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Chemistry and Materials Research www.iiste.org 
ISSN 2224- 3224 (Print) ISSN 2225- 0956 (Online) 
Vol.6 No.8, 2014 
Utilizations of Palm Oil Mills Wastes as Source of Energy and 
Water in the Production Process of Crude Palm Oil 
Ridzky Kramanandita1*, Tajuddin Bantacut2, Muhammad Romli3, Mustofa Makmoen4 
1,4 School of Industrial Management, Ministry of Industry, Indonesia 
2,3 Department of Agroindustrial Technology, Bogor Agricultural University, Indonesia 
* E-mail of the corresponding author: ridzky@kemenperin.go.id 
Abstract 
Palm oil mills in their production process require a large amount of energy and water. Scarcity and enormous 
costs of energy and water become factors that may limit the future production of crude palm oil (CPO). On the 
other hand, demands for palm oil and its derivatives are increasing. Therefore, a number of research on energy 
and water by utilizing biomass produced by fresh fruit bunches (FFB) are necessary to develop. Analysis on the 
energy and mass balance of palm oil mills was carried out to obtain accurate information on the needs and the 
potential of energy and water from the wastes generated. Analysis on the energy and mass balance of palm oil 
mills was carried out to obtain accurate information on the needs and the potential of energy and water from the 
wastes generated. The results of the analysis of the energy and mass balance show that the potential of the total 
solid wastes generated by the palm oil mills with a capacity of 30 tons/hr are equal to 16,090.09 kg/hr or 
equivalent to 53.63% of the fresh fruit bunches with the composition of empty fruit bunches (26.97%), fibers 
(17.67%) and shells (6.46%), while the liquid wastes generated are equal to 18,113.15 Kg/hr (%) with the 
composition of mud (18.38%) and water (42.05%). The palm oil mills required To supply energy for palm oil 
mills, the solid wastes can be converted into biohydrogen, biogas and bioethanol, while the liquid wastes can be 
converted into biogas and biohydrogen as well as water sources. 
Keywords: oil palm, energy, water, equilibrium 
1. Introduction 
The conversion processes of fresh fruit bunch (FFB) into crude palm oil (CPO) require sufficiently enormous 
energy and water supply. To produce CPO, Palm oil mills with the capacity of 30-60 ton/hr require 14-25 kWh of 
energy (Yusoff, 2006; Chalvaparit et al., 2006; Mahlia, 2001; Yoshizaki et al., 2013) and 300,000-350,000 
tons/year of water (Ahmad et al., 2003). In addition, the use of energy and water in a large quantity also 
generates a sufficiently sizeable waste. Ohimain et al. (2013) states that the conversion process of FFB will 
produce 10-30% CPO with by-product of 30-70% solid waste and 60-70% palm oil mill effluents (POME). 
According to Nasution et al. (2014), the composition of solid wastes generated by the palm oil mills in Indonesia 
consists of fibers (12-15%), shells (5-7%) and empty fruit bunches (20-23%), depending on the technology 
process applied. 
The potential of wastes from palm oil mills as an energy source for those palm oil mills has also been widely 
studied. However, these studies remains incomplete, because the wastes converted into energy for palm oil mill 
is still confined either only to solid wastes (Husain et al., 2003; Nasution et al., 2014; Ohimain, 2014) or liquid 
waste (Gobi et al., 2013). This issue leads to the analysis of waste potential use which cannot predict the exact 
amount of energy necessary for those palm oil mills. Therefore, this study will examine the details of mass 
balance and energy balance in order to determine the potential of by-products in the form of either solid waste or 
liquid waste and thus palm oil mills will have alternatives to meet its energy requirements. 
2. Methodology 
2.1 The Analysis of Mass and Energy Balance 
The mass and energy balance calculation was made based on the law of conservation of mass and energy which 
states that mass and energy cannot be created or destroyed, but they can be transformed into another form. The 
completion stage of mass and energy balance did not involve a chemical reaction because the crude palm oil was 
generated through the processes of pressing and physical purification. 
To make the calculation, the basic mass balance employed was 30 ton of FFB/hr, based on the results of the 
proximate analysis of FFB processed in palm oil mills, FFB composition was dominated by empty fruit bunches 
(23%), oil (21%) and silt (22%), while the rest was water (12%), endoscarp (6%), kernel (5%) and fibers (11%). 
The mass balance was calculated based on the law of mass balance by Perry et al. (1997) with the formula as 
follows: 
46 
Where: 
minput = mass input (kg) 
moutput = mass output (kg) 
In some production processes, production costs can be estimated based on the amount of energy required for the
Chemistry and Materials Research www.iiste.org 
ISSN 2224- 3224 (Print) ISSN 2225- 0956 (Online) 
Vol.6 No.8, 2014 
production process. The basic concept of energy balance is defined as follows: 
47 
Where: 
Ei = Energy input (kJ) 
E0 = Energy output (kJ) 
Q = Heat (kJ) 
The assumptions used in the calculation of the energy balance are: 
 stationary and material flows are in a state of a thermodynamic equilibrium level at both the entrance 
station and the exit station 
 one-dimensional flows at both the entrance station and the exit station 
 kinetic energy and potential energy are ignored 
1.1.1 The determination of the steam requirement 
The calculation of the steam requirement of palm oil mills with a capacity of 30 ton of FFB/hr was performed 
using the following formula: 
Where: 
M = flow mass of FFB (kg) 
Dt = temperature difference (oC) 
Cp = the average specific heat of EFB (kcal/kg°C ) 
1.1.2 The determination of the average Cp of FFB 
The approach taken to determine the Cp average of FFB is: 
Where: 
M = mass of FFB components (kg) 
Cp of FFB components = water; shell; kernel; EFB; fiber (kg) 
M = Mass of FFB (kg) 
The mass and energy balance analysis was performed in all stations (sterilization, Stripper, Digester, Pressing, 
Continous Settling Tank, Sludge Tanks, Sludge Separator, Oil Purifier, Vacuum Dryer, CPO Storage, 
Depericarper, Silo Dryer, Nut Crackers, Hidrocyclone, Kernel Dryer and Kernel Storage). 
2. Data 
The primary data consisting of CPO production process were retrieved from a palm oil mill in Southern Borneo, 
which had a production capacity of 30 ton of FFB/hr. The secondary data including the waste-to-energy 
conversion process were based on the results of the literature study related to the research topic.
Chemistry and Materials Research www.iiste.org 
ISSN 2224- 3224 (Print) ISSN 2225- 0956 (Online) 
Vol.6 No.8, 2014 
FFB 
Sterilizer 
Stripping 
Digester 
Pressing 
Figure 1. The stages of CPO production processes at palm oil mills 
3. Result and Discussion 
3.1 CPO Production Process 
Fresh fruit bunch (FFB) processing into crude palm oil (CPO) has several stages including raw materials input, 
boiling, digesting, fruit compression, waste and nut disseverance, palm oil clarification, sludge processing and 
nut cracking (Pardamean, 2008). While according to Pahan (2006), palm oil mills basically can be divided into 
two stations – the main station and the supporting station. The main station, which covers the entire series of the 
primary process to convert palm oil into crude palm oil, comprises units of fruit acceptance, sterilizer, stripper, 
digester, press, purification as well as nut and kernel separation (Figure 1). 
