2. Mania
Madness, frenzy
“A Phase of Bipolar disorders characterized by
expansiveness, elation, agitation, hyper
excitability, hyperactivity, and increased speed of
thought or speech(flight of ideas)”.
A mood disorder, In a senses opposite to depression.
“A period of seven or more days of unusually and
continuously effusive and open elated or irritable
mood, where the mood is not caused by
drugs/medication or a medical illness and
(a) is causing obvious difficulties at work or in
social relationships and activities, or
(b) requires admission to hospital to protect the
person or others, or
(c) the person is suffering psychosis.”
3. Bipolar disorder
Bipolar disorder, or manic-depressive illness
(MDI), is one of the most common, severe,
and persistent mental illnesses. Bipolar
disorder is a serious lifelong struggle and
challenge.
Bipolar disorder is characterized by periods of
deep, prolonged, and profound depression
that alternate with periods of an excessively
elevated or irritable mood known as mania.
4. Unipolar major depressive disorder and bipolar
disorder share depressive symptoms, but bipolar
disorder is defined by episodes of mania or
hypomania.
Bipolar disorder constitutes 1 pole of a spectrum
of mood disorders that includes including bipolar I
(BPI), bipolar II (BPII), cyclothymia (oscillating
high and low moods), and major depression.
5. Manic Episode
characterized by at least 1 week of profound
mood disturbance, characterized by elation,
irritability, or expansiveness . At least 3 of the
following symptoms must also be present:
Grandiosity
Diminished need for sleep
Excessive talking or pressured speech
Racing thoughts or flight of ideas
Clear evidence of distractibility
Increased level of goal-focused activity at home, at
work, or sexually
Excessive pleasurable activities, often with painful
consequences
6. Hypomanic Episode
Hypomanic episodes are characterized by an
elevated, expansive, or irritable mood of at
least 4 days‟ duration. At least 3 of the following
symptoms are also present:
Grandiosity or inflated self-esteem
Diminished need for sleep
Pressured speech
Racing thoughts or flight of ideas
Clear evidence of distractibility
Psychomotor agitation at home, at work, or sexually
Engaging in activities with a high potential for painful
consequences
7. Neurobiology OF MANIA AND BIPOLAR
DISORDER*
Ambiguous till date
Biogenic amine neurotransmitters:
Noradrenergic system:
NE turnover increase in the cortical and thalamic areas of BD
subjects where decrease in depression
Serotogenic system:
Reduced 5-hydroxytryptamine (5- HT)1A receptor binding potential in
raphe and hippocampus- amygdala of brain in depressed patients
Dopaminergic system
DA agonists are effective antidepressants and are able to
precipitate mania.
D2 receptor found in caudate, putamen, nucleus accumbens,
cerebral cortex and hypothalmus is negativly coupled to adenylyl
cyclase. Older antipsychotics act through blockage of D2 receptors
, which eventualy result in extrpyramidal system (muscle rigidty ,
involuntry movement, pseudoparkinsonism)
8. Cholinergic system
cholinergic tone decrease during mania , pilocarpine elicit
pupillary constriction ,
The response of pilocarpine enhance after lithium and VPA
,adding evidence on the effects of lithium perhaps
potentiating brain cholinergic systems
relative inferiority of noradrenergic compared to
cholinergic tone was associated with depression, while the
reverse was associated with mania
Receptor Nature Pathway
D2 Inhibitory Presynaptic: decr Ca+ conduct
Postsynaptic:Gi, incr K+ conduct ,decr cAMP
M3 Excitatory Gq ,incr IP3 & DAG
Alpha 1 Excitatory Gq ,incr IP3 & DAG
5 HT-2 Excitatory Gq ,incr IP3 & DAG
9. Signal pathways abnormalities*
cellular signaling pathways interact at various levels, allow
the cell to receive, process, and respond to information
signaling pathways represent major targets for a
number of hormones, including glucocorticoids, thyroid
hormones, and gonadal steroids , may explain mood
disorder with alterd hormonal level.
(e.g. the frequent onset of bipolar disorder in puberty,
triggering of episodes in the postpartum period)
G Protein abnormalities:
Postmortem brain studies have reported increased levels
of the stimulatory G protein (Gαs) accompanied by
increases in post-receptor stimulated adenylyl cyclase
(AC) activity in BD.
