Impact of contaminants on groundwater quality in patcham, south east england.

Journal of Environment and Earth Science
ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225
Vol. 3, No.4, 2013
Impact of contaminants on groundwater quality in Patcham,
Egbuna Chukwuemeka Kingsley
1. Department of Civil Engineering,
2. Department of Geology, University of Brig
* E-mail of the corresponding author:
Abstract
This paper investigated the impact o
groundwater in Patcham, South-East England. Data, obtained from the Campbell scientific weather station
installed in the Patcham catchment and Schlumberger Water Services (SWS), were used to i
mechanism and potential contaminant flow paths through the Chalk unsat
deployed in three boreholes present within the catchment. Laboratory and analytical techniques such as Raman
spectroscopy, Hach Spectrophotometer and YSI Multimeter equipped with Ion selective electrode were used to
investigate the influence of these contaminates on groundwater flow chemistry and quality from the seven
boreholes sites was studied. This research used the data obtained f
the field to analyse and examine the quality trend observing for major environmental pollutants. Results showed
that all the water parameters analysed were within the WHO guideline values, thus indicating that the
this area is quite safe for usage.
Keywords: Contaminants, groundwater, Chalk, water table, water chemistry
1. Introduction
Groundwater is a great natural resource. It is estimated that universally, over 2 billion people depend mainly on
groundwater for their daily need (Chaplin, 2001; Kemper, 2004: Egbuna and Duvbiama, 2013). Majority of the
world’s industries as well as large number of world’s agriculture and irrigation mostly depend on groundwater.
In regions like Tunisia, with prominent dry
agricultural development is widely considered (Ravi
groundwater to life. Groundwater is known to usually have a suitable quality (Nola
Egbuna, 2012) although depending on the hydrological condition it may also be of poor condition.
The Chalk aquifer is an important source of water in North West Europe, particularly in the United Kingdom,
Belgium, North of France and Germany. In south east of England, the Chalk aquifer provides about 40% of all
potable water and about 80% of total water (Pinault
of UK groundwater-abstracted drinking water (Howden
60% of the chalk aquifer recharge are extracted and used as water supply in the UK. However, the sustainability
of groundwater reduces by the day all over the world, problems of depletion due to use without
salinization and pollution or other human activities affects groundwater. In a study by Lunzhang (1994) in the
Henan province of China, results showed a decline of 0.75
monitoring the water table from 358 observation wells in approximately 2million hectares of irrigated lands.
Chalk aquifers are usually karstic in nature, which means that they contain holes otherwise known as swallow
(sink) holes that may allow infiltration of surface pollutants
factors such as increasing population and development, personal water consumption increase, impacts of
pollution (hydrocarbon) and climate change have put the groundwater from the English chalk aquifer under gre
pressure (Edmunds, 2008). Figure 1 shows the outcrop of the UK chalk aquifer
The chalk has proven to be a good aquifer due its porosity and permeability, but the karstic nature of it makes it
quite easy for surface contaminants to infiltrate into the a
in nature, this solubility makes possible the presence of features in a chalk such as solution pipes, swallow holes
and also sink holes. These are surface features that appear as subsidence sinkholes
extend to depths. Studies carried out have confirmed the existence of such features and are characterized by the
dry valley uplands rather than forming surface streams from rainwater (Edmonds, 2008). Thus, this paper aims to
investigate the impact of contaminants on groundwater flow chemistry and the quality of groundwater in the
Patcham Catchment, UK.
2. Study Area
Patcham, the study area is situated in the City of Brighton and Hove, East Sussex, South East England. Patcham
3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online)
55
South East England.
Egbuna Chukwuemeka Kingsley1*
Musa Abba Jato2
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Bristol, United Kingdom
Department of Geology, University of Brighton, United Kingdom
mail of the corresponding author: cke10@uni.brighton.ac.uk
This paper investigated the impact of contaminants on groundwater flow chemistry and the quality of
East England. Data, obtained from the Campbell scientific weather station
installed in the Patcham catchment and Schlumberger Water Services (SWS), were used to i
mechanism and potential contaminant flow paths through the Chalk unsaturated zone. CTD Divers were also
trophotometer and YSI Multimeter equipped with Ion selective electrode were used to
boreholes sites was studied. This research used the data obtained from the loggers and samples collected from
that all the water parameters analysed were within the WHO guideline values, thus indicating that the
Contaminants, groundwater, Chalk, water table, water chemistry
ater for their daily need (Chaplin, 2001; Kemper, 2004: Egbuna and Duvbiama, 2013). Majority of the
In regions like Tunisia, with prominent dry season, groundwater is used as a primary source of irrigation in
agricultural development is widely considered (Ravi et al., 2009). This further illustrates the necessity of
groundwater to life. Groundwater is known to usually have a suitable quality (Nola et al.
and Germany. In south east of England, the Chalk aquifer provides about 40% of all
potable water and about 80% of total water (Pinault et al., 2005; Brouyere, 2006). The Chalk also provides 55%
abstracted drinking water (Howden et al., 2004). Aldrich (2006) further expressed that about
of groundwater reduces by the day all over the world, problems of depletion due to use without
Henan province of China, results showed a decline of 0.75-3.68m from 1975-1987 of the water table, after
from 358 observation wells in approximately 2million hectares of irrigated lands.