3.1.1 Sterilizer Station 
The sterilization process was performed by inserting fresh fruit bunches (FFB) at a temperature of 125oC–135oC 
for 82-90 minutes. The amount of the steam required was 3,345 kg/hr (11%), whereas the steam loss that 
occurred was 3.65% (1,095 kg/hr). This process generated 85% of cooked FFB (25.041 kg/hr) and a condensate 
by 6,905 kg/ hr (22.5%). Based on the results of the calculation, it is suggested that the efficiency of the 
sterilization process was 85%. The energy need in this process was 19,954.05 MJ/ hr. 
3.1.2 Stripper Station 
In this station, the cooked fresh fruit bunches produced in the sterilizer station were fed into a 33.95 rpm stripper 
drum to dislodge fruits from their stems. The total number of cooked FFB generated in this station reached 
25,041 kg/hr with a by-product in the form of empty fruit bunches (EFB) that reached 8,093.27 kg/hr. In this 
process, the estimated heat loss reached 85,645.02 MJ /hr, with a total energy contained in this station by 
308,921.4 MJ/hr. 
3.1.3 Digester Station 
Palm oil fruits generated in the stripping station by 17,079.9 kg/hr were fed into the digester. In this stage, the 
digester separated flesh fruit and nut using agitator blades at a temperature of 90 – 95oC. Furthermore, the 
estimated steam demand was 6.67% of the amount of the feed and therefore the amount of the heat required was 
7,494.01 MJ/ hr. 
3.1.4 Pressing Station 
Palm oil fruits generated from the digester station were then circulated into the pressing machine with addition of 
48 
Hopper 
Depericarper 
CST 
Oil purifier 
Vacuum 
dryer 
Storage 
Tank 
Sludge tank 
Sludge 
separator 
Silo Dryer 
Nut 
Crackers 
Hidrocyclone 
Kernel Dryer 
Storage 
Kernel 
Waste Plan Boiler
Chemistry and Materials Research www.iiste.org 
ISSN 2224- 3224 (Print) ISSN 2225- 0956 (Online) 
Vol.6 No.8, 2014 
hot water as much as 3,710.76 kg/hr of the amount of the mass of the material to be pressed. This stage produced 
crude oil by 12,245.50 kg/hr (consisting of oil by 5,632.93 kg/ hr; dirt by 857.19 kg/ hr, and free fatty acids by 
514.31 kg/ hr) and silt by 41, 9%. 
3.1.5 Continous Settling Tank (CST) Station 
The crude oil generated by the pressing station was flowed into the continous settling tank (CST), where sewage 
sludge was separated from the oil by gravity. This stage is divided into two, namely crude oil flowing to the 
sludge tanks station and crude oil flowing to the oil purifier station. On the other hand, the sludge flowing to the 
sludge tank amounted to 8,449.40 kg/ hr (4.90% of oil, 7.5% of water and 87.6% of impurities), whereas the 
amount of crude oil leading to the oil purifier station was as much as 6,245.21 kg/ hr. In this process, the 
estimated heat loss was at 857.24 MJ/ hr. 
3.1.6 Sludge Tank Station 
Sludge which still contains oil from CST was flowed into the sludge tank to separate the oil from the impurities. 
The sedimentation process generated crude oil by 8,381.80 kg/ hr, which will be streamed to the sludge separator 
station. This stage will generate sludge as a by-product by 67.59 kg/ hr. The heat required in the tank sludge 
station was 11,587.21 MJ/ hr. 
3.1.7 Sludge Separator Station 
In sludge separator station, oil and impurities that the crude oil produced in the sludge tank station were 
separated using a precleaner and a stainer. The amount of the crude oil separated, while the results obtained from 
this process were 2,449.10 and a by-product in the form of sludge by 5,867.26 kg/ hr. The amount of the energy 
required in this station was 258.83 MJ/ hr. 
3.1.8 Oil Purifier Station 
The total amount of crude oil generated in CST station amounted to 6,245.21 kg/hr. Crude palm oil was then 
purified to be separated from its impurities. This process generated a total of 6,231.46 kg/hr of crude palm oil 
which consisted of 96% of oil, 0.45% of water, 0.13% of impurities and 2.92% of free fatty acids. The by-product 
generated from this process was 13.74 kg/hr of sludge. In this process the heat lost reached 658.67 MJ/ h 
with a total energy involved in the system as much as 23,606.3 MJ/hr. 
3.1.9 Vacuum Dryer Station 
Crude oil generated in the oil purifier station was then dried to remove the water, to make the FFA value do not 
increase. The crude oil produced in this process was equal to 6,170.40 kg/hr with a water content that reached 
0.002% (0.123 kg/hr) and was then stored in the storage tank, while the by-product was in the form of 61.07 
kg/hr of water. On the other hand, this process also produced heat steam as a by-product by 163,419.04 MJ/hr 
and the heat needs reached 778.51 MJ /hr. 
3.1.10 Depericarper Station 
The by-product generated in the pressing station was nuts 4,408.38 kg/hr, fibers 5,460.38 kg/hr and water 150.29 
kg/hr. This process was intended to separate the nut from the fiber. The solids produced in the depericarper 
station was 4,608.76 kg/ hr, while the by-product that consisted of fibers reached 5,410.29 kg/hr. The heat energy 
involved in this process was 38,606.16 MJ/hr while the estimated heat loss was 1,347.87 MJ/hr. 
3.1.11 Silo Dryer Station 
This station serves to remove water contained in the nuts, therefore the heat required in this process was 139.81 
MJ/hr. This process produced nuts by 4,332.24 kg/hr and a byproduct in the form of water vapor as much as 
276.53 kg/hr (6% of the input). 
3.1.12 Nut Cracker Station 
Palm nuts that had been dried in the silo dryer station were fed to this station to encounter a breakdown process. 
Palm nuts that had encountered the breakdown process would generate 3,444.13 kg/hr of kernels and 888.11 
kg/hr of shells. The heat missing in this process reached 14,198.3 MJ/hr. 
3.1.13 Hidrocyclone Station 
A mixture of fractions generated in the nut crackers station was put into a hidrocyclone. In the hidrocyclone, 
separation of kernels from their shells occurred based on the specific gravity. The core of the kernels would 
move upwards the hidrocyclone, while the shells would fall under the hidrocyclone. The by-product generated in 
this stage consisted of 1,949.50 kg/hr of shells, while the heat loss was equal to 13,016.18 MJ /hr. 
3.1.14 Kernel Dryer Station 
Kernels from the hydrocyclone were fed into a kernel dryer. In this process, the water content as much as 357.41 
kg/hr contained in the kernels was evaporated. Furthermore, the kernels (2,025.32 kg/hr) was stored in a kernel 
shelter. The by-product generated was in the form of steam by 956.42 MJ/hr, while the heat required was equal 
to 233.50 MJ/hr. 
3.2 The Mass and Energy Balance of CPO Production Processes 
Based on these data, the calculation of the mass balance is described in Figure 2, and the energy balance for each 
station is described in Figure 3. 