10. The protein kinase C signaling pathway:
PKC is one of the major intracellular mediators of signals
generated upon external stimulation of cells via a variety of
neurotransmitter receptors M1, M3, M5 α1 5-HT2A . PKC induce
the hydrolysis of various membrane phospholipids.
increased PKC activity and translocation found in different
experiments of BD brains moreover attenuation of PKC activity
may play a role in the antimanic effects of lithium and VPA.
Novel selective PKC inhibitors if devolped may have very useful
action against mania. Tamoxifen is underinvestigation.
Abnormalities of calcium signaling
Calcium ions play a critical role in regulating the synthesis and
release of neurotransmitters, neuronal excitability,
elevations in both resting and stimulated intracellular Ca2+
levels in platelets, lymphocytes and neutrophils of patients with
BD.
*The underlying neurobiology of bipolar disorder, world psychiatry
HUSSEINI K MANJI,1 JORGE A QUIROZ,1 JENNIFER L PAYNE,1 JASKARAN SINGH,1 BARBARA P LOPES,1 JENILEE S VIEGAS,1 and
11. Genetic abnormalities*
Genes associated with mania and BP include:
Glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK-3):
GSK3β is a central regulator of the circadian clock.
Negative mutation in the CLOCK gene normally
contributing to circadian periodicity in humans
results in behavior mimicking mania.
ANK3(ANKYRIN G):
ANK3 is an adaptor protein found at axon initial
segments that regulates the assembly of voltage-
gated sodium channels.
CACNA1C (alpha 1C subunit of the L-type
voltage-gated calcium channel)
ANK3 and subunits of the calcium channel are
down-regulated in mouse brain in response to
lithium, which indicates a possible therapeutic
mechanism of action
12. Genetic abnormalities*
Diacylglycerol kinase eta (DGKH) gene:
GWAS published by 2011 pointed first intron
of diacylglycerol kinase eta (DGKH) gene, a
key protein in the lithium-sensitive
phosphatidyl inositol pathway.
Lithium-mediated inhibition of GSK3β is
thought to result in downregulation of
molecules involved in cell death and
upregulation of neuroprotective factors.
13. 1:Stephen Soreff, MD President of Education Initiatives, Nottingham, NH; Faculty,
Boston University, Boston, MA and Daniel Webster College, Nashua, NH
14. Differential Diagnosis
∂ Acute intoxication with recreational drugs, such
CLINICAL FEATURES OF MANIA
as amfetamines, amfetamine derivatives (MDMA:
Characteristicand cocaine appearance mania.
Ecstasy), Clinical can mimic
Mood Elevated or irritable
Talk Chronic use of cannabis can of ideas
∂ Fast, pressurized, flight induce manic like
features.
Energy Excessive
∂ Cushing's syndrome had a secondarywealth, power, influence or
Ideas Grandiose, self-confident, delusions of manic illness
of religious significance, sometimes persecutory
∂ corticosteroids can induce mania
∂ Dopamine agonists (e.g. bromocriptine) are also
Cognition Disturbance of registration of memories
known to sometimes induce secondary mania.
Physical Insomnia, mild to moderate weight loss, increased libido
∂ The excited phase of catatonic schizophrenia can
sometimes be mistaken for mania. excessive drinking or
Behaviour Disinhibition, increased sexual activity,
spending
Hallucinations Fleeting auditory or, more rarely, visual
15. Treatment
Pharmacotherapy
Drug Mania Mixed Maintenance Depression
Lithium X X
Valporate XR X
Carbamazepine X X
Lamotrigine X
Arippiprazole X X X
Ziprasidone X X
Resperidone X X
Asenapine X X
Quetiapine X X
Chlorpromazine X
Olanzapine X X X
Table. FDA-Approved Bipolar Treatment Regimens
17. Acute treatment of mania: an update on new medications.
Case School of Medicine, Mood Disorders Program, University Hospitals Case Medical Center, 11400 Euclid Avenue, Suite 200, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA.
Prashant.Gajwani@uhhs.com
18. Mood Stabilizer
LITHIUM:
In use since the 1870s.
Initially used to treat depression, gout, and
neutropenia, and for cluster headache
prophylaxis,
In 1940s FDA banned the use of lithium
because of fatalities but lifted in 1970.
