1. Period1: TechnologicalandEnvironmental Transformations,toc.600B.C.E.
KeyConcept1.1.BigGeographyandthePeoplingof theEarth
ThetermBigGeographydrawsattentiontotheglobalnatureofworld
history.ThroughoutthePaleolithicperiod,humansmigratedfromAfrica
toEurasia,Australia,andtheAmericas.Early humansweremobileand
creativeinadaptingtodifferentgeographicalsettingsfromsavannato desert
toIceAgetundra.Bymaking ananalogywithmodernhunterforagersocieties,anthropologistsinferthatthesebandswererelatively
egalitarian.Humansalsodevelopedvariedandsophisticated technologies.
I. ArcheologicalevidenceindicatesthatduringthePaleolithicera, huntingforagingbandsofhumansgraduallymigratedfromtheir origininEastAfricatoEurasia,
Australia,andtheAmericas,adapting theirtechnologyandculturestonewclimateregions.
A. Humansusedfireinnewways:toaidhuntingandforaging,toprotect
againstpredators,andtoadapttocoldenvironments.
B. Humansdevelopedawiderrangeoftoolsspeciallyadaptedto
differentenvironmentsfromtropicstotundra.
C. Economicstructuresfocusedonsmallkinshipgroupsofhuntingforagingbandsthatcouldmakewhattheyneededtosurvive.However,not allgroupswereselfsufficient;theyexchangedpeople,ideas,andgoods.
KeyConcept1.2.The NeolithicRevolutionandEarly AgriculturalSocieties
Inresponse
towarming
climatesat
theendofthelastIceAge,from
about10,000yearsago,somegroupsadaptedtotheenvironmentin
newways,whileothersremainedhunter-foragers.Settledagriculture
appearedinseveraldifferentpartsoftheworld.Theswitchtoagriculture
createdamorereliable,butnotnecessarily
morediversified,foodsupply.
Agriculturalistsalsohadamassiveimpactontheenvironmentthrough
intensivecultivation
ofselectedplantstotheexclusionofothers,through
theconstructionofirrigationsystems,andthroughtheuseofdomesticated
animalsforfoodandforlabor.Populationsincreased;familygroupsgave
waytovillagelifeand,later,tourbanlifewithallitscomplexity.Patriarchy
andforcedlaborsystemsdeveloped,givingelitemenconcentratedpower overmostoftheotherpeoplein
theirsocieties.Pastoralismemergedin
partsofAfricaandEurasia.Pastoralpeoplesdomesticatedanimalsand
ledtheirherdsaroundgrazingranges.Likeagriculturalists,pastoralists
tendedtobemoresociallystratifiedthanhunter-foragers.Because
pastoralistsweremobile,theyrarelyaccumulatedlargeamountsofmaterial
possessions,whichwouldhavebeenahindrancewhentheychanged
grazingareas.Thepastoralists’mobilityallowedthemtobecomean
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2. importantconduitfortechnologicalchangeastheyinteractedwithsettled populations.
I.
Beginningabout10,000yearsago,theNeolithicRevolutionled
tothedevelopmentofnewandmorecomplexeconomicandsocial systems.
A. Possiblyasaresponse toclimaticchange,permanentagricultural villagesemergedfirstin
thelandsoftheeasternMediterranean. Agricultureemergedat
differenttimesinMesopotamia,theNileRiver Valley andSubSaharanAfrica,theIndusRiverValley,theYellowRiveror
HuangHeValley,PapuaNewGuinea,Mesoamerica,andtheAndes.
B. Pastoralismdevelopedat varioussitesin thegrasslandsofAfro- Eurasia
C. Differentcropsoranimalsweredomesticatedin thevariouscore
regions,dependingonavailablelocalfloraandfauna.
D. Agriculturalcommunitieshadtoworkcooperatively toclearlandand
createthewatercontrolsystemsneededforcropproduction.
E. Theseagriculturalpracticesdrasticallyimpactedenvironmental
diversity.Pastoralistsalsoaffectedtheenvironmentbygrazinglarge
numbersofanimalsonfragilegrasslands,leadingtoerosionwhen overgrazed.
II. Agricultureandpastoralismbegantotransformhumansocieties.
A. Pastoralismandagricultureledtomorereliableandabundantfood
supplies,whichincreasedthepopulation.
B. Surplusesoffoodandothergoodsledtospecializationoflabor,
includingnewclassesofartisansandwarriors, andthedevelopmentof elites.
