterances as spontaneous
speech. Singing, however, may be
surprisingly unaffected both in relation to
the words and the melody (Yamodori,
Osumi, Masuhara, and Okubo 1977).

17.  If writing to be tested, this must be
attempted with the unaffected hand
(usually the left).
 This handwriting is usually defective and
there is poverty and lack of precision of
written language, though copying is
relatively impaired.
 Pure word-dumbness or subcortical motor
aphasia: similar impairment of spoken
speech but writing is unimpaired

18.  Sensory or receptive or fluent aphasia
 This is caused by the damage of Wernicke‟s
area, located near the back section of the
auditory cortex.
 It is very difficult for people with Wernicke‟s
aphasia to understand the speech of others
 May speak in long sentences that have no
meaning, add unnecessary words, and even
create made-up words.

19.  Often misinterpret what other say and
respond in an unexpected way.
 Has a tendency to produce semantically
incoherent speech.
 Speak in circumlocutions, or expressions
that people use when they are unable to
name the word they want.
 The syntactic order of words is also altered.
 Often cannot follow simple instructions.

20.  Paraphasias (incorrect word usage).
 Literal (the use of incorrect vowels or
consonants within a word).
 Verbal (the use of incorrect words).
 Meaningless jargon (jargon aphasia).
 Repetition of words offered by the examiner
is impaired.
 Naming objects and handwriting is usually
normal but the content of written and
spoken spontaneous language is abnormal.

21.  Copying is relatively unaffected.
 The appreciation of musical sounds may be
lost (amusia)
 The comprehension of written or printed
language is often impaired (alexia)
(Heilman, Rothi, Campanella, and Wolfson
1970).
 Word-retrieval as well as word
comprehension is usually severely affected
(Coughlan and Warrington 1978).

22.  Pure or subcortical word-deafness (auditory
aphasia) is a rare and fractional form of
Wernicke‟s aphasia.
 The patient distinguishes words from other
sounds but cannot understand them so that
his own language.
 Cannot repeat words or write dictation but
spontaneous speech, writing, and reading
are unimpaired.

23.  In word-blindness the subject cannot
recognize words or letters
 In „pure‟ word-blindness, the defect involves
only literal and verbal symbols, but
sometimes the significance of numbers and
even colors cannot be appreciated either.

24.  Central aphasia or Goldstein, syntactical
aphasia
 This results from damage to the arcuate
fasciculus which results in severing the
connection between the Broca‟s and
Wirnicke‟s areas.
 Understand speech and correctly interpret
words from the mental lexicon but will not be
able to transmit information to Broca‟s area
so that words can be articulated.

25.  This results from damage to extensive
portions of the language areas of the brain.
 Individuals with global aphasia have severe
communication difficulties and may be
extremely limited in their ability to speak or
comprehend language.
 The Global Aphasics have problems with
both using words and understanding.

26.  Lesions in or near the angular gyrus of the
dominant hemisphere may interrupt
connections between Wernicke‟s area and
most other areas of the brain.
 A large lesion may produce „the syndrome
of the isolated speech area‟ (Geschwind,
Quadfasel, Segarra 1968) in which speech
is fluent but paraphasic.

27.  Object naming, spontaneous writing and
comprehension of both oral and written
language are impaired.
 Repetition of words spoken by the examiner
is normal and the patient may show parrot-
like repetition of a word or phrase
(„echolalia‟).

28.  If the lesion is less extensive, then the
speech may be fluent with only occasional
paraphasia.
 Comprehension of written and spoken
language as well as repetition are all
normal, though written speech may be
impaired.
 Difficulty in naming objects and people
(anomia, nominal, or amnestic aphasia).

29.  One subvariety of this condition, also
resulting from a parieto-occipital lesion, is
tactile aphasia (Beauvois, Sailant,
Meininger, and Lhermitte 1978).
 Misnames objects presented tactually in
either hand but recognizes them at once
when presented visually or auditorily.

30.  Agraphia: inability to produce written
language.
 Alexia: inability to understand written or printed
speech.
 Alexia with agraphia, or visual asymbolia or
cortical word-blindness: total inability both to
read and write and copy.
 Word-form or spelling dyslexia: reading of
whole words is impossible but the subject can
read letter by letter.

31.  Aphasia may be mild or severe depends on
the amount and location of the damage to
the brain.
 Mild aphasia: the person may be able to
converse yet have trouble finding the right
word or understanding complex
conversations.
 Severe aphasia limits the person's ability to
communicate. The person may say little
and may not participate in or understand
any conversation.

32.  Pure alexia without agraphia, or pure
subcortical word-blindness or visual
aphasia: the patient cannot recognize
words, letters, or colors but can visualize
colors. He cannot copy but can write or
speak spontaneously and normally.
 Acalculia: a defect in the ability to use
mathematical symbols.
 Amusia: a defect of musical expression or
appreciation and, like aphasia, can be
either expressive or receptive.