Narrow therapeutic index that predisposes
poisoning with relatively minor changes in
medications or health status.
May protect and preserve the hippocampal
volumes, also claimed neuroprotective.
20. Indications & Uses
Acute manic or mixed episodes in patients with
BPI and BPII.
Major Depression
Schizoaffective and Schizophrenic Disorders
Disorders of Impulse Control
Psychiatric Disorders in Children
Neutropenia and Anemia
secondary to antineoplastic drugs
Hyperthyroidism
radioactive iodine, surgery, propylthiouracil are preferred.a
SIADH
Demeclocycline is preferred for syndrome of inappropriate ADH
secretion.
21. Contraindication
Renal or cardiovascular disease,
Severe debilitation, dehydration, sodium
depletion,
Concomitant therapy with diuretics; very high risk
of lithium toxicity under such conditions.
History of Leukemia
22. Mechanism of Action:
Effects on Electrolytes and Ion Transport
Lithium is closely related to sodium in properties.
It can substitute for sodium in generating action potentials and in
Na+-Na+ exchange across the membrane. It inhibits the latter
process, but does not significantly affect the Na+/Ca2+ exchange
or Na+/K+ ATPase .
Effects on Neurotransmitters
Lithium appears to enhance some of the actions of serotonin,
though findings have been contradictory.
Its effects on norepinephrine are variable. The drug may
decrease norepinephrine and dopamine turnover, and these
effects.
Lithium also appears to block the development of dopamine
receptor supersensitivity that may accompany chronic therapy
with antipsychotic agents.
Finally, lithium may augment the synthesis of acetylcholine,
perhaps by increasing choline uptake into nerve terminals.
23. Mechanism of Action:
Effects on Second messenger:
One of the best-defined effects of lithium is its action on inositol
phosphates.
IP3 and DAG are important 2nd messengers for both -adrenergic
and muscarinic transmission. Lithium inhibits several important
enzymes in the normal recycling of membrane phosphoinositides,
including
conversion of IP2 to IP1 (inositol monophosphate) and the
conversion of IP to inositol.
This block leads to a depletion of phosphatidylinositol-4,5-
bisphosphate (PIP2), the membrane precursor of IP3 and DAG.
Over time, the effects of transmitters on the cell will diminish in
proportion to the amount of activity in the PIP2-dependent
pathways.
Iisolated brain tissue study indicate that lithium can inhibit
norepinephrine-sensitive adenylyl cyclase. Such an effect could
relate to both its antidepressant and its antimanic effects
24. Lithium may uncouple receptors from their G
proteins; indeed, two of lithium„s most common
side effects, polyuria and subclinical
hypothyroidism, may be due to uncoupling of the
vasopressin and TSH receptors from their G
proteins.
25. Dosage:
May start with lower dose to minimize adverse
drug reactions
900-2400 mg/day divided q6-8hr (immediate
release tabs) OR 900-1800 mg divided q12hr PO
if using extended release tabs
Desirable serum lithium concentrations are 0.6-
1.2 mEq/L; although higher serum concentration
may be needed not to exceed 1.5 mEq/L
Administration: Take preferably with food
Monitor
Serum lithium 12 hr after dose; 2 times/week
until serum concentration and clinical condition
stabilizes; thereafter q2month
26. Interaction:
Drug Severity Possible interaction
Sibutramine Contraindicated Increase toxicity by
Pharmacodynamics synergism
Candesarttan Use Alternative Increase Li level
Linezolid Use Alternative Increase serotonin level by
inhibiting MAO
Locaserin Use Alternative Both Increase serotonin level
Furazolidone Use Alternative Increase serotonin level
Tranylcypromine Use Alternative Increase serotonin level
Vilazodone Use Alternative Serotonin syndrome
Aspirin Monitor closely Decrease renal clearence of Li
Carbamazepine Monitor closely Risk of neurotoxicity
Citalopram Monitor closely Enhance serotonergic effect
Haloperidol Monitor closely Risk of neurotoxicity
27. Side Effect:
COMMON SE:
GI distress ,Upper LiCo3,Lower SR
Hand tremor, poor coordination
Sedation/lethargy
Weight gain
Polyuria / polydipsia
Cognitive (memory ,concentration
Serious AE
Renal:
Nephrogenic Diabetes insipidus ,Tubular interstitial
nephritis(treatment thiazide diuretic/amiloride)
compensatory goiter without true hypothyroidism
Neurological disorders ataxia, mental confusion, delusion,
hallucinations
Teratogenic (Pregnancy Category D)
28. Over Dose/Poisoning:
The likelihood of toxicity increases with increasing serum
Lithium levels.