49
Chemistry and Materials Research www.iiste.org 
ISSN 2224- 3224 (Print) ISSN 2225- 0956 (Online) 
Vol.6 No.8, 2014 
FFB Water 
Oil 5.632, 93 kg, Water 5.241,08 kg 
Solids 857,19 kg, FFA 514,31 kg 
Oil 5.964,17 kg 
Water 28,1 kg, FFA 218,58 kg 
Solids 34,35 kg 
Oil 414,02 kg 
Water 633,71 kg 
Solids 7.401,67 kg 
Oil 6013,37 kg, Solids 8,1 kg 
Water 28,04 kg, FFA 181,96 kg 
Oil 5.972,95 kg, FFA 189,31 kg 
Water 0,12 kg, Solids 8,02 kg 
50 
Nuts 4.484,33 kg 
Water 78,35 kg 
Fiber 46,09 kg 
Water 
4.115,63 kg 
Kernel 
9,75 kg 
Water 
150,29 kg 
Fiber 
5.460,38 kg 
Nuts 
4.408,38 kg 
Steam Out 
1.095 kg 
Oil 
47,25 kg 
2,45 kg 
Oil 2.305 kg 
Water 5909,17 kg 
Solids 167,64 kg 
Water 
Oil 
5.515,23 kg 
Solids 
299,23 kg 
Oil 
52,81 kg 
I. Sterilizer 
FFB 
30.000 kg 
Steam In 
Water (condensate) 3.345 kg 
6.646,25 kg 
Coocked FFB 25.041 kg 
Water 459 kg 
Solids 
256,5 kg 
Condensate 
II. Stripping 
EFB 
8.092,27 kg 
Fruits 
65,28 kg 
Fruits 17.079,9 kg 
Water 260,1 kg 
III. Digister 
Steam In 
1.213,8 kg 
Flesh Fruits 17.079,9 kg 
Water 1.473,9 kg 
IV. Pressing 
Steam In 
3.710,76 kg 
V. Continous 
Settling Tank 
VI. Oil Purifier 
Solids 
0,41 kg 
Water 
13,33 kg 
VII. Vacuum 
Dryer 
Water 
61,07 kg VIII. Oil 
Tank 
Va. Sludge 
Tank 
Vb. Sludge 
Separator 
Water 
50,7 kg 
Solids 
16,6 kg 
Oil 2.069,49 kg 
Water 324,51 kg 
Solids 55,1 kg 
IX. 
Depericarper 
X. Silo Dryer 
Nuts 4.310,58 kg 
Fiber 21,66 kg 
XI. Nut 
Cracker 
XII. 
Hidrocyclone 
XIII. Kernel 
Dryer 
XIV.Kernel 
Tank 
Shell 
888,11 kg 
Kernel 2.102,52 kg 
Water 280,21 kg 
Kernel 2.023,3 kg 
Water 2,03 kg 
Fiber 
5.302,08 kg 
Nuts 
108,21 kg 
Water 
276,53 kg 
Kernel 
3.444,13 kg 
Water 
4.115,63 kg Shell 
1.939,76 kg 
Water 
357,41 kg 
Figure 2. Detail Mass Balance of Palm Oil Mill
Chemistry and Materials Research www.iiste.org 
ISSN 2224- 3224 (Print) ISSN 2225- 0956 (Online) 
Vol.6 No.8, 2014 
FFB Water 
Palm Fruits 210.338,19 MJ 
Water 307,49 MJ 90oC 
Oil 21.356,89 MJ, Water 5.977,08 MJ 
Solids 206,39 MJ, FFA 280,16 MJ 90oC 
Oil 22.612,77 MJ 
Water 32,05 MJ, FFA 119,06 MJ 
Solids 8,27 MJ 90oC 
Oil 1569,73 MJ 
Water 722,69 MJ 90oC 
Oil 9.059,36 MJ Solids 1782,21 MJ 
Oil 22.799,28 MJ, Solids 1,95 MJ 
Water 31,97 MJ, FFA 99,11 MJ 80oC 
Oil 23.475,56 MJ, FFA 110,67 MJ 
Water 0,15 MJ, Solids 2,07 MJ 80oC 
51 
Nut 35.778,48 MJ 
Water 89,35 MJ 
Fiber 16,15 MJ 
Kernel 
50 MJ 
30oC 
Water 
196,50 MJ 
Fiber 
1.914,33 MJ 
Nut 
35.172,56 MJ 
50oC 
Steam Out 
1.329,86 MJ 110oC 
Oil 
218,51 MJ 
9,62 MJ 
Water 6.985,84 MJ 80oC 
Solids 41,84 MJ 
Water 
Oil 
6520,12 MJ 
Solids 
74,68 MJ 
Oil 
207,54 MJ 
90oC 
I. Sterilizer 
19.954,05 MJ 
FFB 
362.921 MJ 30oC 
Steam In 
2132,71 MJ 130o Water (condensate) C 
8.967,21 MJ 
Cooked FFB 373.759 MJ 
Water 657,67 MJ 100oC 
Solids 
75,33 MJ 
Condensate 90oC 
II. Stripping 
(85.645,0 MJ) 
EFB 
11.817,15 MJ 
Palm Fruits 
803,92 MJ 
III. Digister 
7.494,01 MJ 
Steam In 
1.434,95 MJ 
100oC 
Flesh Fuits 217.770,63 MJ 
Water 1.804,02 MJ 100oC 
IV. Pressing 
(151.828,62 
MJ) 
Water 
4851,91 MJ 
50oC 
V. Continous 
Settling Tank 
(857,24 MJ) 
VI. Oil Purifier 
(658,67 MJ) 
Solids 
0,09 MJ 
Water 
15,19 MJ 
80oC 
VII. Vacuum 
Dryer 
778,51 MJ 
Water 
69,64 MJ 
80oC 
Evaporation Heat 
163,41 MJ 
VIII. Oil 
Tank 
Va. Sludge 
Tank 
11587,2 MJ 
Vb. Sludge 
Separator 
258,83 MJ 
Water 
59,93 MJ 
90oC 
Solids 
4,21 MJ 
Oil 7846,3 MJ 
Water 370,07 MJ 
Solids 206,3 MJ 
90oC 
IX. 
Depericarper 
(1347,87 MJ) 
X. Silo Dryer 
139,81 MJ 
50oC 
Nut 35.651,99 MJ 
Fiber 7,87 MJ 60oC 
XI. Nut 
Cracker 
(14.198,3 MJ) 
XII. 
