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Private speech: self-talk that guides thinking and action. Language is not only
important in our social interactions, but it helps us to accomplish tasks. This is why
most people talk to themselves.

                                  Vygotsky


              Social                  Cognitive
                                     Development                  Language
           Interactions




                                Cultural Context

Sociocultural theory of development: emphasizes the crucial influence that social
interactions and language, embedded within a cultural context, have on cognitive
development. Remember: the word “sociocultural” has two words in it: “social” and
“cultural.” These are the important influences on development that Vygotsky identified.
Co-construction of cognition
 Higher mental processes are co-
  constructed during shared activities
  between the child and another person.
 This means that a child and an older
  person (another child, a teacher, a parent)
  work together to solve a problem. During
  the process, they often talk and negotiate
  the solution.
Co-construction of cognition

This child is learning to                            Soon, this child will be able
walk with the help of a                              to walk and run by herself.
parent. The parent holds
both hands so the child
doesn’t have to focus on
both balance and moving
her feet.




   As you might imagine, it takes a lot of brain power to walk. Children
   develop this skill with the help of other people. This is what Vygotsky is
   talking about with the idea of the co-construction of cognition.
Co-construction of cognition
            What are you
              writing?
                                                       I’m writing a
                                                           letter

 Father’s knowledge of
 letters:                                               Child’s knowledge of
 Structure (date,                                       letters:
 salutation, body, etc.)                                Mom and dad write and
 Purpose (friendly, formal,                             receive letters.
 etc.)
 Conventional spelling
 and grammar

In a conversation like this, the child can draw on the father’s experience to help
her to construct her letter. The father can ask questions to make sure he is helping
his daughter reach the goals she has set for herself. She may not be able to write
the letter on her own, but through talking with her dad, she will be able to
construct something satisfactory. At the same time, she is learning so she will be
more able to write a letter by herself the next time.
Cultural tools
   Higher order thinking is mediated through
    material tools and language
Mediation
                                                We speak language but
This means that while we                          are spoken by it.
use language, the language
we use limits our thoughts.
If a language is not able to
express a concept, we are
not able to think that
                                                 Users of Roman numerals
concept.
                                                 had no concept of zero and
                                                 were not able to think about
                                                 or do mathematics we use in
                                                 everyday life (multiplication
                                                 and division of large
                                                 numbers).
                                                 English, which includes
                               Jacques Lacan
                                                 aspects of German, French,
                               (French
                                                 and Greek, is a rich language
                               psychoanalyst)
                                                 that can express many
                                                 concepts—yet Greek has
                                                 more ways of defining types
                                                 of love than English.
Language and Cultural Diversity
 Every culture has the words it needs for
  its lifestyle.
 But many words cannot be translated into
  other cultures, because they do not have
  corresponding words for these functions.
Language and cultural diversity




Western cultures organize color by the spectrum. We have many different names
for colors (think: avocado, puce, burnt sienna, and remember the 64 crayolas).

But other cultures don’t organize colors in this way. They may think of two broad
categories (warm and cold colors) or they may organize colors in relation to
texture.
Language and cultural diversity




People who make their living on ice need lots of words to describe types of ice (various
forms of safe and unsafe ice). These concepts are foreign to anyone who has lived in
Florida all his or her life. Floridians don’t have the language available to think about ice.
Language and Private Speech
                                                          Let’s see… I need to
                                                          click on this link and
Private speech:                                              then type in the
Children’s self-talk,                                       name of the file I
which guides their                                               want…
thinking and actions.
Eventually, these
verbalizations are
internalized as silent
inner speech.




   You are not crazy if you talk to yourself. According to Vygotsky, this is an
   important way we learn.
Vygotsky vs. Piaget on private
                  speech
   Piaget called children’s talking to themselves
    “egocentric speech.” It is evidence of their
    immaturity (inability to see another’s perspective).
   Vygotsky sees private speech as a way of children
    learning to regulate themselves. They are
    controlled initially by parents’ speech (“NO!!”) and
    then they use that tactic to control themselves.
   Eventually, the speech becomes silent inner
    speech, mostly, although adults still talk to
    themselves when they are trying to solve a
    problem.
Private speech in the classroom
              I gotta go                                            S is like a
            down, then up,                                        sssssssnake.
             then down.
              There. N.