C. Technologicalinnovationsledtoimprovementsinagricultural production,trade,and
transportation
Requiredexamplesofimprovements inagriculturalproduction, trade, andtransportation
Pottery
Plows
Woven textiles
Metallurgy
Wheels and wheeled vehicles
D. Inbothpastoralistandagrariansocieties,elitegroupsaccumulated
wealth,creatingmorehierarchicalsocial structuresandpromoting
patriarchalformsofsocial organization.
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3. KeyConcept1.3.The DevelopmentandInteractionsof Early
Agricultural,Pastoral,andUrbanSocieties
Fromabout5,000yearsago,urbansocietiesdeveloped,layingthe
foundationsforthefirstcivilizations.Thetermcivilizationisnormallyused
todesignatelargesocietieswithcitiesandpowerfulstates.Whilethereweremanydifferences
betweencivilizations,theyalsosharedimportant features.They
allproducedagriculturalsurplusesthatpermittedsignificant
specializationoflabor.Allcivilizationscontainedcitiesandgenerated
complexinstitutions,suchaspoliticalbureaucracies,armies,andreligious hierarchies.They
alsofeaturedclearlystratifiedsocial hierarchiesand organizedlong-distance tradingrelationships.
Economicexchanges intensifiedwithinandbetweencivilizations,aswellaswithnomadic
pastoralists.
Aspopulationsgrew,competitionforsurplusresources,especiallyfood, ledtogreatersocial
stratification,specializationoflabor,increasedtrade,
morecomplexsystemsofgovernmentandreligion,andthedevelopment
ofrecordkeeping.Ascivilizationsexpanded,theyhadtobalancetheir
needformoreresourceswithenvironmentalconstraintssuchasthe
dangerofunderminingsoilfertility.Finally,theaccumulationofwealthin
settledcommunitiesspurredwarfarebetweencommunitiesand/orwith pastoralists;this
violencedrovethedevelopmentofnewtechnologiesof warandurbandefense.
I.
Coreandfoundationalcivilizationsdevelopedinavarietyof
andenvironmentalsettingswhereagricultureflourished.
geographical
Students
shouldbeabletoidentifythelocationofallofthefollowing
requiredexamplesofcoreandfoundationalcivilizations:
• Mesopotamiain theTigrisandEuphratesRiverValleys
• Egyptin theNileRiverValley
• Mohenjo-DaroandHarappain theIndusRiverValley
• Shangin theYellowRiverorHuangHeValley
• OlmecsinMesoamerica
• ChavíninAndeanSouthAmerica
II. Thefirststatesemergedwithincorecivilizations.
A. States werepowerfulnewsystemsofrulethatmobilizedsurpluslabor
andresourcesoverlargeareas.Earlystateswereoftenledbyarulerwhose
sourceofpowerwasbelievedtobedivineorhaddivinesupportand/or
whowassupportedbythemilitary.
B. Asstatesgrewandcompetedforlandandresources,themore favorably situated—
includingtheHittites,whohadaccesstoiron—had greater
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4. accesstoresources,producedmoresurplusfood,andexperienced growingpopulations. These
stateswereabletoundertake territorialexpansionandconquersurroundingstates.
C. Early regions of state expansion or empire building were Mesopotamia, Babylonia, and the
Nile Valley.
D. Pastoralists were often the developers and disseminators of new weapons and modes of
transportation that transformed warfare in agrarian civilizations.
Teach one illustrative example of new weapons
Compound bows
Iron weapons
Teach one illustrative example of new modes of transportation,
Chariots
Horseback riding
III.Culture playedasignificantroleinunifyingstatesthroughlaws, language,
literature,religion,myths,andmonumentalart.
A. Early civilizations developed monumental architecture and urban planning
Teach one illustrative example of monumental architecture and urban planning
Ziggurats
Pyramids
Temples
Defensive walls
Streets and roads
Sewage and water systems
B. Elites, both political and religious, promoted arts and artisanship.
Teach one illustrative example of arts and artisanship
Sculpture
Painting
Wall decorations
Elaborate weaving
C. systems of record keeping arose independently in all early civilizations and subsequently were
diffused.
Systems of record keeping
Cuneiform
Hieroglyphs
Pictographs
Alphabets
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5. Quippu
D. States developed legal codes, including the Code of Hammurabi that reflected existing hierarchies
and facilitated the rule of governments over people.
E. New religious beliefs developed in this period continued to have strong influences in later
periods.
Requiredexamplesofnewreligiousbeliefs:
The Vedic religion
Hebrew monotheism
Zoroastrianism
F. Trade expanded throughout this period from local to regional and transregional with
civilization exchanging goods, cultural ideas, and technology.
Required examples of trade expansion from local to regional transregional.