Threshold level:1.5mEq/l Serum
Signs of toxicity: Below 2.0mEq/l
Diarrhea, vomiting, drowsiness, muscular
weakness and lack of coordination
Higher Level 2.0/3.0mEq/l
giddiness, ataxia, blurred vision, tinnitus
and a large output of dilute urine
Treatment:
No Specific Antidote, discontinue drug, Eliminate ion
Follow protocol as for Barbiturate poisoning, Correct fluid
/Electrolyte
29. Anticonvulsants:
VALPROIC ACID
FDA Seizure/Epilepsy 78, BiPolar disorder „96
1st marketed AED, Effective ant manic, BP depression
Therapeutic effect level 50-125 mg/l
Fetal Hepatotoxic ,pancreatitis (free radical effect)
Not to used for Posttraumatic seizure
Best for rapid-cycling and acute-mania
30. Pharmacokinetics:
Bioavailability: 81-89% of delayed-release
Peak Plasma Concentration: 115-145 mcg/mL (IV)
Protein Bound: 10-19%
Volume of distribution: 92 L
Metabolism: Liver, Excretion: Liver
Metabolites: 2-propyl-3-ketopentanoic acid
Half-Life: 6-16 hr; 10-67 hr (neonates)
31. •Indication& Dosage:
Bipolar Mania
Initial 25 mg/kg/day PO
Increase rapidly to achieve lowest therapeutically
effective dose,Maximum: 60 mg/kg/day
Partial Seizures
PO: 10-15 mg/kg/day PO initially, THEN up to 30-
60 mg/kg/day
Migraine, Prophylaxis
250 mg PO q12hr
Status Epilepticus
Schizophrenia
Maximum dose for an adult is 60mg/kg daily except 1g/kg/daily for
migraine*
Dose adjustment require in hepatic impairement.
*Abbott Laboratories. Depakene (valproic acid) solution and liquid-filled capsules prescribing information. North Chicago, IL; 2009 Nov.
32. •Mechanism Of Action:
GABA level in the brain
facilitate glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD),
the enzyme responsible for GABA synthesis,
An inhibitory effect on the GABA transporter
GAT-1b thus blocking degradation of GABA.
hyperpolarize membrane potentials by
increasing membrane k conductance. 1(katzung pharmacology)
33. Drug interaction:
Doripenum, eratopenum, imipenem,
meropenem,vorinostat, have serious
interaction ,increase hepatic metabolism1 .
Protein bounded drugs increase free VPA
level e.g. Aspirin,
carbamazepine,warfarin,digoxin etc
VPA decrease level of liver metabolized
drugs(cytochrome p450) e.g. carbamazepine,
phenytoin,TCA,lamotrigine
P450 inducers decrease VPA level.
Mechanism of the drug interaction between valproic acid and carbapenem antibiotics in monkeys and rats journal of health
sciences 2007
34. Teratogenic potential :
Pregnancy Category: D; known to cause
neural tube defects in fetus
Lactation: excreted in milk
35. Carbamazepine :
An anticonvulsant and specific analgesic for
trigeminal neuralgia,psychomotor, seizure.
Stabilizes inactivated state of sodium channels,
thereby making neurons less excitable
May reduce activity of necleus ventralis of the
thalamus or decrease synaptic transimisssion or
summation of temporal stimulation
dose range: 800-1200 mg/day PO in divided
doses
Therapeutic range: 4-12 mg/L [16.9-50.8
micromoles/L] Maximum dose of 1600 mg/day
Pregnency category D, enter in breast milk.