(sink) holes that may allow infiltration of surface pollutants having contaminants in them. However, recent
pollution (hydrocarbon) and climate change have put the groundwater from the English chalk aquifer under gre
pressure (Edmunds, 2008). Figure 1 shows the outcrop of the UK chalk aquifer
quite easy for surface contaminants to infiltrate into the aquifer. Chalk is a carbonate rock and therefore soluble
and also sink holes. These are surface features that appear as subsidence sinkholes or pipe like features that
stigate the impact of contaminants on groundwater flow chemistry and the quality of groundwater in the
www.iiste.org
cke10@uni.brighton.ac.uk
f contaminants on groundwater flow chemistry and the quality of
East England. Data, obtained from the Campbell scientific weather station
installed in the Patcham catchment and Schlumberger Water Services (SWS), were used to investigate recharge
urated zone. CTD Divers were also
trophotometer and YSI Multimeter equipped with Ion selective electrode were used to
rom the loggers and samples collected from
that all the water parameters analysed were within the WHO guideline values, thus indicating that the water in
ater for their daily need (Chaplin, 2001; Kemper, 2004: Egbuna and Duvbiama, 2013). Majority of the
season, groundwater is used as a primary source of irrigation in
., 2009). This further illustrates the necessity of
et al., 2008: Louis and
and Germany. In south east of England, the Chalk aquifer provides about 40% of all
., 2005; Brouyere, 2006). The Chalk also provides 55%
Aldrich (2006) further expressed that about
of groundwater reduces by the day all over the world, problems of depletion due to use without replacement,
1987 of the water table, after
from 358 observation wells in approximately 2million hectares of irrigated lands.
having contaminants in them. However, recent
pollution (hydrocarbon) and climate change have put the groundwater from the English chalk aquifer under great
quifer. Chalk is a carbonate rock and therefore soluble
or pipe like features that
stigate the impact of contaminants on groundwater flow chemistry and the quality of groundwater in the

Vol. 3, No.4, 2013
is approximately about 4.5km north of the city centre; the A27 road bounds it to the north, with Hollingbury to
the East, Withdean to the south and the Brighton mainline to the West. The A23 road passes through Patcham.
Figure 2 is a map of the Patcham catchme
where samples for this project work where collected.
The UK chalk aquifer is cretaceous in age and covers a wide extent of England. Starting from Yorkshire up north
moving down the east coast through Lincolnshire and to East Anglia, turning south westwards, forming the
Chiltern Hills and moving west to Wiltshire. Dipping in the direction south east, if forms the anticlinal flexure
with a simple rise through north Hampshire and North Down
the anticline. The chalk then continues to the west with a southward dip until Dorset (Edmonds, 2008).
2.1 Geology of the Area
A geological map of the study area (Patcham) displayed a complex geology (fol
3 shows the geologic map of the Patcham catchment.
The geology of South East England is characterized by Chalk forming its aquifer, which has a dual porosity
(matrix and fracture). Surface pollutants can easily be transp
Patcham, a highway (A23) passes through the borehole
possible for hydrocarbon runoff to the groundwater due to the nature of the aquifer.
3. Methodology
Records of evapotranspiration, conductivity, rainfall fluxes and water table depth all contributed to the
monitoring of the influence of these contaminates on groundwater. Data, obtained from a Campbell scientific
weather station installed in the study
investigate recharge mechanism and potential contaminant flow paths through the Chalk unsaturated zone. CTD
Divers were also deployed in three boreholes present within the catchment (i.e. North
and Pyecoomb East).
Using laboratory and analytical techniques such as Raman spectroscopy, Hach Spectrophotometer and YSI
Multimeter equipped with Ion selective electrode were used to investigate the influence of these contaminates
groundwater flow chemistry and quality from the seven boreholes sites was studied.
3.1 Data Collection and sampling
Data collection included visits to borehole monitoring sites where samples of water was collected from each of
the seven sites of monitoring boreholes available within the Patcham catchment area.
Pressure transducers are present within all the monitoring boreholes. They were used to monitor changes in the
water table of the boreholes; they were quite sensitive and also show rapid response
the variation levels in groundwater and the data obtained was stored using data logger for long periods of time.
The techniques used in sampling included; using a bladder pump and flow through a cell and a bailer. A bailer is
hollow equipment used for collecting water samples from monitoring wells. Water samples were collected in a
plastic container, using a marker to give each separate sample its label.
These borehole monitoring sites within the Patcham catchment are: Preston Pa
North Heath Barn, Casterbridge farm, Pyecomb old rec, and Pyecombe east. Data were collected on the 9
2012.
In three of the boreholes within Patcham, (North Heath Barn, Preston Park and Pyecoomb East), a CTD
data logger was placed which recorded data for conductivity, temperature and depth over long periods of time.