Hidrocyclone 
(13016,18 MJ) 
XIII. Kernel 
Dryer 
233,5 MJ 
XIV. Kernel 
Tank 
Shell 
2.529,52 MJ 
Kernel 10.786,67 MJ 
Water 319,55 MJ 
30oC 
Kernel 10380,22 MJ 
Water 2,3 MJ 60oC 
Fiber 
1.858,83 MJ 
Nut 
863,32 MJ 
40oC 
Water 
338,46 MJ 
70oC 
Kernel 
17669,6 MJ 
60oC 
Water 
4693,58 MJ 
30oC 
Shell 
2.529,52 MJ 
Water 
407,6 MJ 
Evaporation 
Heat 
956,42 MJ 
60oC 
90oC 
Water 
5524,84 MJ 
Figure 3. Detail Energy Balance of Palm Oil Mill 
4. The Potency Of By Product Generated Palm Oil Industry 
Based on the analysis of the mass balance and the energy balance that had been performed, it is revealed that the 
by-product of the palm oil mills with a capacity of 30 ton/hr can be categorized into three: solid waste, liquid 
wastes and gases. Table 2 shows that the most dominating solid waste is empty fruit bunch with a total number 
of 8,092.27 kg/hr, followed by fiber wastes (5,348.17 kg/hr) and shell wastes (1,939.76 kg/hr). Compared to the 
obtained fresh fruit bunches, the total solid wastes generated reached 51.27% with a composition that consisted 
of empty fruit bunches (26.27%), fibers (17.83%) and shells (6.47%). This is in line with the study conducted by 
Ohimain et al. (2013) suggesting that the solid wastes generated by palm oil mills reach 30 to 70%, depending on 
the technology and the type of the plant used. The empty bunches were converted into biohydrogen (Abdul et al., 
2013; Kalinci et al., 2011; Chiew et al., 2013; Chong et al. 2013), biogas (O-Thong et al. 2012) and bioethanol 
(Sudiyani et al. 2013).
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Vol.6 No.8, 2014 
Table 2. The potential of solid wastes generated by palm oil mills with a capacity 30 ton/hr 
Station Types of Solid Waste Composition Quantity (kg/hr) 
Stripper Empty Fruit Bunches 99,17% EFB, 0,8% Fruits and 0,03% oil, at 90oC 8.092,27 
Depericarper Fiber 98% Fiber and 2% kernel at 40oC 5.348,17 
Hidrocyclone Shell 99,5% Shell dan 0,5% kernel at 28.5oC 1.939,76 
The total amount of solid wastes 15.380,20 
The liquid wastes produced by palm oil mills originate from several processing stations, among others are 
sterilization, sludge tank, sludge separator, oil purifier and hidrocyclone stations. Each station has different 
characteristics of wastes. The characteristics depend on the processes conducted, but in palm oil mills, liquid 
wastes generally can be categorized into two: water (10,865.63 kg/hr) and sludge (5,948.60 kg/hr). The amount 
of the liquid waste that reached 58% (16,814.23) is one of the potential to be developed into other forms of 
energy sources such as (Choi et al., 2013; Poh et al., 2010; Gobi et al., 2013), biohidrogen (Singh et al., 2013a; 
Singh et al., 2013b; Singh et al., 2013c; Badiei et al., 2011; Badiei et al., 2012; Ismail et al., 2010) and water 
(Ahmad et al., 2003). 
Table 3. Palm Oil Mill Effluents with a capacity of 30 ton/hr 
Station Types of liquid waste Composition Quantity 
52 
(kg/hr) 
Sterilisasi Water 0.70% oil, 3.8% Impurities and 95.5% water at 90oC 6.750 
Sludge Tank Sludge 75% water and 25% water at 90oC 67,60 
Sludge Separator Sludge 0.95 oil, 94% water and 5.10%impurities, at 90oC 5.867,26 
Oil Purifier Sludge 97% water and 3% impurities 13,74 
Hidrocyclone Water Pure water (100%) at 30oC 4.115,63 
The total amount of liquid wastes 16.814,23 
5. Conclusion 
Based on the analysis of the mass balance and the energy balance, palm oil mills with a capacity of 30 ton of 
FFB/hr require 12.38 ton of water sources (41% of TBS). The amount of water input by 12.38 ton eventually 
generated 18.11 ton of water, where the water surplus originated from FFB containing 5.73 ton of water (19.1% 
FFB). 
The amount of the output produced by CPO was 6.07 ton, while the yield generated by palm oil mills was 5.97 
ton (19.9% of FFB). In the processing of oil palm into CPO, there was unprocessed oil which amounted to 0.102 
ton (1.68% of CPO output). 
Furthermore, the potential of solid waste generated by palm oil mills with a capacity of 30 ton/hr is equal to 
15,380.20 kg/hr or 51.27% of fresh fruit bunches (FFB) consisting of empthy fruit bunches (26.27%), fibers 
(17.83%) and shells (6.47%). On the other hand, the amount of the liquid wastes generated are equal to 
16,814.23 kg/hr or 58% with the composition of the wastes that consisted of sludge (64.62%) and water 
(35.38%). To meet the energy requirements of the palm oil mills, the solid wastes can be converted into 
biohydrogen, biogas and bioethanol, while the the liquid wastes can be converted into biogas and biohydrogen 
and water sources. 
The station with the highest value of energy input/ output is the Sterilizer Station by 385,008 MJ/hr. The total 
energy produced by the by-product of palm oil mills was equal to 42,865 MJ/hr consisting of the three largest 
components, namely condensate water (16,063 MJ/hr), fibers (2,722 MJ/hr) and shells (8,104 MJ/hr). The 
potential of untapped energy produced by palm oil mills using the appropriate technology can be used as a 
source of energy. 
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Utilizations of palm oil mills wastes as source of energy

  • 1. Chemistry and Materials Research www.iiste.org ISSN 2224- 3224 (Print) ISSN 2225- 0956 (Online) Vol.6 No.8, 2014 Utilizations of Palm Oil Mills Wastes as Source of Energy and Water in the Production Process of Crude Palm Oil Ridzky Kramanandita1*, Tajuddin Bantacut2, Muhammad Romli3, Mustofa Makmoen4 1,4 School of Industrial Management, Ministry of Industry, Indonesia 2,3 Department of Agroindustrial Technology, Bogor Agricultural University, Indonesia * E-mail of the corresponding author: ridzky@kemenperin.go.id Abstract Palm oil mills in their production process require a large amount of energy and water. Scarcity and enormous costs of energy and water become factors that may limit the future production of crude palm oil (CPO). On the other hand, demands for palm oil and its derivatives are increasing. Therefore, a number of research on energy and water by utilizing biomass produced by fresh fruit bunches (FFB) are necessary to develop. Analysis on the energy and mass balance of palm oil mills was carried out to obtain accurate information on the needs and the potential of energy and water from the wastes generated. Analysis on the energy and mass balance of palm oil mills was carried out to obtain accurate information on the needs and the potential of energy and water from the wastes generated. The results of the analysis of the energy and mass balance show that the potential of the total solid wastes generated by the palm oil mills with a capacity of 30 tons/hr are equal to 16,090.09 kg/hr or equivalent to 53.63% of the fresh fruit bunches with the composition of empty fruit bunches (26.97%), fibers (17.67%) and shells (6.46%), while the liquid wastes generated are equal to 18,113.15 Kg/hr (%) with the composition of mud (18.38%) and water (42.05%). The palm oil mills required To supply energy for palm oil mills, the solid wastes can be converted into biohydrogen, biogas and bioethanol, while the liquid wastes can be converted into biogas and