37. Indications & Dosage:
Bipolar I Disorder, Mania
Monotherapy or as an adjunct to lithium or
divalproex
Dose :400-800 mg/day
Bipolar I Disorder, Maintenance
Immediate-release: 400-800 mg/day PO q12hr
Insomnia (Off-label)
Usually start 25 mg PO qHS
Major Depressive Disorder
Dosage range: 150-300 mg/day
Alcohol Dependence (Off-label)
25-50 mg PO qHS; not to exceed 300 mg
38. Mechanism of Action:
interact with serotonin (5HT2) and dopamine D1
and D2 receptors.
higher selectivity for 5HT2 relative to D2 to low
EPS
high affinity at histaminergic and adrenergic
alpha1 receptors, with a lower affinity at
adrenergic alpha2 receptors.
39. Drug Interaction:
Increased risk of drowsiness and postural
hypotension when used with alcohol.
CYP3A4 inducers Phenytoin,CBZ decrease level
CYP3A4 inhibitors Ketoconazole ,erythromycin
increase level.
Pregnancy Category: C
Neonates exposed in 3rd trimester are at risk for
EPS or withdrawal symptoms
Lactation: excreted in breast milk, breast
feeding is not recommended
40. Tardive dyskinesia :
Tardive dyskinesias are involuntary movements of the
tongue, lips, face, trunk, and extremities.
TD can be caused by long-term treatment with
dopamine antagonists. Neuroleptics, Amisulpride,
antiemetic metoclopramide, a potent D2 dopamine
receptor antagonist, may cause TD, particularly in
elderly patients. antihistamines, fluoxetine,
Atypical antipsychotics particularly Quetiapine and
clonazapine are used to reduced the tardive
dyskinesia.*
* A single-blind, randomized trial comparing quetiapine and haloperidol in the treatment of tardive dyskinesia Emsley R, Turner HJ, Schronen
J, Botha K, Smit R, Oosthuizen PP.
Department of Psychiatry, University of Stellenbosch, Cape Town, South Africa
41. Ziprasidone :
2nd generation antipsychotic
Used for bipolar I, schizophrenia, Acute agitation
MOA:
Antagonist at dopamine (D2), serotonin (5HT1D,
5HT2A) receptors
Agonist at serotonin 5HT1A receptor
Moderately inhibits reuptake of norepinephrine
and serotonin
Also has alpha-blocking & antihistaminic activity
Risk of QT prolongation.
Less chance of hyperglycemia or diabetes and
EPS.
42. Loxapine :
1st generation antipsychotics
Dibenzoxazepine antipsychotic; blocks mesolimbic D1 and D2
receptors in the brain; also has anti-serotonin 5HT2 activity
extrapyramidal disease, parkinsonian, somnolence, tardive
dyskinesia
10—20 mg PO q 24hr
Inhaled preparation is in pipeline ,10mg Od, but FDA has
Pulmonary saftey concerns1
Loxapine, as with all other antipsychotics has label warning
“Elderly patients with dementia-related psychosis treated with
antipsychotic drugs are at an increased risk of death”2
European medicine agency recmnded loxapine for the rapid
control of agitation in adult with BP or schizophernia.(2012)
1 . Inhaled loxapine for agitation revisited: focus on effect sizes from 2 Phase III randomised controlled trials in persons with schizophrenia or bipolar disorder.
Citrome L. New York Medical College, Valhalla
2. Antipsychotic drugs: sudden cardiac death among elderly patients.
Narang P, El-Refai M, Parlapalli R, Danilov L, Manda S, Kaur G, Lippmann S.2010
43. Prospective antimanic drugs:
Tamoxifen
a nonsteroidal antiestrogen used to
treat breast cancer, is a potent and
selective PKC inhibitor that crosses
the blood-brain barrier.
Asenapine
Increase level of dopamine, NE and
acetylcholine in cortical and limbic
brain areas. also prevent from
depression and protect cognitive
function.
A manic episode is defined in the American Psychiatric Association's diagnostic manual as, or a medical illness (e.g., hyperthyroidism),
(41). Additional support is found from a study on the central cholinesterase inhibitor physostigmine (administered intravenously), in which transient modulation of symptoms in manic cases and induction of depression in euthymic bipolar patients stabilized with lithium were observed.
(41). Additional support is found from a study on the central cholinesterase inhibitor physostigmine (administered intravenously), in which transient modulation of symptoms in manic cases and induction of depression in euthymic bipolar patients stabilized with lithium were observed.
(41). Additional support is found from a study on the central cholinesterase inhibitor physostigmine (administered intravenously), in which transient modulation of symptoms in manic cases and induction of depression in euthymic bipolar patients stabilized with lithium were observed.