Between Egypt and Nubia
Between Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley
G. Social and gender hierarchies intensified as states expanded and cities multiplied.
H. Literature was also a reflection of culture.
Literature
The “Epic of Gilgamesh
Rig Veda
Book of the Dead
Period 2 Organization and Reorganization of Human Societies, c. 600 BCE to c 600 CE
KeyConcept2.1.The DevelopmentandCodificationof
ReligiousandCulturalTraditionsAsstatesandempiresincreasedinsize andcontacts
betweenregions
multiplied,religiousandculturalsystemsweretransformed.Religionsandbeliefsystemsprovidedabond
amongthepeopleandanethicalcode tolive by.Thesesharedbeliefsalsoinfluencedandreinforced
political, economic,andoccupationalstratification.Religious andpoliticalauthority oftenmerged
asrulers(some ofwhomwereconsidereddivine)used
religion,alongwithmilitaryandlegalstructures,tojustifytheirruleand
ensureitscontinuation.Religionsandbeliefsystemscouldalsogenerate
conflict,partlybecausebeliefsandpracticesvariedgreatlywithinand amongsocieties.
I.
Codificationsandfurtherdevelopmentsofexistingreligioustraditionsprovidedabondamong
thepeopleandanethicalcodetoliveby.
A. TheassociationofmonotheismwithJudaismwasfurtherdeveloped
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6. withthecodificationoftheHebrewScriptures,whichalsoreflectedthe
influenceofMesopotamianculturalandlegaltraditions.TheAssyrian,
Babylonian,andRomanempiresconqueredvariousJewishstatesat differentpointsin
time.Theseconquestscontributedtothegrowthof
JewishdiasporiccommunitiesaroundtheMediterraneanandMiddleEast.
B. Thecorebeliefsoutlinedin theSanskritscripturesformedthebasis oftheVedicreligions
—
laterknownasHinduism—whichcontributedtothedevelopmentofthesocial
andpoliticalrolesofacastesystemandin
theimportanceofmultiplemanifestationsofBrahmatopromoteteachings aboutreincarnation.
II. Newbeliefsystemsandculturaltraditionsemergedandspread,
oftenassertinguniversaltruths.
A. Thecorebeliefsaboutdesire,suffering,andthesearchfor
enlightenmentpreachedbythehistoricBuddha andrecordedbyhis
followersintosutrasandotherscriptureswere,in part,areactiontothe
VedicbeliefsandritualsdominantinSouthAsia.Buddhismchanged
overtimeasitspreadthroughoutAsia—firstthroughthesupportofthe
MauryanEmperorAshoka,andthenthroughtheeffortsofmissionaries
andmerchants,andtheestablishmentofeducationalinstitutionsto promoteitscoreteachings.
B.Confucianism’scorebeliefsandwritingsoriginatedin thewritings
andlessonsofConfuciusandwereelaborated bykeydiscipleswho soughttopromotesocial
harmonybyoutliningproperritualsandsocial relationshipsforallpeoplein China,
includingtherulers.
C. InthemajorDaoistwritings,thecorebeliefofbalancebetween
humansandnatureassumedthattheChinesepoliticalsystemwouldbe alteredindirectly.
DaoismalsoinfluencedthedevelopmentofChinese culture.
Medical theories and practices
Poetry
Metallurgy
Architecture
D.
Christianity,basedoncorebeliefsabouttheteachingsanddivinityofJesusofNazarethasrecordedbyh
isdisciples,drewonJudaism,and
initiallyrejectedRomanandHellenisticinfluences.DespiteinitialRoman imperial
hostility,Christianityspreadthroughtheeffortsofmissionaries
andmerchantsthroughmanypartsofAfro-Eurasia,andeventuallygained Romanimperial
supportbythetimeofEmperorConstantine
E. ThecoreideasinGreco-Romanphilosophy and scienceemphasized logic,
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7. empiricalobservation,andthenatureofpoliticalpowerand hierarchy.
III. Beliefsystemsaffectedgenderroles.BuddhismandChristianity
encouragedmonasticlifeandConfucianismemphasized filialpiety
IV. Otherreligiousandculturaltraditionscontinuedparalleltothe
codified,writtenbeliefsystemsincorecivilizations.
A. Shamanism and animism continued to shape the lives of people within and outside of core
civilizations because of their daily reliance on the natural world.
B. Ancestor veneration persisted in many regions
regionswhere ancestorveneration persisted,
Africa
The Mediterranean region
East Asia
The Andean areas
V. Artistic expressions, including literature and drama, architecture and sculpture, show
distinctive cultural developments.