33. Broca‟s Aphasia:
 Speaks only in single words
 Speak in short, fragmented phrases
 Omits smaller words like “the”, “of”, and
“and”
 Puts words in wrong order
 Switches sounds and/or words
 Makes up words (e.g., jargon)
 Strings together nonsense words and real
words fluently but makes no sense.

34. Wernicke‟s Aphasia
 Requires extra time to understand spoken message
 Finds if very hard to follow fast
 Misinterprets subtitles of language-takes the literal
meaning of figurative language
 Is frustrating for the person with aphasia and for
listener-can lead to communication breakdown.

35. Conduction Aphasia
 Fluent but meaningless speech but the patient
shows signs of being able to comprehend the
speech of others.
 Will be able to understand utterances but will not
be able to repeat them.

36.  In some cases the aphasia patients can recover
without treatment.
 Most cases, language recovery is not as quickly or
as complete.
 Aphasia therapy purposes to improve a person‟s
ability to communicate by helping him or her to
use remaining language abilities as much as
possible
 Another treatment for aphasia patients is often use
melodic intonation therapy.

37.  Psychological support is important.
 Special techniques exist to treat patients with
articulatory problems, grammatism, lack of syntax,
and lack of intonation ability.
 experts agree on the importance of speech
therapy in aphasia.
 Studies have shown that intensive speech therapy
may be more beneficial than a more extended
course of sporadic therapy.

38.  The combination of medical therapy and speech
therapy is of greater benefit than that of speech
therapy alone.
 New technologies are being applied to aphasia.
 A few early trials indicate benefit from transcranial
magnetic stimulation in patients with aphasia.

39.  Dichotic listening is an experimental technique
that has demonstrated a left hemisphere
dominance for syllable and word processing.
 This technique uses the generally established fact
that anything experienced on the right-hand side
of the body is processed in the left hemisphere,
and anything on the left side is processed in the
right hemisphere.
For example, through one earphone comes
the syllable ga or the word dog, and through the
other earphone at exactly the same time comes da
or cat. When asked to say what was heard, the
subject more often correctly identifies the sound that
came via the right ear. This is known as the right ear
advantage for linguistic sounds.

40.  The critical period hypothesis assumes that
language is biologically based and states that
the ability to learn a native language
develops within a fixed period, from birth to
middle childhood.
 During childhood, there is a period when the
human brain is most ready to receive input
and learn a particular language.
 For human babies, the brain is very flexible,
and the left hemisphere is not dominant. By
the Critical Age, the left hemisphere is
dominant and Broca‟s area and Wernicke‟s
area become less adaptable to new
language stimuli.

41.  Genie was discovered in 1970 at the age of
thirteen and seven months in a Los Angeles
suburb.
 She was confined up until that point by her
controlling father, who abused her
regularly.
 Because she had not acquired language
up until that point, linguists used her to test
the critical period theory.

42.  When Genie was first found, they couldn‟t
tell at first whether or not she had already
acquired language and simply wasn‟t using
it or if she indeed had not acquired
language.
 Because she did not respond to simple
commands but did respond to words that
were clearly out of the context of their
environment, it was determined that Genie
truly had not yet acquired language.

43.  Genie‟s first basic „words‟ were
monosyllabic consonant-vowel sequences.
 After five months, she began to use single
words spontaneously.
 Her early vocabulary was different from the
first words of regular children which are
typically nouns, plus particles like up and
down.

44.  The tests that were created to show Genie‟s
progress in learning showed that Genie was
acquiring language, but not through
imitation or prescribed rules.
 Genie learned plurals by learning to match
the test pictures with a string of the following
sort: 1+N+S, 2+N+S, etc. So if Curtiss, one of
the members of the team who worked with
her, said “three dishes,” Genie would
construct the string 3 dish S. In five lessons,
Genie had mastered the plural concept.

45.  When she was first discovered, most of the
sounds that came out of her mouth were
voiceless.
 Normal people learn very early in life how
to speak and breathe at the same time.
Genie, however, never learned how to do
so.

46.  There are a few major differences between
her and regular children who acquire
language as babies:
› Her vocabulary was different and much
larger than that of children at the same
stage of syntactic development.
› The rate of her syntactic acquisition was
much slower than normal.

47.  Genie eventually learned to produce
immature, pidgin like sentences such as:
› Mike Paint.
› Applesauce buy store.
› I like elephant eat peanut.
› Neal come happy; Neal not come sad.
 Some hypothesize that the reason why
people like Genie never learn to speak
successfully is because they have
emotional scars that interfere somehow
with their ability to learn.