(41). Additional support is found from a study on the central cholinesterase inhibitor physostigmine (administered intravenously), in which transient modulation of symptoms in manic cases and induction of depression in euthymic bipolar patients stabilized with lithium were observed.
J Biol Rhythms. 2012 Oct;27(5):339-52.Cellular circadian clocks in mood disorders.McCarthy MJ, Welsh DK.SourceDepartment of Psychiatry, Veterans Affairs San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, CA, USA.AbstractBipolar disorder (BD) and major depressive disorder (MDD) are heritable neuropsychiatric disorders associated with disrupted circadian rhythms. The hypothesis that circadian clock dysfunction plays a causal role in these disorders has endured for decades but has been difficult to test and remains controversial. In the meantime, the discovery of clock genes and cellular clocks has revolutionized our understanding of circadian timing. Cellular circadian clocks are located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), the brain's primary circadian pacemaker, but also throughout the brain and peripheral tissues. In BD and MDD patients, defects have been found in SCN-dependent rhythms of body temperature and melatonin release. However, these are imperfect and indirect indicators of SCN function. Moreover, the SCN may not be particularly relevant to mood regulation, whereas the lateral habenula, ventral tegmentum, and hippocampus, which also contain cellular clocks, have established roles in this regard. Dysfunction in these non-SCN clocks could contribute directly to the pathophysiology of BD/MDD. We hypothesize that circadian clock dysfunction in non-SCN clocks is a trait marker of mood disorders, encoded by pathological genetic variants. Because network features of the SCN render it uniquely resistant to perturbation, previous studies of SCN outputs in mood disorders patients may have failed to detect genetic defects affecting non-SCN clocks, which include not only mood-regulating neurons in the brain but also peripheral cells accessible in human subjects. Therefore, reporters of rhythmic clock gene expression in cells from patients or mouse models could provide a direct assay of the molecular gears of the clock, in cellular clocks that are likely to be more representative than the SCN of mood-regulating neurons in patients. This approach, informed by the new insights and tools of modern chronobiology, will allow a more definitive test of the role of cellular circadian clocks in mood disorders.
The study concluded that antipsychotic drugs were significantly more effective than mood stabilizers; olanzapine, risperidone, and quetiapine were better tolerated than haloperidol. Risperidone, olanzapine, and haloperidol were particularly efficacious
Typical D2 receptor affinity,Atypical 5HT
Evidence suggests that lithium, unlike any other mood stabilizer, may have a antisucide.Hajek T, Kopecek M, Höschl C, Alda M. Smaller hippocampal volumes in patients with bipolar disorder are masked by exposure to lithium: a meta-analysis. J Psychiatry Neurosci. Apr 16 2012;37(3):110143.
Katzung pharmacology
Uses for Lithium SaltsBipolar DisorderManagement of bipolar disorder, 410422 particularly acute manic or mixed episodes in patients with bipolar 1 or bipolar 2 disorder.401403404405406407409410411412421422A first-line agent in the initial treatment of depressive, manic, or mixed episodes in patients with bipolar disorder.401421aCombination therapy with an atypical antipsychotic, another mood stabilizing agent, and/or antidepressant may be required to adequately treat rapid cycling and more severe depressive, manic, or mixed episodes.401403411412420421422423Maintenance therapy has been shown to prevent or diminish the intensity of subsequent manic episodes in patients with bipolar disorder with a history of mania.403404405407410412421422424Major Depression†Should be used only in patients who fail to respond to other antidepressants.aSchizoaffective and Schizophrenic Disorders†Limited effectiveness when used alone; should be used only after antipsychotic agents have failed.439aMay be added to existing antipsychotic therapy, but efficacy of such combined therapy has varied in different clinical studies.439 Careful monitoring (e.g., serum lithium concentrations, adverse effects, possible adverse drug interactions) recommended.439aDisorders of Impulse Control†Has reduced temper outbursts, impulsive antisocial behavior, and the number of assaultive acts in a small number of adults with disorders of impulse control†.aPsychiatric Disorders in Children†Treatment of children with apparent mixed bipolar disorder symptomatology†, hyperactivity with psychotic or neurotic components†, or aggressive behavior† or aggressive outbursts† associated with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD); should be used only after more conservative therapies have failed.aNeutropenia and Anemia†Treatment of neutropenia† or anemia† secondary to antineoplasticdrugs.aRoutine use not recommended for congenital, idiopathic, or cyclic neutropenias†; Felty’s syndrome†; or aplasticanemia†.aHyperthyroidism†Treatment of hyperthyroidism†; other treatments (e.g., radioactive iodine, surgery, propylthiouracil, methimazole) currently are preferred.aSIADH†No longer considered one of the therapies of choice; generally has been replaced with other more effective and/or less toxic therapies (e.g., demeclocycline).a
