1. Lecturer :
Javad Ghasemi

2.  Historical perspective:
nation estate and monolingualism
 The emergence of historical idea is that a ‘normal’
nation is monolingual.
 European or classical concept of nation: the
inseparability of the people’s language and state.
 All classical nation estate in their histories experienced
processes of aggressive assimilation of linguistic
minorities.
 Monolingualism
 Bilingualism

3. the different ways ‘multilingualism’ is used
are linked to three sources of variability
 the individual versus social dimension
 the number of languages involved
 and the level of proficiency in the different languages.
multilingualism implies ‘multiple’ languages;
 ‘bilingualism’ is used when referring to ‘two languages’

4. Types of bilingual education:
 The term ‘bilingualism’ is used when referring
specifically to models or types of education.
 Bilingual education schemes have been established to
served the needs or demands of certain groups of
socialites not for societies as a whole.

5. additive versus subtractive bilingualism
 privileged groups : there is no doubt about the
usefulness of bilingual education
 less privileged groups: such doubts are justified.
 Jim Cummins, has brought this difference to
attention; he introduced the notions of additive versus
subtractive bilingualism for its description and
pointed to the power relation in its background: In a
situation of well-being, bilingualism is presented as a
means of enrichment for an individual, whereas in
underprivileged situations the individual seems to run
a risk by being bilingual