Penman-Monotieth equation and YSI multimeter amongst other methods was used in the process. The multimeter
is a hand-held field meter that measu
4. RESULTS
4.1 Water level and Conductivity of North Heath Barn borehole
Chalk of the North Heath Barn borehole is predominantly white in colour. It is a monitoring site with 70m
August unsaturated zone. The installed diver in the North Heath Barn borehole was used to generate data on the
conductivity and water depth (level). This was plotted against date (Figure 4) in order to identify depth of
recharge and plausible compositional change in
In Figure 4, it can be observed that the water depth gradually rose from mid
maximum value of 70.54m bgl. A steep decline is observed between ending December and mid
values as low as 68.51m bgl. Conductivity in the North Heath Barn borehole shows a rather uniform distribution
56
pproximately about 4.5km north of the city centre; the A27 road bounds it to the north, with Hollingbury to
Figure 2 is a map of the Patcham catchment showing locations of monitoring boreholes available within the area
where samples for this project work where collected.
coast through Lincolnshire and to East Anglia, turning south westwards, forming the
with a simple rise through north Hampshire and North Downs. South Downs is located on the southern limb of
A geological map of the study area (Patcham) displayed a complex geology (folds and faults) of the area. Figure
3 shows the geologic map of the Patcham catchment.
(matrix and fracture). Surface pollutants can easily be transported through the fracture to the water at ease. In
Patcham, a highway (A23) passes through the borehole-monitoring sites which are available, thus making it
possible for hydrocarbon runoff to the groundwater due to the nature of the aquifer.
weather station installed in the study catchment and Schlumberger Water Services (SWS), were used to
Divers were also deployed in three boreholes present within the catchment (i.e. North Heath Barn, Preston Park
Multimeter equipped with Ion selective electrode were used to investigate the influence of these contaminates
groundwater flow chemistry and quality from the seven boreholes sites was studied.
oring boreholes available within the Patcham catchment area.
water table of the boreholes; they were quite sensitive and also show rapid response. They were used to record
llow equipment used for collecting water samples from monitoring wells. Water samples were collected in a
plastic container, using a marker to give each separate sample its label.
These borehole monitoring sites within the Patcham catchment are: Preston Park, Lower Standean, North Bottom,
North Heath Barn, Casterbridge farm, Pyecomb old rec, and Pyecombe east. Data were collected on the 9
In three of the boreholes within Patcham, (North Heath Barn, Preston Park and Pyecoomb East), a CTD
Monotieth equation and YSI multimeter amongst other methods was used in the process. The multimeter
held field meter that measures oxygen, conductivity, salinity and temperature of the water.
4.1 Water level and Conductivity of North Heath Barn borehole
aturated zone. The installed diver in the North Heath Barn borehole was used to generate data on the
recharge and plausible compositional change in the water entering the Chalk aquifer.
In Figure 4, it can be observed that the water depth gradually rose from mid-June to mid
maximum value of 70.54m bgl. A steep decline is observed between ending December and mid
low as 68.51m bgl. Conductivity in the North Heath Barn borehole shows a rather uniform distribution
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pproximately about 4.5km north of the city centre; the A27 road bounds it to the north, with Hollingbury to
nt showing locations of monitoring boreholes available within the area
coast through Lincolnshire and to East Anglia, turning south westwards, forming the
s. South Downs is located on the southern limb of
ds and faults) of the area. Figure
orted through the fracture to the water at ease. In
monitoring sites which are available, thus making it
catchment and Schlumberger Water Services (SWS), were used to
Heath Barn, Preston Park
Multimeter equipped with Ion selective electrode were used to investigate the influence of these contaminates on
. They were used to record
llow equipment used for collecting water samples from monitoring wells. Water samples were collected in a
rk, Lower Standean, North Bottom,
North Heath Barn, Casterbridge farm, Pyecomb old rec, and Pyecombe east. Data were collected on the 9th
March
In three of the boreholes within Patcham, (North Heath Barn, Preston Park and Pyecoomb East), a CTD- Diver
Monotieth equation and YSI multimeter amongst other methods was used in the process. The multimeter
res oxygen, conductivity, salinity and temperature of the water.
aturated zone. The installed diver in the North Heath Barn borehole was used to generate data on the
June to mid-October reaching a
maximum value of 70.54m bgl. A steep decline is observed between ending December and mid-January to
low as 68.51m bgl. Conductivity in the North Heath Barn borehole shows a rather uniform distribution

Vol. 3, No.4, 2013
all year round with a few peaks of about 0.398 msie/cm in early August and mid
observed that this value declines to a low of 0
4.2 Water level and Conductivity of Preston Park borehole
Preston Park is an urban site, with the aquifer characterised by white chalk. The borehole monitoring site located
in Preston Park has depth of about 18
divers installed in the borehole of the site (Preston Park) was used to generate data on the conductivity and water
depth (level). This was plotted against date (Figure 5) in order to identify de
composition of the water entering the Chalk aquifer.
From figure 5, it can be seen that the water level has been more or less stable almost all through the year
although there were some major decline from December
Results further showed that conductivity showed abrupt changes, falling rapidly from 0.71msie/cm from ending
June to 0.648msie/cm in the beginning of July. The rise and fall in conductivity continued up until the
August where it fell to o.648msie/cm and had a uniform distribution till the mid of December, where it raised
again to 0.7msie/cm.
4.3 Water level and Conductivity of Pyecoomb East borehole
The pyecoomb east is an effluent dispersal site, dominated
site with 60m August, unsaturated zone.
Figure 6 was plot against date in order to identify depth of recharge and possible compositional change in the
water entering the Chalk aquifer, using data collec
plotted in the Figure 6 above shows a continuous increase throughout the year from 56.82m bgl in June to about
57.1m bgl in March. The conductivity in the borehole shows an irregular distributi
from June at (0.73msie/cm) through to mid
mid-august (0.73msie/cm) to September (0.78msie/cm), thereafter a uniform distribution is being observed
throughout the rest of the year.