biohydrogen as well as water sources. Keywords: oil palm, energy, water, equilibrium 1. Introduction The conversion processes of fresh fruit bunch (FFB) into crude palm oil (CPO) require sufficiently enormous energy and water supply. To produce CPO, Palm oil mills with the capacity of 30-60 ton/hr require 14-25 kWh of energy (Yusoff, 2006; Chalvaparit et al., 2006; Mahlia, 2001; Yoshizaki et al., 2013) and 300,000-350,000 tons/year of water (Ahmad et al., 2003). In addition, the use of energy and water in a large quantity also generates a sufficiently sizeable waste. Ohimain et al. (2013) states that the conversion process of FFB will produce 10-30% CPO with by-product of 30-70% solid waste and 60-70% palm oil mill effluents (POME). According to Nasution et al. (2014), the composition of solid wastes generated by the palm oil mills in Indonesia consists of fibers (12-15%), shells (5-7%) and empty fruit bunches (20-23%), depending on the technology process applied. The potential of wastes from palm oil mills as an energy source for those palm oil mills has also been widely studied. However, these studies remains incomplete, because the wastes converted into energy for palm oil mill is still confined either only to solid wastes (Husain et al., 2003; Nasution et al., 2014; Ohimain, 2014) or liquid waste (Gobi et al., 2013). This issue leads to the analysis of waste potential use which cannot predict the exact amount of energy necessary for those palm oil mills. Therefore, this study will examine the details of mass balance and energy balance in order to determine the potential of by-products in the form of either solid waste or liquid waste and thus palm oil mills will have alternatives to meet its energy requirements. 2. Methodology 2.1 The Analysis of Mass and Energy Balance The mass and energy balance calculation was made based on the law of conservation of mass and energy which states that mass and energy cannot be created or destroyed, but they can be transformed into another form. The completion stage of mass and energy balance did not involve a chemical reaction because the crude palm oil was generated through the processes of pressing and physical purification. To make the calculation, the basic mass balance employed was 30 ton of FFB/hr, based on the results of the proximate analysis of FFB processed in palm oil mills, FFB composition was dominated by empty fruit bunches (23%), oil (21%) and silt (22%), while the rest was water (12%), endoscarp (6%), kernel (5%) and fibers (11%). The mass balance was calculated based on the law of mass balance by Perry et al. (1997) with the formula as follows: 46 Where: minput = mass input (kg) moutput = mass output (kg) In some production processes, production costs can be estimated based on the amount of energy required for the
  • 2. Chemistry and Materials Research www.iiste.org ISSN 2224- 3224 (Print) ISSN 2225- 0956 (Online) Vol.6 No.8, 2014 production process. The basic concept of energy balance is defined as follows: 47 Where: Ei = Energy input (kJ) E0 = Energy output (kJ) Q = Heat (kJ) The assumptions used in the calculation of the energy balance are:  stationary and material flows are in a state of a thermodynamic equilibrium level at both the entrance station and the exit station  one-dimensional flows at both the entrance station and the exit station  kinetic energy and potential energy are ignored 1.1.1 The determination of the steam requirement The calculation of the steam requirement of palm oil mills with a capacity of 30 ton of FFB/hr was performed using the following formula: Where: M = flow mass of FFB (kg) Dt = temperature difference (oC) Cp = the average specific heat of EFB (kcal/kg°C ) 1.1.2 The determination of the average Cp of FFB The approach taken to determine the Cp average of FFB is: Where: M = mass of FFB components (kg) Cp of FFB components = water; shell; kernel; EFB; fiber (kg) M = Mass of FFB (kg) The mass and energy balance analysis was performed in all stations (sterilization, Stripper, Digester, Pressing, Continous Settling Tank, Sludge Tanks, Sludge Separator, Oil Purifier, Vacuum Dryer, CPO Storage, Depericarper, Silo Dryer, Nut Crackers, Hidrocyclone, Kernel Dryer and Kernel Storage). 2. Data The primary data consisting of CPO production process were retrieved from a palm oil mill in Southern Borneo, which had a production capacity of 30 ton of FFB/hr. The secondary data including the waste-to-energy conversion process were based on the results of the literature study related to the research topic.
  • 3. Chemistry and Materials Research www.iiste.org ISSN 2224- 3224 (Print) ISSN 2225- 0956 (Online) Vol.6 No.8, 2014 FFB Sterilizer Stripping Digester Pressing Figure 1. The stages of CPO production processes at palm oil mills 3. Result and Discussion 3.1 CPO Production Process Fresh fruit bunch (FFB) processing into crude palm oil (CPO) has several stages including raw materials input, boiling, digesting, fruit compression, waste and nut disseverance, palm oil clarification, sludge processing and nut cracking (Pardamean, 2008). While according to Pahan (2006), palm oil mills basically can be divided into two stations – the main station and the supporting station. The main station, which covers the entire series of the primary process to convert palm oil into crude palm oil, comprises units of fruit acceptance, sterilizer, stripper, digester, press, purification as well as nut and kernel separation (Figure 1). 3.1.1 Sterilizer Station The sterilization process was performed by inserting fresh fruit bunches (FFB) at a temperature of 125oC–135oC for 82-90 minutes. The amount of the steam required was 3,345 kg/hr (11%), whereas the steam loss that occurred was 3.65% (1,095 kg/hr). This process generated 85% of cooked FFB (25.041 kg/hr) and a condensate by 6,905 kg/ hr (22.5%). Based on the results of the calculation, it is suggested that the efficiency of the sterilization process was 85%. The energy need in this process was 19,954.05 MJ/ hr. 3.1.2 Stripper Station In this station, the cooked fresh fruit bunches produced in the sterilizer station were fed into a 33.95 rpm stripper drum to dislodge fruits from their stems. The total number of cooked FFB generated in this station reached 25,041 kg/hr with a by-product in the form of empty fruit bunches (EFB) that reached 8,093.27 kg/hr. In this process, the estimated heat loss reached 85,645.02 MJ /hr, with a total energy contained in this station by 308,921.4 MJ/hr. 3.1.3 Digester Station Palm oil fruits generated in the stripping station by 17,079.9 kg/hr were fed into the digester. In this stage, the digester separated flesh fruit and nut using agitator blades at a temperature of 90 – 95oC. Furthermore, the estimated steam demand was 6.67% of the amount of the feed and therefore the amount of the heat required was 7,494.01 MJ/ hr. 3.1.4 Pressing Station Palm oil fruits generated from the digester station were then circulated into the pressing machine with addition of 48 Hopper Depericarper CST Oil purifier Vacuum dryer Storage Tank Sludge tank Sludge separator Silo Dryer Nut Crackers Hidrocyclone Kernel Dryer Storage Kernel Waste Plan Boiler