Not only should you allow private speech in the classroom, but you can also model
the type of private speech that is helpful for doing a task. This is called a “think
aloud.” As a teacher, you demonstrate to students not only how to do something
but the things you say to yourself as you are doing it.
A range of tasks that an individual cannot yet do alone but can accomplish when
assisted by a more skilled partner.

                    Zone of Proximal Development




                             Zone of Proximal Development:
The Known:                                                       The Unknown:
                              What I can do with the help
What I can do by myself                                          What I cannot do at all
                                    of someone else.
                                 THE LEARNING SPACE




How to remember the words: A             WHEN YOU TEACH—you will want to use
zone is an area. Proximal                activities that are in students’ ZPD. Activities
describes something that is next         in the area of the known are too easy and
to something.                            those in the area of the unknown are too
                                         hard.
The role of learning and
            development
 Piaget: development is the active
  construction of knowledge and learning is
  the passive formation of associations.
 Vygotsky: learning is an active process
  that does not have to wait for “readiness.”
   Learning is a tool in development—it
  drives development.
What???


Development                       Piaget                        Learning




   Piaget: development precedes learning. Development is creating the
   schemes through adaptation and accommodation while learning is
   creating the associations within the schemes..
What???, continued


         Social                   Vygotsky                        Individual




       Vygotsky believed that development begins at the social level and moves
       towards individual internalization. Egocentric speech is seen as a transition
       between the child's learning language in a social communicative context,
       and attempting to internalize it as "private" or "inner speech" (i.e.,
       thoughts). For Vygotsky, learning precedes development.




http://www.gse.buffalo.edu/fas/shuell/CEP564/Lectures/CogDev.htm
What???, continued


   They both agree: development is driven by cognitive conflict—the
   inability to do something by oneself.




http://www.gse.buffalo.edu/fas/shuell/CEP564/Lectures/CogDev.htm
Limitations of Vygotsky’s theory
   Maybe he went too far with the socio-cultural
    part of his theory
   Maybe people are “hardwired” for much of what
    we learn early on—that we are not always just
    learning from peers, teachers, or parents.
   Vygotsky never got to explore the details of his
    theory and much of the research of his students
    was repressed by the regime in Soviet Russia.
Implications for teachers: Piaget
 We need to understand and build on
  student thinking.
 Students need opportunities to construct
  their knowledge—to try things out for
  themselves.
 “Play is children’s work” (Montessori).
  Play helps children to develop their
  cognitive abilities.
Implications for teachers: Vygotsky
   Adults and peers are critical to the learning
    process through scaffolding (support for learning
    and problem solving. The support could be
    clues, reminders, encouragement, breaking the
    problem down into steps, proiding and example,
    or anything else that allows the student to grow
    in independence as a learner).
   Assisted learning: providing strategic help in the
    initial stages of learning, gradually diminishing
    as students gain independence.
   Teaching in the Zone—not too hard, not too
    easy, but JUST RIGHT.
Assistance that allows students to complete tasks they cannot complete independently.