4.4 Evapotranspiration and Rainfall influx of the boreholes
The new climatic station installed at the North Heath Barn borehole allowed for accurate calculation of the
evapotranspiration, while the rainfall data collected from the borehole a
three boreholes as they are within the same area. A plot of evapotranspiration and rainfall influx against date
(Figure 7) is important in establishing the rate of contaminant movement from CUZ to CSZ (i.e. groundwat
Also aquifer recharge rate can also be postulated from this plot.
From figure 7, it can be observed that the distribution of evapotranspiration is highly inconsistent. The
evapotranspiration initially peaked at about 4.7mm and falls to a minimum valu
increasing to a late peak value of 2.5mm. Unlike evapotranspiration, rainfall influx within the same period as
recorded from the borehole showed a more even distribution characterised with series of sharp peaks. The
maximum-recorded rainfall data over the distribution is 25mm with a record low of 0.5mm. Clearly, it can be
observed that rainfall influx rate is predominantly greater in quantity than evapotranspiration rate in the
borehole.
4.5 Subsurface Element Concentration data
To effectively categorise the type and extent of contamination of groundwater within the study areas,
concentration of some contaminants measured in the three boreholes are plotted against date. This is necessary in
an attempt to determine the trend of contamination in the boreholes as regards to seasonal variation. Firstly, we
present World Health Organisation (WHO) standard for element concentration in groundwater (Table 1).
4.5.1 Contaminants concentration in the North Heath Barn borehole
Concentration of contaminants in the groundwater of the North Heath Barn borehole was plotted against the date
to ascertain whether these limits are within the specified WHO specification presented in table 1.
From the graph, it can be observed that ammoniu
the given period. Chlorine concentration in the borehole was first recorded in June and can be seen to be evenly
distributed hereafter. Average Cl concentration is 13 mg/L, this is within the WHO spe
groundwater (see Table 1). Nitrate concentration in January of 2011 begins at 3 mg/L. However, a steady
increase in nitrate concentration is observed as we approach April, until a record high of 23.5 mg/L (figure 8).
This projection begins to decline steeply to almost 3 mg/L in early June. Hereafter, nitrate concentration
57
all year round with a few peaks of about 0.398 msie/cm in early August and mid-January. However, it can be
observed that this value declines to a low of 0.377msie/cm in February and March.
4.2 Water level and Conductivity of Preston Park borehole
in Preston Park has depth of about 18-20m August unsaturated zone. A plot made from data collected by the
depth (level). This was plotted against date (Figure 5) in order to identify depth of recharge and likely change in
composition of the water entering the Chalk aquifer.
although there were some major decline from December- February dropping from 23m to about 18m bgl.
June to 0.648msie/cm in the beginning of July. The rise and fall in conductivity continued up until the
4.3 Water level and Conductivity of Pyecoomb East borehole
The pyecoomb east is an effluent dispersal site, dominated by Grey Chalk formation. It is a borehole monitoring
site with 60m August, unsaturated zone.
water entering the Chalk aquifer, using data collecting from installed divers. The water level in the borehole as
57.1m bgl in March. The conductivity in the borehole shows an irregular distribution, displaying a drop starting
from June at (0.73msie/cm) through to mid-August (0.71msie/cm). A steady increase is observed between
august (0.73msie/cm) to September (0.78msie/cm), thereafter a uniform distribution is being observed
4.4 Evapotranspiration and Rainfall influx of the boreholes
evapotranspiration, while the rainfall data collected from the borehole at North Heath Barn was used for all the
(Figure 7) is important in establishing the rate of contaminant movement from CUZ to CSZ (i.e. groundwat
Also aquifer recharge rate can also be postulated from this plot.
evapotranspiration initially peaked at about 4.7mm and falls to a minimum value of 0.3mm before gradually
rded rainfall data over the distribution is 25mm with a record low of 0.5mm. Clearly, it can be
4.5 Subsurface Element Concentration data on the Chalk
e trend of contamination in the boreholes as regards to seasonal variation. Firstly, we
4.5.1 Contaminants concentration in the North Heath Barn borehole
oncentration of contaminants in the groundwater of the North Heath Barn borehole was plotted against the date
From the graph, it can be observed that ammonium concentration was very low and unpronounced throughout
distributed hereafter. Average Cl concentration is 13 mg/L, this is within the WHO spe
egins to decline steeply to almost 3 mg/L in early June. Hereafter, nitrate concentration
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January. However, it can be
ust unsaturated zone. A plot made from data collected by the
pth of recharge and likely change in
uary dropping from 23m to about 18m bgl.
June to 0.648msie/cm in the beginning of July. The rise and fall in conductivity continued up until the mid of
by Grey Chalk formation. It is a borehole monitoring
ting from installed divers. The water level in the borehole as
on, displaying a drop starting
August (0.71msie/cm). A steady increase is observed between
august (0.73msie/cm) to September (0.78msie/cm), thereafter a uniform distribution is being observed
t North Heath Barn was used for all the
(Figure 7) is important in establishing the rate of contaminant movement from CUZ to CSZ (i.e. groundwater).
e of 0.3mm before gradually
rded rainfall data over the distribution is 25mm with a record low of 0.5mm. Clearly, it can be
e trend of contamination in the boreholes as regards to seasonal variation. Firstly, we
oncentration of contaminants in the groundwater of the North Heath Barn borehole was plotted against the date
m concentration was very low and unpronounced throughout
distributed hereafter. Average Cl concentration is 13 mg/L, this is within the WHO specified limit of Cl in
egins to decline steeply to almost 3 mg/L in early June. Hereafter, nitrate concentration

Vol. 3, No.4, 2013
increases again to about 9 mg/L in early October before a gradual decline is seen to occur.