  • 4. Chemistry and Materials Research www.iiste.org ISSN 2224- 3224 (Print) ISSN 2225- 0956 (Online) Vol.6 No.8, 2014 hot water as much as 3,710.76 kg/hr of the amount of the mass of the material to be pressed. This stage produced crude oil by 12,245.50 kg/hr (consisting of oil by 5,632.93 kg/ hr; dirt by 857.19 kg/ hr, and free fatty acids by 514.31 kg/ hr) and silt by 41, 9%. 3.1.5 Continous Settling Tank (CST) Station The crude oil generated by the pressing station was flowed into the continous settling tank (CST), where sewage sludge was separated from the oil by gravity. This stage is divided into two, namely crude oil flowing to the sludge tanks station and crude oil flowing to the oil purifier station. On the other hand, the sludge flowing to the sludge tank amounted to 8,449.40 kg/ hr (4.90% of oil, 7.5% of water and 87.6% of impurities), whereas the amount of crude oil leading to the oil purifier station was as much as 6,245.21 kg/ hr. In this process, the estimated heat loss was at 857.24 MJ/ hr. 3.1.6 Sludge Tank Station Sludge which still contains oil from CST was flowed into the sludge tank to separate the oil from the impurities. The sedimentation process generated crude oil by 8,381.80 kg/ hr, which will be streamed to the sludge separator station. This stage will generate sludge as a by-product by 67.59 kg/ hr. The heat required in the tank sludge station was 11,587.21 MJ/ hr. 3.1.7 Sludge Separator Station In sludge separator station, oil and impurities that the crude oil produced in the sludge tank station were separated using a precleaner and a stainer. The amount of the crude oil separated, while the results obtained from this process were 2,449.10 and a by-product in the form of sludge by 5,867.26 kg/ hr. The amount of the energy required in this station was 258.83 MJ/ hr. 3.1.8 Oil Purifier Station The total amount of crude oil generated in CST station amounted to 6,245.21 kg/hr. Crude palm oil was then purified to be separated from its impurities. This process generated a total of 6,231.46 kg/hr of crude palm oil which consisted of 96% of oil, 0.45% of water, 0.13% of impurities and 2.92% of free fatty acids. The by-product generated from this process was 13.74 kg/hr of sludge. In this process the heat lost reached 658.67 MJ/ h with a total energy involved in the system as much as 23,606.3 MJ/hr. 3.1.9 Vacuum Dryer Station Crude oil generated in the oil purifier station was then dried to remove the water, to make the FFA value do not increase. The crude oil produced in this process was equal to 6,170.40 kg/hr with a water content that reached 0.002% (0.123 kg/hr) and was then stored in the storage tank, while the by-product was in the form of 61.07 kg/hr of water. On the other hand, this process also produced heat steam as a by-product by 163,419.04 MJ/hr and the heat needs reached 778.51 MJ /hr. 3.1.10 Depericarper Station The by-product generated in the pressing station was nuts 4,408.38 kg/hr, fibers 5,460.38 kg/hr and water 150.29 kg/hr. This process was intended to separate the nut from the fiber. The solids produced in the depericarper station was 4,608.76 kg/ hr, while the by-product that consisted of fibers reached 5,410.29 kg/hr. The heat energy involved in this process was 38,606.16 MJ/hr while the estimated heat loss was 1,347.87 MJ/hr. 3.1.11 Silo Dryer Station This station serves to remove water contained in the nuts, therefore the heat required in this process was 139.81 MJ/hr. This process produced nuts by 4,332.24 kg/hr and a byproduct in the form of water vapor as much as 276.53 kg/hr (6% of the input). 3.1.12 Nut Cracker Station Palm nuts that had been dried in the silo dryer station were fed to this station to encounter a breakdown process. Palm nuts that had encountered the breakdown process would generate 3,444.13 kg/hr of kernels and 888.11 kg/hr of shells. The heat missing in this process reached 14,198.3 MJ/hr. 3.1.13 Hidrocyclone Station A mixture of fractions generated in the nut crackers station was put into a hidrocyclone. In the hidrocyclone, separation of kernels from their shells occurred based on the specific gravity. The core of the kernels would move upwards the hidrocyclone, while the shells would fall under the hidrocyclone. The by-product generated in this stage consisted of 1,949.50 kg/hr of shells, while the heat loss was equal to 13,016.18 MJ /hr. 3.1.14 Kernel Dryer Station Kernels from the hydrocyclone were fed into a kernel dryer. In this process, the water content as much as 357.41 kg/hr contained in the kernels was evaporated. Furthermore, the kernels (2,025.32 kg/hr) was stored in a kernel shelter. The by-product generated was in the form of steam by 956.42 MJ/hr, while the heat required was equal to 233.50 MJ/hr. 3.2 The Mass and Energy Balance of CPO Production Processes Based on these data, the calculation of the mass balance is described in Figure 2, and the energy balance for each station is described in Figure 3. 49
  • 5. Chemistry and Materials Research www.iiste.org ISSN 2224- 3224 (Print) ISSN 2225- 0956 (Online) Vol.6 No.8, 2014 FFB Water Oil 5.632, 93 kg, Water 5.241,08 kg Solids 857,19 kg, FFA 514,31 kg Oil 5.964,17 kg Water 28,1 kg, FFA 218,58 kg Solids 34,35 kg Oil 414,02 kg Water 633,71 kg Solids 7.401,67 kg Oil 6013,37 kg, Solids 8,1 kg Water 28,04 kg, FFA 181,96 kg Oil 5.972,95 kg, FFA 189,31 kg Water 0,12 kg, Solids 8,02 kg 50 Nuts 4.484,33 kg Water 78,35 kg Fiber 46,09 kg Water 4.115,63 kg Kernel 9,75 kg Water 150,29 kg Fiber 5.460,38 kg Nuts 4.408,38 kg Steam Out 1.095 kg Oil 47,25 kg 2,45 kg Oil 2.305 kg Water 5909,17 kg Solids 167,64 kg Water Oil 5.515,23 kg Solids 299,23 kg Oil 52,81 kg I. Sterilizer FFB 30.000 kg Steam In Water (condensate) 3.345 kg 6.646,25 kg Coocked FFB 25.041 kg Water 459 kg Solids 256,5 kg Condensate II. Stripping EFB 8.092,27 kg Fruits 65,28 kg Fruits 17.079,9 kg Water 260,1 kg III. Digister Steam In 1.213,8 kg Flesh Fruits 17.079,9 kg Water 1.473,9 kg IV. Pressing Steam In 3.710,76 kg V. Continous Settling Tank VI. Oil Purifier Solids 0,41 kg Water 13,33 kg VII. Vacuum Dryer Water 61,07 kg VIII. Oil Tank Va. Sludge Tank Vb. Sludge Separator Water 50,7 kg Solids 16,6 kg Oil 2.069,49 kg Water 324,51 kg Solids 55,1 kg IX. Depericarper X. Silo Dryer Nuts 4.310,58 kg Fiber 21,66 kg XI. Nut Cracker XII. Hidrocyclone XIII. Kernel Dryer XIV.Kernel Tank Shell 888,11 kg Kernel 2.102,52 kg Water 280,21 kg Kernel 2.023,3 kg Water 2,03 kg Fiber 5.302,08 kg Nuts 108,21 kg Water 276,53 kg Kernel 3.444,13 kg Water 4.115,63 kg Shell 1.939,76 kg Water 357,41 kg Figure 2. Detail Mass Balance of Palm Oil Mill