A. Literature and drama acquired distinctive forms that influence artistic development in
neighboring region and in later time periods.
literatureand drama:
Greek plays
Indian epics
B. Distinctive architectural styles developed in many regions in this period.
regionswhere distinctivearchitectural stylesdeveloped:
India
Greece
The Roman Empire
Mesoamerica
C. The convergence of Greco-Roman culture and Buddhist beliefs affected the development of
unique sculptural developments
KeyConcept2.2.TheDevelopmentof StatesandEmpires
Astheearlystatesandempiresgrewinnumber,size,andpopulation,theyfrequentlycompetedforresour
cesandcameintoconflictwithoneanother.Inquestofland,
wealth,andsecurity,someempiresexpandeddramatically.Indoingso,theybuilt
powerfulmilitarymachinesandadministrativeinstitutionsthatwerecapableoforganizinghumanactiv
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8. itiesoverlongdistances,andtheycreated
newgroupsofmilitaryandpoliticalelitestomanagetheiraffairs.Astheseempiresexpandedtheirbound
aries,theyalsofacedtheneed todeveloppoliciesandprocedurestogovern
theirrelationshipswithethnicallyandculturallydiversepopulations: sometimes
tointegratethemwithinanimperial societyandsometimesto
excludethem.Insomecases,theseempiresbecamevictimsoftheirown
successes.Byexpandingtheirboundariestoofar,theycreatedpolitical, cultural,
andadministrativedifficultiesthattheycouldnotmanage.They
alsoexperiencedenvironmental,social,andeconomic problemswhenthey overexploitedtheirlands
andsubjectsandpermittedexcessive wealthtobe concentratedin thehandsofprivilegedclasses.
I.
Thenumberandsizeofkeystatesand
empiresgrewdramatically
byimposingpoliticalunityonareaswherepreviouslytherehadbeen competingstates.
Requiredexamplesofkeystatesandempires(Studentshouldknowthe locationandnames):
SouthwestAsia:PersianEmpires
EastAsia:QinandHanEmpire
SouthAsia:Maurya andGuptaEmpires
Mediterraneanregion:Phoenicia anditscolonies,Greekcity-states
andcolonies,andHellenisticandRomanEmpires
Mesoamerica: Teotihuacan,Mayacity-states
AndeanSouthAmerica:Moche
Persian Empires:
Achaemenid
Parthian
Sassanid
II. Empiresandstatesdevelopednewtechniquesofimperial
administrationbased,inpart,onthesuccessofearlierpoliticalforms.
A. Inordertoorganizetheirsubjects,therulerscreatedadministrative institutionsinmanyregions
Requiredexamplesofadministrativeinstitutions
Centralizedgovernments
Elaboratelegalsystemsandbureaucracies
Regions where rulers created administrative institutions
China
Persia
Rome
South Asia
B. Imperialgovernmentsprojectedmilitarypoweroverlargerareasusing avarietyof
techniques.
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9. Diplomacy
Developing supplylines
Buildingfortifications, defensive walls, androads
Drawingnewgroupsofmilitary officersandsoldiersfromthelocal
populationsorconqueredpeoples
C.
Much of the success of the empires rested on their promotion of trade and
economic integration by building and maintaining roads and issuing currencies
III. Uniquesocialandeconomicdimensionsdevelopedinimperial societiesinAfroEurasiaandtheAmericas.
A. Cities servedascentersoftrade,publicperformanceofreligious
rituals,andpoliticaladministrationforstatesandempires.
Cities
Persepolis
Chang’an
Pataliputra
Athens
Carthage
Rome
Alexandria
Contatnioppe
Teotihuacan
B. The social structure of empires displayed hierarchies that included cultivators, laborers,
slaves, artisans, merchants, elites, or cast groups.
C. Imperial societies relied on a range of methods to maintain the production of food and
provide rewards for the loyalty of the elites.
Methods
Covee
Slavery
Rents and tributes
Peasant communities
Family and household production
D. Patriarchy continued to shape gender and family relations in all imperial societies in this
period.
IV. The Roman, Han Persian, Mauryan, and Gupta empires created political, cultural, and
administrative difficulties that they could not manage, which eventually led to the decline,
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10. collapse, and transformation into successor empires or states.
A. Through excessive mobilization of resources, imperial governments cause environmental
damage and generated social tensions and economic difficulties by concentrating too
much wealthy in the hands of elites.
Environmental damage
Deforestation
Desertification
Soil erosion
Sited rivers
B. External problems resulted from security issues along their frontiers including the threat of
invasions.
External problems along frontiers
Between Han China and the Xiognu (Huns)
Between Gupta and White Huns
Between the Romans and their northern and eastern neighbors
Key concept 2.3 Emergence of Transregional Networks of Communication and Exchange
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