Dissolved oxygen concentration can be said to be averagely distributed thr
slightly above 10 mg/L. Nitrite concentration begins at 14.5 mg/L (this is it highest value throughout the given
period). A sharp decline is seen until a recorded value of 6 mg/L in mid
fluctuates until a steady concentration of 5 mg/L is reached through September to January before a gradually
declines to 3 mg/L is finally observed (figure 8). Phosphate, Sulfate and TOC concentrations all occur below 2
mg/L, with the TOC showing more of irregular distribution than phosphate and sulphate (which are generally
below 0.6 mg/L).
From the above analysis, it could be seen that all the parameters analysed for were within the WHO guideline
values, thus indicating that the water in this area
4.5.2 Contaminants concentration in the Preston Park borehole
Contaminants concentration in the groundwater within the Preston Park borehole is plotted against date to obtain
whether these limits are within the specified WHO speci
From figure 9, it could be seen that chlorine concentration was not detected throughout the whole year. It was
detected starting from May with concentration of about 9 mg/l, with maximum concentrations of Chlorine seen
in the month of August and September both at 15 mg/l which falls below the WHO specified limit of Cl in
groundwater. Nitrate concentration displays a low concentration from the beginning with the lowest at 0.2 mg/L
in February, with a sharp rise reaching the hi
Dissolved oxygen, sulphate, phosphate and TOC all have concentration lower than the WHO specified limit,
although TOC shows a sudden rise in January of 2012 to about 16 mg/L.
It could also be seen from the above analysis, that all the parameters analysed for were within the WHO
guideline values, thus indicating that the water in this area is quite safe for usage.
4.5.3 Contaminants concentration in Pyecoomb East Borehole
Contaminants concentration in the groundwater within the Pyecoomb East borehole is plotted against date to
obtain whether these limits are within the specified WHO specification presented in table 4.1 above. The graph is
shown in figure 10.
Ammonium shows a steady raise reaching a hi
until reaching an average point. Nitrate, dissolved oxygen, chlorine, SO
distribution except for PO4 which shows an inconsistency from the beginning and then a steep
November reaching as high as 9 mg/L before falling to continue at initial level.
From the above analysis of water in this site, it could be seen that all the parameters analysed for were within the
WHO guideline values, thus indicating tha
4.6 Raman Spectroscopy results
This graph shows a plot of intensity against Raman shift in the samples. The Raman spectroscopy results showed
almost similar results but at different peaks. The Raman spectr
to overlap with plastic container lines, giving similar spectra for all the seven samples (Figure 11).
5. DISCUSSIONS
5.1 Hydraulic conductivity
Hydraulic conductivity in the North Heath Barn is relative
monitoring site of about 70m August unsaturated zone. Groundwater depth (level) decreases to a minimum
during winter months of December through to January. Rainfall influx was as well predominantly greater i
quantity and showed less inconsistency than evapotranspiration rate in the borehole. Uniformity of the hydraulic
conductivity is thought to be due to its thick unsaturated zone. In which case the soil and weathered chalk of the
area damped out of the normal recharge signal, storing water and releasing it gradually to the unweathered chalk.
Matric potential increased with depth for unsaturated zone, especially in summer months (Price
Base recharge of the weathered zone is thought to be great
potential sufficiently high that water was not absorbed straight back into the matrix but reached the water table
without being absorbed by the matrix. Hence, explaining the even distribution of conductivity a
recharge even in summer periods (of less rainfall influx). Fracture flow may also contribute to groundwater
recharge but this is rare, since drainage to water table continues year round.
Gallagher et al. (2012) reported that the unsaturated
part of the year. The data from the hydrograph and matric potential showed that the water table responds rapidly
following sudden increases in matric potential above the air entry pressure of fractur
are separated by faults, fractures and marls and are close to saturation, even during summer months. They
58
Dissolved oxygen concentration can be said to be averagely distributed throughout given period, with limits
period). A sharp decline is seen until a recorded value of 6 mg/L in mid-February. Hereafter, nitrite concent
re of irregular distribution than phosphate and sulphate (which are generally
values, thus indicating that the water in this area is quite safe for usage.
4.5.2 Contaminants concentration in the Preston Park borehole
whether these limits are within the specified WHO specification presented in table 1.
e month of August and September both at 15 mg/l which falls below the WHO specified limit of Cl in
in February, with a sharp rise reaching the highest concentrations in 16 mg/L in the month of September.
although TOC shows a sudden rise in January of 2012 to about 16 mg/L.
from the above analysis, that all the parameters analysed for were within the WHO
guideline values, thus indicating that the water in this area is quite safe for usage.