  • 6. Chemistry and Materials Research www.iiste.org ISSN 2224- 3224 (Print) ISSN 2225- 0956 (Online) Vol.6 No.8, 2014 FFB Water Palm Fruits 210.338,19 MJ Water 307,49 MJ 90oC Oil 21.356,89 MJ, Water 5.977,08 MJ Solids 206,39 MJ, FFA 280,16 MJ 90oC Oil 22.612,77 MJ Water 32,05 MJ, FFA 119,06 MJ Solids 8,27 MJ 90oC Oil 1569,73 MJ Water 722,69 MJ 90oC Oil 9.059,36 MJ Solids 1782,21 MJ Oil 22.799,28 MJ, Solids 1,95 MJ Water 31,97 MJ, FFA 99,11 MJ 80oC Oil 23.475,56 MJ, FFA 110,67 MJ Water 0,15 MJ, Solids 2,07 MJ 80oC 51 Nut 35.778,48 MJ Water 89,35 MJ Fiber 16,15 MJ Kernel 50 MJ 30oC Water 196,50 MJ Fiber 1.914,33 MJ Nut 35.172,56 MJ 50oC Steam Out 1.329,86 MJ 110oC Oil 218,51 MJ 9,62 MJ Water 6.985,84 MJ 80oC Solids 41,84 MJ Water Oil 6520,12 MJ Solids 74,68 MJ Oil 207,54 MJ 90oC I. Sterilizer 19.954,05 MJ FFB 362.921 MJ 30oC Steam In 2132,71 MJ 130o Water (condensate) C 8.967,21 MJ Cooked FFB 373.759 MJ Water 657,67 MJ 100oC Solids 75,33 MJ Condensate 90oC II. Stripping (85.645,0 MJ) EFB 11.817,15 MJ Palm Fruits 803,92 MJ III. Digister 7.494,01 MJ Steam In 1.434,95 MJ 100oC Flesh Fuits 217.770,63 MJ Water 1.804,02 MJ 100oC IV. Pressing (151.828,62 MJ) Water 4851,91 MJ 50oC V. Continous Settling Tank (857,24 MJ) VI. Oil Purifier (658,67 MJ) Solids 0,09 MJ Water 15,19 MJ 80oC VII. Vacuum Dryer 778,51 MJ Water 69,64 MJ 80oC Evaporation Heat 163,41 MJ VIII. Oil Tank Va. Sludge Tank 11587,2 MJ Vb. Sludge Separator 258,83 MJ Water 59,93 MJ 90oC Solids 4,21 MJ Oil 7846,3 MJ Water 370,07 MJ Solids 206,3 MJ 90oC IX. Depericarper (1347,87 MJ) X. Silo Dryer 139,81 MJ 50oC Nut 35.651,99 MJ Fiber 7,87 MJ 60oC XI. Nut Cracker (14.198,3 MJ) XII. Hidrocyclone (13016,18 MJ) XIII. Kernel Dryer 233,5 MJ XIV. Kernel Tank Shell 2.529,52 MJ Kernel 10.786,67 MJ Water 319,55 MJ 30oC Kernel 10380,22 MJ Water 2,3 MJ 60oC Fiber 1.858,83 MJ Nut 863,32 MJ 40oC Water 338,46 MJ 70oC Kernel 17669,6 MJ 60oC Water 4693,58 MJ 30oC Shell 2.529,52 MJ Water 407,6 MJ Evaporation Heat 956,42 MJ 60oC 90oC Water 5524,84 MJ Figure 3. Detail Energy Balance of Palm Oil Mill 4. The Potency Of By Product Generated Palm Oil Industry Based on the analysis of the mass balance and the energy balance that had been performed, it is revealed that the by-product of the palm oil mills with a capacity of 30 ton/hr can be categorized into three: solid waste, liquid wastes and gases. Table 2 shows that the most dominating solid waste is empty fruit bunch with a total number of 8,092.27 kg/hr, followed by fiber wastes (5,348.17 kg/hr) and shell wastes (1,939.76 kg/hr). Compared to the obtained fresh fruit bunches, the total solid wastes generated reached 51.27% with a composition that consisted of empty fruit bunches (26.27%), fibers (17.83%) and shells (6.47%). This is in line with the study conducted by Ohimain et al. (2013) suggesting that the solid wastes generated by palm oil mills reach 30 to 70%, depending on the technology and the type of the plant used. The empty bunches were converted into biohydrogen (Abdul et al., 2013; Kalinci et al., 2011; Chiew et al., 2013; Chong et al. 2013), biogas (O-Thong et al. 2012) and bioethanol (Sudiyani et al. 2013).
  • 7. Chemistry and Materials Research www.iiste.org ISSN 2224- 3224 (Print) ISSN 2225- 0956 (Online) Vol.6 No.8, 2014 Table 2. The potential of solid wastes generated by palm oil mills with a capacity 30 ton/hr Station Types of Solid Waste Composition Quantity (kg/hr) Stripper Empty Fruit Bunches 99,17% EFB, 0,8% Fruits and 0,03% oil, at 90oC 8.092,27 Depericarper Fiber 98% Fiber and 2% kernel at 40oC 5.348,17 Hidrocyclone Shell 99,5% Shell dan 0,5% kernel at 28.5oC 1.939,76 The total amount of solid wastes 15.380,20 The liquid wastes produced by palm oil mills originate from several processing stations, among others are sterilization, sludge tank, sludge separator, oil purifier and hidrocyclone stations. Each station has different characteristics of wastes. The characteristics depend on the processes conducted, but in palm oil mills, liquid wastes generally can be categorized into two: water (10,865.63 kg/hr) and sludge (5,948.60 kg/hr). The amount of the liquid waste that reached 58% (16,814.23) is one of the potential to be developed into other forms of energy sources such as (Choi et al., 2013; Poh et al., 2010; Gobi et al., 2013), biohidrogen (Singh et al., 2013a; Singh et al., 2013b; Singh et al., 2013c; Badiei et al., 2011; Badiei et al., 2012; Ismail et al., 2010) and water (Ahmad et al., 2003). Table 3. Palm Oil Mill Effluents with a capacity of 30 ton/hr Station Types of liquid waste Composition Quantity 52 (kg/hr) Sterilisasi Water 0.70% oil, 3.8% Impurities and 95.5% water at 90oC 6.750 Sludge Tank Sludge 75% water and 25% water at 90oC 67,60 Sludge Separator Sludge 0.95 oil, 94% water and 5.10%impurities, at 90oC 5.867,26 Oil Purifier Sludge 97% water and 3% impurities 13,74 Hidrocyclone Water Pure water (100%) at 30oC 4.115,63 The total amount of liquid wastes 16.814,23 5. Conclusion Based on the analysis of the mass balance and the energy balance, palm oil mills with a capacity of 30 ton of FFB/hr require 12.38 ton of water sources (41% of TBS). The amount of water input by 12.38 ton eventually generated 18.11 ton of water, where the water surplus originated from FFB containing 5.73 ton of water (19.1% FFB). The amount of the output produced by CPO was 6.07 ton, while the yield generated by palm oil mills was 5.97 ton (19.9% of FFB). In the processing of oil palm into CPO, there was unprocessed oil which amounted to 0.102 ton (1.68% of CPO output). Furthermore, the potential of solid waste generated by palm oil mills with a capacity of 30 ton/hr is equal to 15,380.20 kg/hr or 51.27% of fresh fruit bunches (FFB) consisting of empthy fruit bunches (26.27%), fibers (17.83%) and shells (6.47%). On the other hand, the amount of the liquid wastes generated are equal to 16,814.23 kg/hr or 58% with the composition of the wastes that consisted of sludge (64.62%) and water (35.38%). To meet the energy requirements of the palm oil mills, the solid wastes can be converted into biohydrogen, biogas and bioethanol, while the the liquid wastes can be converted into biogas and biohydrogen and water sources. The station with the highest value of energy input/ output is the Sterilizer Station by 385,008 MJ/hr. The total energy produced by the by-product of palm oil mills was equal to 42,865 MJ/hr consisting of the three largest components, namely condensate water (16,063 MJ/hr), fibers (2,722 MJ/hr) and shells (8,104 MJ/hr). The potential of untapped energy produced by palm oil mills using the appropriate technology can be used as a source of energy. References Abdul, M., Jahim, J.Md., Harun, S., Markom, M., Hassan, O., Mohammad, A.W., Asis, A.J. (2013). Biohydrogen production from pentose-rich oil palm empty fruit bunch molasses: A first trial. International Journal Of Hydrogen Energy 38 : 15693-15699 Ahmad, A.L., Ismail, S., Bhatia, S. (2003). Water Recycling From Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME) Using Membrane Technology. Desalination, 157: 87-95. Badiei, M., Jahim, J.M., Anuar, N., Abdullah, S.R.S. (2011). Effect Of Hydraulic Retention Time On Biohydrogen Production From Palm Oil Mill Effluent in Anaerobic Sequencing Batch Reactor. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 36 (10): 5912–5919. Badiei, M., Jahim, J.M., Anuar, N., Abdullah, S.R.S. (2012). Microbial Community Analysis Of Mixed Anaerobic Microflora in Suspended Sludge Of ASBR Producing Hydrogen From Palm Oil Mill Effluent. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 37 (4): 3169–3176.