                                Scaffolding
             Teacher




Activity
Level
For a
Task



                  Child

           Time

As a child develops skills and confidence, he or she “takes over” the activity. The teacher
does less and less.
Examples of scaffolds
   Modeling—students watch teacher do a task
   Think-alouds—teacher models helpful thinking
    and strategies while accomplishing a task (e.g.,
    what to think while trying to read an unfamiliar
    word)
   Adapting—use simplified version of something
   Instructional materials—manipulatives help
    students to learn math
   Prompts and cues— “i before e except after c”
    or other ways of remembering information and
    processes.
Examples of scaffolds
   Math: manipulatives, graphing calculators
   Music: simplified notation, “ta and ti ti,” teacher bows
    violin while student notes fingerboard
   Reading: repetitive language books (child memorizes
    repeated phrase and can “read” it); these reading guides
    are scaffolds for understanding and applying difficult
    concepts in educational psychology
   Writing: teacher helps student to form alphabet letters;
    teacher provides forms for poems until students feel
    more confident about developing their own poetic forms
   Science: lab book guides students as they learn to write
    up experiments in scientific form
Funds of Knowledge
   There used to be an egocentrism about
    American schools: if a student came from the
    dominant culture he or she was all right. But if
    a student came from a non-dominant culture, he
    or she had deficits that had to be made up.
    These might be deficits of knowledge (e.g.,
    coming from a family that didn’t read meant
    learning how to use a book on the first day of
    school) or deficits in language (speaking a non-
    standard dialect) or deficits in behavior that
    derives from cultural experiences.
Funds of Knowledge
   People treat people with perceived deficits
    differently from the way they treat people
    they perceive of as “normal.” People with
    deficits are thought of as people with
    “problems,” people who need to change
    something fundamental about themselves,
    people who are somehow “less than” the
    normal people.
Funds of knowledge
   Yet all children who come to school are
    blessed with “funds of knowledge”—
    knowledge that families and community
    members have in many areas of work,
    home, and religious life that can be a
    basis for teaching.
For example…
       Children from non-dominant cultures may
        have a language (a variant of English or a
        foreign language) with a rich history and
        poetry. For example, Appalachian English
        is not “bad” English—it’s a form of
        Elizabethan English (the language of
        Shakespeare) that survived in the hills.


Heritage language: the language spoken in a student’s home or by older members of
the family. Students who “Americanize” or who strive to become part of the dominant
culture can lose their heritage language and therefore their family history and culture.
Appalachian Dialect
   Features of Elizabethan English (the language used around
    Shakespeare’s time) “I reckon” for “I think.” “Ary” for “any.”
   Drop unaccented first syllables, add “r” to final syllables that
    end in –o. “Tobacco” becomes “backer,” “tomato” becomes
    “mater,” “potato” becomes “tater.” This is why some of those
    phonics worksheets don’t work for children from Appalachia
    (“tomato” begins with an “m” sound, not a “t” sound. If you
    want a “t” sound, try “tater”).
   Words ending in –a are pronounced to end in –y. “Martha” is
    pronounced “Marthy.”
   If a first syllable is typically unaccented but necessary, it
    becomes accented: Ja- PAN becomes JA-pan, umBRELLa
    becomes UMbrella, hoTEL become HOtel, poLICE becomes
    POlice.
   “I don’t care to” means “I’d like to,” NOT “I’d rather not.”
Advantages to Appalachian dialect
  “Rabbit in a log” in                      “Rabbit in a log” in
    Appalachian dialect:                      “school” English
  There’s a rabbit in a log                 There’s a rabbit in a log
    and I ain’t got no dog                    and I don’t have any
                                              dog.


Artistically speaking, Appalachian dialect is perfectly appropriate for important
Appalachian art forms such as songs and story telling as well as for cultural events
such as family interactions. Students should celebrate their dialectical backgrounds,
learn how to translate home dialect into school dialect, and learn how to operate
competently in both dialects. It is helpful to bring in examples of home dialects and
to translate between dialects. It is also a good idea to talk about when certain
dialects are appropriate.
For example…, continued
   Children from non-dominant families may know
    important survival skills. If their parents are in
    the construction business, they may know a lot
    about tools and construction. If they don’t have
    a lot of money, they may know a lot about how
    to substitute one thing for another when
    something has broken down. If their parents
    aren’t able to read, they may know a lot about
    how to get necessary information without
    reading.
Funds of Knowledge
   The point of this idea is to start with students’
    strengths and to bring the rest of their lives into
    the classroom as a means of engaging them in
    classroom learning.
   This means talking with students and their
    families and learning about what their lives are
    like. It means looking for their strengths rather
    than seeing them as a collection of weaknesses.
Concrete                        Vocabulary
Accommodation      operational
                     stage

                                      Funds of        Neo-Piagetian    Preoperational       Social
  Adaptation      Conservation
                                     knowledge          theories           stage         development

 Adolescent                           Heritage                           Private            Social
                  Compensation                          Neurons
 egocentrism                          language                           speech           experience

                                                                                         Sociocultural
                                                         Object
 Assimilation     Cultural tools    Holophrases                        Reversability       theory of
                                                      permanence
                                                                                         development