4.5.3 Contaminants concentration in Pyecoomb East Borehole
n the groundwater within the Pyecoomb East borehole is plotted against date to
Ammonium shows a steady raise reaching a high of 83mg/L with a more or insistent up and down movement
until reaching an average point. Nitrate, dissolved oxygen, chlorine, SO4, TOC, NO
which shows an inconsistency from the beginning and then a steep
November reaching as high as 9 mg/L before falling to continue at initial level.
WHO guideline values, thus indicating that the water in this area is quite safe for usage.
almost similar results but at different peaks. The Raman spectroscopy results could not be further interpreted due
Hydraulic conductivity in the North Heath Barn is relatively uniformly distributed all year round. It is a
during winter months of December through to January. Rainfall influx was as well predominantly greater i
mal recharge signal, storing water and releasing it gradually to the unweathered chalk.
Matric potential increased with depth for unsaturated zone, especially in summer months (Price
Base recharge of the weathered zone is thought to be greater than the matric permeability and the matric
without being absorbed by the matrix. Hence, explaining the even distribution of conductivity a
recharge but this is rare, since drainage to water table continues year round.
(2012) reported that the unsaturated zone of North Heath Barn was closely saturated for most
following sudden increases in matric potential above the air entry pressure of fractures and that aquifer blocks
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oughout given period, with limits
February. Hereafter, nitrite concentration
re of irregular distribution than phosphate and sulphate (which are generally
e month of August and September both at 15 mg/l which falls below the WHO specified limit of Cl in
ghest concentrations in 16 mg/L in the month of September.
from the above analysis, that all the parameters analysed for were within the WHO
n the groundwater within the Pyecoomb East borehole is plotted against date to
gh of 83mg/L with a more or insistent up and down movement
2 all display a normal
which shows an inconsistency from the beginning and then a steep raise from 25th
oscopy results could not be further interpreted due
ly uniformly distributed all year round. It is a
during winter months of December through to January. Rainfall influx was as well predominantly greater in
mal recharge signal, storing water and releasing it gradually to the unweathered chalk.
Matric potential increased with depth for unsaturated zone, especially in summer months (Price et al., 1976).
er than the matric permeability and the matric
without being absorbed by the matrix. Hence, explaining the even distribution of conductivity and groundwater
zone of North Heath Barn was closely saturated for most
es and that aquifer blocks

Vol. 3, No.4, 2013
suggested connectivity between the faults, fractures and marl may occur when matric potentials are high and
there is sufficient rainfall input. Hence, water then starts to fill faults and large fractures, allowing rapid
movement of water through the unsaturated zone, maintaining the groundwater recharge year round.
In Preston Park, the borehole is characterized by a slim unsa
the possibility of water rapidly reaching the water table compared to the other two boreholes with a thicker
unsaturated zone. Exertion of pressure from the matric potential is low (as the zone of unsatu
hence mobility of surface water in the unsaturation zone to the saturate zone may occur readily. In summer
months when recharge is less, the matric potential increases causing absorbed water on the Chalk matrix to
percolate further below the water table, maintaining recharge. Due to the thin unsaturation zone, it was believed
that in period of intense and sustained rainfall, flash flooding may occur as depth to water table may become
almost at the surface but this was not anticipated to las
within the aquifer formation may diminish the effect. Zaidman
steeply inclined normal faults approximately every 20 m, including one fault that conta
iron-stained breccia zone, which indicates the movement of water through it.
Pyecoomb East borehole has an unsaturated zone of about 60m. Effluent release and farmland irrigation
contributed to the groundwater recharge, explaining the r
This site had high concentration of nitrate and chlorine when compared to the North Heath Barn. The high
concentration of nitrate and chlorine also further fortify the possibility of groundwater recharg
discharge and farmland washout from irrigation activities.
5.2 Chemical Variation
Several plots were made (Nitrate –
Nitrate – TOC, and Nitrate – Sulphate) to study t
hence infer plausible trend to the source and movement of contaminants. Of the studied boreholes, Pyecombe
East had the highest concentration of Nitrate, Phosphate, Chlorine and Sulphate but the
Total Organic Content (TOC). The borehole at Pyecombe East is an effluent dispersal site with 60m of August
unsaturated zone. Therefore increased mixing of surface effluent recharge with groundwater is thought to be
responsible for the high concentration of these elements in the Chalk aquifer. These concentrations, in most cases,
show steady consistent increase pattern likely arising from seasonal variation.
Organic content concentration of effluent recharge to the groundwater at Pyec
the low TOC concentration in the areas.
The concentration of Nitrate and Chlorine is higher in the Preston park borehole compared to the North Heath
Barn. Preston Park borehole is urban recharge with thin August unsaturat
movement of these elements without having to be absorbed on the weathered chalk matrix. The high
concentrations of these elements suggest an artificial recharge to groundwater from surface urban run
farmland irrigation practices.
Concentration of Phosphate, Sulphate and TOC is higher in the North Heath Barn borehole compared to
observed Preston park borehole. As already mentioned earlier, North Heath Barn is monitoring site with the
thickest August unsaturation zone of
unsaturated zone may dissolve the marl formation causing an increase in the phosphate and sulphate
concentration as groundwater is recharged. Evenly distributed hydraulic conductivi
gradual release of stored water from unweathered Chalk (to sustain the year round recharge) may carry along
organic matter from the Chalk formation, hence describing the high TOC concentration in the North Heath Barn
borehole compared to other studied borehole locations.