  • 8. Chemistry and Materials Research www.iiste.org ISSN 2224- 3224 (Print) ISSN 2225- 0956 (Online) Vol.6 No.8, 2014 Chavalparit, W.H., Rulkens, A.P.J. Mol, S. Khaodhair. (2006). Options For Environmental Sustainability Of The Crude Palm Oil Industry In Thailand Through Enhancement Of Industrial Ecosystems. Environment Development and Sustainability, 8: 271–287. Chiew, Y.L., Shimada S. (2013). Current state and environmental impact assessment for utilizing oil palm empty fruit bunches for fuel, fiber and fertilizer e A case study of Malaysia. Biomass And Bioenergy, 51: 109- 120. Choi, W.H., Shin, C.H., Son, S.M., Ghorpade, P.A., Kim, J.J., Joo-Yang Park, J.Y. (2013). Anaerobic Treatment Of Palm Oil Mill Effluent Using Combined High-Rate Anaerobic Reactors. Bioresource Technology, 141: 138–144. Chong P.S., J. M. Jahim, S. Harun, S.S. Lim, S. A. Mutalib, O.Hassan, M. T.Mohd Nor. 2013. Enhancement of batch biohydrogen production from prehydrolysate of acid treated oil palm empty fruit bunch. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 38 : 9592-9599 Ohimain, E.I., Izah, S.C., Obieze F.A.U. (2013). Material-mass Balance of Smallholder Oil Palm Processing in the Niger Delta Nigeria. Advance Journal of Food Science and Technology, 5(3): 289-294. Gobi, K., Vadivelu, V.M. (2013). By-products Of Palm Oil Mill Effluent Treatment Plant – A Step Towards Sustainability. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 28:788–803. Husain, Z., Zainal, Z. A., Abdullah, M. Z. (2003). Analysis of biomass-residue-based cogeneration system in palm oil mills. Biomass and Bioenergy, 24: 117-124. Ismail, I., Hassan, M.A., Rahman, N.A.A., Soon, C.S. (2010). Thermophilic Biohydrogen Production From Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME) Using Suspended Mixed Culture. Biomass and Bioenergy, 34 (1): 42–47. Kalinci Y., Hepbasli, A., Dincer, I. (2011). Comparative exergetic performance analysis of hydrogen production from oil palm wastes and some other biomasses. International Journal Of Hydrogen Energy, 36: 11399- 11407. Mahlia, T.M.I., Abdulmuin, M.Z., Alamsyah, T.M.I., Mukhlishien, D. (2001). An Alternative Energy Source from Palm Waste Industry for Malaysia And Indonesia. Energy Conversion and Management, Vol.42, No.18, 2109-2118, ISSN 0196-8904 Nasution, M. A., Herawan, T., Rivani, M. (2014). Analysis of Palm Biomass as Electricity from Palm Oil Mills in North Sumatera. Energy Procedia, 47: 166 -172. Pardamean, M. (2008). Complete Guide to Management of Plantation and Palm Oil Mill. Agromedia. Jakarta. O-Thong S., Boe, K., Angelidaki, I. (2012). Thermophilic Anaerobic Co-Digestion of Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunches With Palm Oil Mill Effluent for Efficient Biogas Production. Applied Energy, 93: 648–654. Ohimain, E. I., Izah, S. C.,(2014), Potential of biogas production from palm oil mills’ effluent in Nigeria, Sky Journal of Soil Science and Environmental Management, 3(5):50 - 58 Pahan, I. (2006). Complete Guide to Palm Oil: Agribusiness Management from Upstream to Downstream. 53 Swadaya Co. Jakarta. Perry, R.H., Green, D. (1997). Perry’s Chemical Engineer’s Handbook. 7th ed. New York: Mc.Graw-Hill. Poh, P.E., Chong, M.F. (2010). Thermophilic Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME) Treatment Using A Mixed Culture Cultivated From POME. Chemical Engineering Transactions, 21: 811-816. Singh, L., Siddiqui, M.F., Ahmad, A., Rahim, M.H.A., Wahid, Z.A., Sakinah, M. (2013). Biohydrogen Production From Palm Oil Mill Effluent Using Immobilized Mixed Culture. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 19: 659–664. Singh, L., Wahid, Z.A., Siddiqui, M.F., Rahim, M.H.A., Sakinah, M., Ahmad, A. (2013). Biohydrogen Production From Palm Oil Mill Effluent Using Immobilized Clostridium Butyricum EB6 in Polyethylene Glycol. Process Biochemistry, 48: 294–298. Singh, L., Wahid, Z.A., Siddiqui, M.F., Ahmad, A., Rahim, M.H.A., Sakinah, M. (2013). Application Of Immobilized Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Reactor Using Clostridium LS2 For Enhanced Biohydrogen Production And Treatment Efficiency Of Palm Oil Mill Effluent. International Journal Of Hydrogen Energy, 38: 2221-2229. Yanni Sudiyani, Dyah Styarini, Eka Triwahyuni, Sudiyarmanto, Kiky C. Sembiring, Yosi Aristiawan, Haznan Abimanyu, Min Hee Han Sudiyani, Y., Styarini, D., Triwahyuni, E., Sudiyarmanto, Sembiring, K.C., Aristiawan, Y., Abimanyu, H., Han, M.H. (2013). Utilization Of Biomass Waste Empty Fruit Bunch Fiber Of Palm Oil For Bioethanol Production Using Pilot – Scale Unit. International Conference on Sustainable Energy Engineering and Application [ICSEEA 2012]. Energy Procedia, 32: 31-38. Yoshizaki, T., Shirai, Y., Hassan, M.A., Baharuddin, A.S., Abdullah, N.M.R., Sulaiman, A., Busu, Z. (2013). Investigation of Oil Palm Frond Properties for Use as Biomaterials and Biofuels. Journal of Cleaner Production, 44: 1-7. Yusoff, S. (2006). Renewable Energy From Palm Ol – Innovation of Effective Utilization of Waste. Journal of Cleaner Production, 14: 87-93.
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