   Assisted
                   Decentering        Identity        Organization     Scaffolding        Synapses
   learning

                                                         Over-
  Centration      Development      Lateralization     generalization
                                                                        Schemes             Syntax


                                                       Personal          Semiotic         Systematic
 Classification   Disequilibrium    Maturation
                                                      development        function         reasoning

Co-constructed                     Metalinguistic       Physical        Sensori-
                  Egocentrism                                                           Transformation
    process                         awareness         development      motor stage

  Cognitive                                                                                Under-
                   Equilibrium      Myelination         Plasticity       Seriation
 development                                                                            generalization

                     Formal                                                                Zone of
  Collective                          Nativist                            Shared
                   operational                         Pragmatics                          proximal
  monologue                           theory                           understanding
                      stage                                                              development

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Vygotsky

  • 1. Private speech: self-talk that guides thinking and action. Language is not only important in our social interactions, but it helps us to accomplish tasks. This is why most people talk to themselves. Vygotsky Social Cognitive Development Language Interactions Cultural Context Sociocultural theory of development: emphasizes the crucial influence that social interactions and language, embedded within a cultural context, have on cognitive development. Remember: the word “sociocultural” has two words in it: “social” and “cultural.” These are the important influences on development that Vygotsky identified.
  • 2. Co-construction of cognition  Higher mental processes are co- constructed during shared activities between the child and another person.  This means that a child and an older person (another child, a teacher, a parent) work together to solve a problem. During the process, they often talk and negotiate the solution.
  • 3. Co-construction of cognition This child is learning to Soon, this child will be able walk with the help of a to walk and run by herself. parent. The parent holds both hands so the child doesn’t have to focus on both balance and moving her feet. As you might imagine, it takes a lot of brain power to walk. Children develop this skill with the help of other people. This is what Vygotsky is talking about with the idea of the co-construction of cognition.
  • 4. Co-construction of cognition What are you writing? I’m writing a letter Father’s knowledge of letters: Child’s knowledge of Structure (date, letters: salutation, body, etc.) Mom and dad write and Purpose (friendly, formal, receive letters. etc.) Conventional spelling and grammar In a conversation like this, the child can draw on the father’s experience to help her to construct her letter. The father can ask questions to make sure he is helping his daughter reach the goals she has set for herself. She may not be able to write the letter on her own, but through talking with her dad, she will be able to construct something satisfactory. At the same time, she is learning so she will be more able to write a letter by herself the next time.
  • 5. Cultural tools  Higher order thinking is mediated through material tools and language
  • 6. Mediation We speak language but This means that while we are spoken by it. use language, the language we use limits our thoughts. If a language is not able to express a concept, we are not able to think that Users of Roman numerals concept. had no concept of zero and were not able to think about or do mathematics we use in everyday life (multiplication and division of large numbers). English, which includes Jacques Lacan aspects of German, French, (French and Greek, is a rich language psychoanalyst) that can express many concepts—yet Greek has more ways of defining types of love than English.
  • 7. Language and Cultural Diversity  Every culture has the words it needs for its lifestyle.  But many words cannot be translated into other cultures, because they do not have corresponding words for these functions.
  • 8. Language and cultural diversity Western cultures organize color by the spectrum. We have many different names for colors (think: avocado, puce, burnt sienna, and remember the 64 crayolas). But other cultures don’t organize colors in this way. They may think of two broad categories (warm and cold colors) or they may organize colors in relation to texture.
  • 9. Language and cultural diversity People who make their living on ice need lots of words to describe types of ice (various forms of safe and unsafe ice). These concepts are foreign to anyone who has lived in Florida all his or her life. Floridians don’t have the language available to think about ice.