Of all the three studied boreholes, Pyecombe East (an effluent dispersal site) show high concentration of all
contaminants except TOC, highest in the North Heath Barn. Artificial recharge in the Preston park boreh
(Urban site) may be responsible for the high concentrations of Chlorine and Nitrate.
6. Conclusion
groundwater in Patcham, South-East England. Groundwa
months of December through to January. Rainfall influx is as well predominantly greater in quantity and shows
less inconsistency than evapotranspiration rate in the borehole. The uniformity of the hydr
thought to be due to the thickness of the unsaturated zone at North Heath Barn and Pyecoomb East. Except for
Preston Park, this has a much thinner unsaturated zone, which may influence the rapid water movement to the
water table.
Chemical variation of the boreholes studied showed the borehole at Pyecoomb East to be more of an effluent
59
ient rainfall input. Hence, water then starts to fill faults and large fractures, allowing rapid
In Preston Park, the borehole is characterized by a slim unsaturated zone of about 20m thick, which may result in
unsaturated zone. Exertion of pressure from the matric potential is low (as the zone of unsatu
he water table, maintaining recharge. Due to the thin unsaturation zone, it was believed
almost at the surface but this was not anticipated to last for a long period, as fracture flow or lateral movement
within the aquifer formation may diminish the effect. Zaidman et al., (1999) working in Yorkshire, identified
steeply inclined normal faults approximately every 20 m, including one fault that conta
stained breccia zone, which indicates the movement of water through it.
contributed to the groundwater recharge, explaining the recharge occurring even period of low rainfall influx.
concentration of nitrate and chlorine also further fortify the possibility of groundwater recharg
discharge and farmland washout from irrigation activities.
Phosphate, Nitrate – Chlorine, Sulphate – Phosphate, Sulphate
Sulphate) to study the chemical variation of elements within the catchment area,
East had the highest concentration of Nitrate, Phosphate, Chlorine and Sulphate but the
e high concentration of these elements in the Chalk aquifer. These concentrations, in most cases,
show steady consistent increase pattern likely arising from seasonal variation.
Organic content concentration of effluent recharge to the groundwater at Pyecombe east was low, thus reflecting
the low TOC concentration in the areas.
Barn. Preston Park borehole is urban recharge with thin August unsaturated zone enhancing more rapid
concentrations of these elements suggest an artificial recharge to groundwater from surface urban run
thickest August unsaturation zone of the three borehole sites. Pyrite oxidation as bypass flow within the thick
concentration as groundwater is recharged. Evenly distributed hydraulic conductivity throughout the year and
pared to other studied borehole locations.
contaminants except TOC, highest in the North Heath Barn. Artificial recharge in the Preston park boreh
(Urban site) may be responsible for the high concentrations of Chlorine and Nitrate.
East England. Groundwater depth (level) decreases to a minimum during winter
less inconsistency than evapotranspiration rate in the borehole. The uniformity of the hydr
ical variation of the boreholes studied showed the borehole at Pyecoomb East to be more of an effluent
www.iiste.org
ient rainfall input. Hence, water then starts to fill faults and large fractures, allowing rapid
turated zone of about 20m thick, which may result in
unsaturated zone. Exertion of pressure from the matric potential is low (as the zone of unsaturation is thin);
he water table, maintaining recharge. Due to the thin unsaturation zone, it was believed
t for a long period, as fracture flow or lateral movement
(1999) working in Yorkshire, identified
steeply inclined normal faults approximately every 20 m, including one fault that contained a 0.5 m thick,
echarge occurring even period of low rainfall influx.
concentration of nitrate and chlorine also further fortify the possibility of groundwater recharge from effluent
Phosphate, Sulphate – Chlorine,
he chemical variation of elements within the catchment area,
East had the highest concentration of Nitrate, Phosphate, Chlorine and Sulphate but the low concentrations of
e high concentration of these elements in the Chalk aquifer. These concentrations, in most cases,
ombe east was low, thus reflecting
ed zone enhancing more rapid
concentrations of these elements suggest an artificial recharge to groundwater from surface urban run-off and
the three borehole sites. Pyrite oxidation as bypass flow within the thick
ty throughout the year and
contaminants except TOC, highest in the North Heath Barn. Artificial recharge in the Preston park borehole
ter depth (level) decreases to a minimum during winter
less inconsistency than evapotranspiration rate in the borehole. The uniformity of the hydraulic conductivity is
ical variation of the boreholes studied showed the borehole at Pyecoomb East to be more of an effluent

Vol. 3, No.4, 2013
dispersal site due to the distribution of nitrate, Sulphate, chloride and Phosphate that has mixed with the
groundwater in the site. Distribution of Phos
derived from farming irrigation carried out in the area, which may have reached the water table through bypass
flow dissolving the marl formation. Artificial recharge of groundwater in the area ma
and Chloride concentrations in the Preston Park borehole.
Results from analysis using Raman Spectroscopy did not in this case yield any useful results but rather
ambiguous. The use of other techniques may yield results of hydroca
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and Chloride concentrations in the Preston Park borehole.
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Geophysical Investigation of unsaturated zone transport in

Vol. 3, No.4, 2013
Table 1: The World Health Organisation
Substance
Chloride
Total Dissolved Solids
Nitrate
Nitrite
Sulfate
Ammonium
Phosphate
Figure 1: Showing outcrop of the UK chalk aquifer (Edmonds, 2008)
61
World Health Organisation guideline value standard for various elements
WHO guideline values
250 mg/L
Total Dissolved Solids 500 mg/L
50 mg/L
1 mg/L
250 mg/L
Ammonium 0.1 mg/L
0.015 mg/L
www.iiste.org
standard for various elements (WHO, 2011)
WHO guideline values

Vol. 3, No.4, 2013
Figure 2: Map showing monitoring boreholes within Patcham catchment (CLIMAWAT 2011)
Figure 3
62
: Map showing monitoring boreholes within Patcham catchment (CLIMAWAT 2011)
Figure 3: Geologic map of Patcham (CLIMAWAT, 2011)
www.iiste.org
: Map showing monitoring boreholes within Patcham catchment (CLIMAWAT 2011)

Vol. 3, No.4, 2013
Figure 4: Conductivity –
Figure 5: Conductivity
67
67.5
68
68.5
69
69.5
70
70.5
71
WaterLevel(mbgl)
Water Level (m bgl) and Conductivity (msie/cm) plot
0
5
10
15
20
25
WaterLevel(mbgl)
Water level (m bgl) and Coductivity (msie/com) against time (days)
63
– Water depth plot against date in the North Heath Barn borehole.
: Conductivity – Water depth plot against date in the Preston Park borehole.
0.365
0.37
0.375
0.38
0.385
0.39
0.395
0.4
Conductivity(msie/cm)
Days
Water Level (m bgl) and Conductivity (msie/cm) plot
0.6
0.62
0.64
0.66
0.68
0.7
0.72
Time (days)
plot
www.iiste.org
Water depth plot against date in the North Heath Barn borehole.
ter depth plot against date in the Preston Park borehole.
Water Level
Conductivity
Water Level
Conductivity

Vol. 3, No.4, 2013
Figure 6: Conductivity
Figure 7: Evapotranspiration
56.65
56.7
56.75
56.8
56.85
56.9
56.95
57
57.05
57.1
57.15
WaterLevel(mbgl)
Water Level (m bgl) and Conductivity (msie/cm) against Time
0
1
2
3
4
5
40708.5
40719
40730
40741
40752
40763
40774
40785
Evapotranspiration(mm)
Evapotranspiration (mm) and Rainfall (mm) against date (days)
64
Figure 6: Conductivity – Water depth plot against date in Pyecoomb East borehole.
: Evapotranspiration – Rainfall influx plot against date
0.64
0.66
0.68
0.7
0.72
0.74
0.76
0.78
0.8
Time (days)
(days) plot
40796
40807
40818
40829
40840
40851
40862
40873
40884
40895
40906
40917
40928
40939
40950
40961
40972
Date (days)
www.iiste.org
Water depth plot against date in Pyecoomb East borehole.
Water level
Conductivity
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
40972
40983
40994
41005
Rainfall(mm)

Vol. 3, No.4, 2013
Figure 8: Element concentration
0
5
10
15
20
25
20/01/201100:00
20/02/201100:00
20/03/201100:00
20/04/201100:00
20/05/201100:00
20/06/201100:00
Concentration(mg/l)
Concentration (mg/l)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Concentration(mg/l)
Concentration (mg/l) against Time (days) plot
65
: Element concentration – date plot of North Heath Barn Borehole
Figure 9: Element concentration – date plot of Preston Park Borehole.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20/06/201100:00
20/07/201100:00
20/08/201100:00
20/09/201100:00
20/10/201100:00
20/11/201100:00
20/12/201100:00
20/01/201200:00
20/02/201200:00
Concentration(mg/l)
Time (days)
Concentration (mg/l) - Time (days) plot
Ammonium
Chlorine
Nitrate
Dissolved Oxygen
NO2
PO4
SO4
TOC
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
Concentration(mg/l)
Time (days)
Concentration (mg/l) against Time (days) plot
Chlorine
NO2
SO4
TOC
Ammonium
Nitrate
Dissolved Oxygen
PO4
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of North Heath Barn Borehole
date plot of Preston Park Borehole.
Ammonium
Chlorine
Nitrate
Dissolved Oxygen
NO2
PO4
SO4
TOC
Chlorine
NO2
SO4
TOC
Ammonium
Nitrate
Dissolved Oxygen
PO4

Vol. 3, No.4, 2013
Figure 11: Raman spectra for samples from Patcham catchment.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
20/11/2010…
21/11/2010…
22/11/2010…
23/11/2010…
24/11/2010…
25/11/2010…
Concentration(mg/l) Concentration (mg/l) against Time (Days) plot
66
: Element concentration – date plot of Pyecoomb East Borehole
Figure 11: Raman spectra for samples from Patcham catchment.
0
2
4
6
8
10
25/11/2010…
26/11/2010…
27/11/2010…
28/11/2010…
29/11/2010…
30/11/2010…
01/12/2010…
02/12/2010…
03/12/2010…
04/12/2010…
Concentration(mg/l)
Time (days)
Concentration (mg/l) against Time (Days) plot
www.iiste.org
date plot of Pyecoomb East Borehole
Ammonium
Nitrate
Dissolved Oxygen
Chlorine
PO4
SO4
NO2
TOC

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