  • 10. Language and Private Speech Let’s see… I need to click on this link and Private speech: then type in the Children’s self-talk, name of the file I which guides their want… thinking and actions. Eventually, these verbalizations are internalized as silent inner speech. You are not crazy if you talk to yourself. According to Vygotsky, this is an important way we learn.
  • 11. Vygotsky vs. Piaget on private speech  Piaget called children’s talking to themselves “egocentric speech.” It is evidence of their immaturity (inability to see another’s perspective).  Vygotsky sees private speech as a way of children learning to regulate themselves. They are controlled initially by parents’ speech (“NO!!”) and then they use that tactic to control themselves.  Eventually, the speech becomes silent inner speech, mostly, although adults still talk to themselves when they are trying to solve a problem.
  • 12. Private speech in the classroom I gotta go S is like a down, then up, sssssssnake. then down. There. N. Not only should you allow private speech in the classroom, but you can also model the type of private speech that is helpful for doing a task. This is called a “think aloud.” As a teacher, you demonstrate to students not only how to do something but the things you say to yourself as you are doing it.
  • 13. A range of tasks that an individual cannot yet do alone but can accomplish when assisted by a more skilled partner. Zone of Proximal Development Zone of Proximal Development: The Known: The Unknown: What I can do with the help What I can do by myself What I cannot do at all of someone else. THE LEARNING SPACE How to remember the words: A WHEN YOU TEACH—you will want to use zone is an area. Proximal activities that are in students’ ZPD. Activities describes something that is next in the area of the known are too easy and to something. those in the area of the unknown are too hard.
  • 14. The role of learning and development  Piaget: development is the active construction of knowledge and learning is the passive formation of associations.  Vygotsky: learning is an active process that does not have to wait for “readiness.” Learning is a tool in development—it drives development.
  • 15. What??? Development Piaget Learning Piaget: development precedes learning. Development is creating the schemes through adaptation and accommodation while learning is creating the associations within the schemes..
  • 16. What???, continued Social Vygotsky Individual Vygotsky believed that development begins at the social level and moves towards individual internalization. Egocentric speech is seen as a transition between the child's learning language in a social communicative context, and attempting to internalize it as "private" or "inner speech" (i.e., thoughts). For Vygotsky, learning precedes development. http://www.gse.buffalo.edu/fas/shuell/CEP564/Lectures/CogDev.htm
  • 17. What???, continued They both agree: development is driven by cognitive conflict—the inability to do something by oneself. http://www.gse.buffalo.edu/fas/shuell/CEP564/Lectures/CogDev.htm
  • 18. Limitations of Vygotsky’s theory  Maybe he went too far with the socio-cultural part of his theory  Maybe people are “hardwired” for much of what we learn early on—that we are not always just learning from peers, teachers, or parents.  Vygotsky never got to explore the details of his theory and much of the research of his students was repressed by the regime in Soviet Russia.
  • 19. Implications for teachers: Piaget  We need to understand and build on student thinking.  Students need opportunities to construct their knowledge—to try things out for themselves.  “Play is children’s work” (Montessori). Play helps children to develop their cognitive abilities.
  • 20. Implications for teachers: Vygotsky  Adults and peers are critical to the learning process through scaffolding (support for learning and problem solving. The support could be clues, reminders, encouragement, breaking the problem down into steps, proiding and example, or anything else that allows the student to grow in independence as a learner).  Assisted learning: providing strategic help in the initial stages of learning, gradually diminishing as students gain independence.  Teaching in the Zone—not too hard, not too easy, but JUST RIGHT.
  • 21. Assistance that allows students to complete tasks they cannot complete independently. Scaffolding Teacher Activity Level For a Task Child Time As a child develops skills and confidence, he or she “takes over” the activity. The teacher does less and less.
  • 22. Examples of scaffolds  Modeling—students watch teacher do a task  Think-alouds—teacher models helpful thinking and strategies while accomplishing a task (e.g., what to think while trying to read an unfamiliar word)  Adapting—use simplified version of something  Instructional materials—manipulatives help students to learn math  Prompts and cues— “i before e except after c” or other ways of remembering information and processes.
  • 23. Examples of scaffolds  Math: manipulatives, graphing calculators  Music: simplified notation, “ta and ti ti,” teacher bows violin while student notes fingerboard  Reading: repetitive language books (child memorizes repeated phrase and can “read” it); these reading guides are scaffolds for understanding and applying difficult concepts in educational psychology  Writing: teacher helps student to form alphabet letters; teacher provides forms for poems until students feel more confident about developing their own poetic forms  Science: lab book guides students as they learn to write up experiments in scientific form
  • 24. Funds of Knowledge  There used to be an egocentrism about American schools: if a student came from the dominant culture he or she was all right. But if a student came from a non-dominant culture, he or she had deficits that had to be made up. These might be deficits of knowledge (e.g., coming from a family that didn’t read meant learning how to use a book on the first day of school) or deficits in language (speaking a non- standard dialect) or deficits in behavior that derives from cultural experiences.
  • 25. Funds of Knowledge  People treat people with perceived deficits differently from the way they treat people they perceive of as “normal.” People with deficits are thought of as people with “problems,” people who need to change something fundamental about themselves, people who are somehow “less than” the normal people.
  • 26. Funds of knowledge  Yet all children who come to school are blessed with “funds of knowledge”— knowledge that families and community members have in many areas of work, home, and religious life that can be a basis for teaching.
  • 27. For example…  Children from non-dominant cultures may have a language (a variant of English or a foreign language) with a rich history and poetry. For example, Appalachian English is not “bad” English—it’s a form of Elizabethan English (the language of Shakespeare) that survived in the hills. Heritage language: the language spoken in a student’s home or by older members of the family. Students who “Americanize” or who strive to become part of the dominant culture can lose their heritage language and therefore their family history and culture.
  • 28. Appalachian Dialect  Features of Elizabethan English (the language used around Shakespeare’s time) “I reckon” for “I think.” “Ary” for “any.”  Drop unaccented first syllables, add “r” to final syllables that end in –o. “Tobacco” becomes “backer,” “tomato” becomes “mater,” “potato” becomes “tater.” This is why some of those phonics worksheets don’t work for children from Appalachia (“tomato” begins with an “m” sound, not a “t” sound. If you want a “t” sound, try “tater”).  Words ending in –a are pronounced to end in –y. “Martha” is pronounced “Marthy.”  If a first syllable is typically unaccented but necessary, it becomes accented: Ja- PAN becomes JA-pan, umBRELLa becomes UMbrella, hoTEL become HOtel, poLICE becomes POlice.  “I don’t care to” means “I’d like to,” NOT “I’d rather not.”
  • 29. Advantages to Appalachian dialect “Rabbit in a log” in “Rabbit in a log” in Appalachian dialect: “school” English There’s a rabbit in a log There’s a rabbit in a log and I ain’t got no dog and I don’t have any dog. Artistically speaking, Appalachian dialect is perfectly appropriate for important Appalachian art forms such as songs and story telling as well as for cultural events such as family interactions. Students should celebrate their dialectical backgrounds, learn how to translate home dialect into school dialect, and learn how to operate competently in both dialects. It is helpful to bring in examples of home dialects and to translate between dialects. It is also a good idea to talk about when certain dialects are appropriate.
  • 30. For example…, continued  Children from non-dominant families may know important survival skills. If their parents are in the construction business, they may know a lot about tools and construction. If they don’t have a lot of money, they may know a lot about how to substitute one thing for another when something has broken down. If their parents aren’t able to read, they may know a lot about how to get necessary information without reading.
  • 31. Funds of Knowledge  The point of this idea is to start with students’ strengths and to bring the rest of their lives into the classroom as a means of engaging them in classroom learning.  This means talking with students and their families and learning about what their lives are like. It means looking for their strengths rather than seeing them as a collection of weaknesses.
  • 32. Concrete Vocabulary Accommodation operational stage Funds of Neo-Piagetian Preoperational Social Adaptation Conservation knowledge theories stage development Adolescent Heritage Private Social Compensation Neurons egocentrism language speech experience Sociocultural Object Assimilation Cultural tools Holophrases Reversability theory of permanence development Assisted Decentering Identity Organization Scaffolding Synapses learning Over- Centration Development Lateralization generalization Schemes Syntax Personal Semiotic Systematic Classification Disequilibrium Maturation development function reasoning Co-constructed Metalinguistic Physical Sensori- Egocentrism Transformation process awareness development motor stage Cognitive Under- Equilibrium Myelination Plasticity Seriation development generalization Formal Zone of Collective Nativist Shared operational Pragmatics proximal monologue theory understanding stage development