Effects on Electrolytes and Ion TransportLithium is closely related to sodium in its properties. It can substitute for sodium in generatingaction potentials and in Na+-Na+ exchange across the membrane. It inhibits the latter process, ie,Li+-Na+ exchange is gradually slowed after lithium is introduced into the body. At therapeuticconcentrations (around 1 mmol/L), it does not significantly affect the Na+/Ca2+ exchange process orthe Na+/K+ ATPase sodium pump.Effects on NeurotransmittersLithium appears to enhance some of the actions of serotonin, though findings have beencontradictory. Its effects on norepinephrine are variable. The drug may decrease norepinephrine anddopamine turnover, and these effects, if confirmed, might be relevant to its antimanic action.Lithium also appears to block the development of dopamine receptor supersensitivity that mayaccompany chronic therapy with antipsychotic agents. Finally, lithium may augment the synthesisof acetylcholine, perhaps by increasing choline uptake into nerve terminals. Some clinical studieshave suggested that increasing cholinergic activity may mitigate mania. However, as noted below, asecond-messenger effect of lithium may obviate any effect of increased acetylcholine release
One of the best-defined effects of lithium is its action on inositol phosphates. Early studies oflithium demonstrated changes in brain inositol phosphate levels, but the significance of thesechanges was not appreciated until the second-messenger roles of inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3)and diacylglycerol (DAG) were discovered. As described in Chapter 2: Drug Receptors &Pharmacodynamics, IP3 and DAG are important second messengers for both -adrenergic andmuscarinic transmission. Lithium inhibits several important enzymes in the normal recycling ofmembrane phosphoinositides, including conversion of IP2 to IP1 (inositolmonophosphate) and theconversion of IP to inositol (Figure 29–4). This block leads to a depletion of phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2), the membrane precursor of IP3 and DAG. Over time, the effects oftransmitters on the cell will diminish in proportion to the amount of activity in the PIP2-dependentpathways. Before therapy, such activity might be greatly increased in mania; thus, lithium couldcause a selective depression of the overactive circuits.Studies of noradrenergic effects in isolated brain tissue indicate that lithium can inhibitnorepinephrine-sensitive adenylylcyclase. Such an effect could relate to both its antidepressant andits antimanic effects. The relationship of these effects to lithium's actions on IP3 mechanisms iscurrently unknown.Since lithium affects second-messenger systems involving both activation of adenylylcyclase andphosphoinositol turnover, it is not surprising that G proteins are also found to be affected. Severalstudies suggest that lithium may uncouple receptors from their G proteins; indeed, two of lithium'smost common side effects, polyuria and subclinical hypothyroidism, may be due to uncoupling ofthe vasopressin and TSH receptors from their G proteins.The major current working hypothesis for lithium's therapeutic mechanism of action supposes thatits effects on phosphoinositol turnover, leading to an early relative reduction of myoinositol inhuman brain, are part of an initiating cascade of intracellular changes. Effects on specific isoformsof protein kinase C may be most relevant. Alterations of protein kinase C-mediated signaling altergene expression and the production of proteins implicated in long-term neuroplastic events thatcould underlie long-term mood stabilization.
Mechanism of action of lithium on the calcium-sensing receptor. The calcium sensing receptor is a membranal G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR). Agonists of the CASR are mainly polyvalent cations. In parathyroid chief cells, the activation of the CASR (black arrow) leads to an interaction between the CASR and the membranalphospholipase C, leading to the production of inositoltriphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG). Finally, the elevation of intracellular calcium (Ca-i) seems to activate the phosphorylation of protein-kinase C and inhibits the release of PTH. Paradoxically, lithium, as a monovalentcation, capable to activate GPCR, might be thought to be a weak agonist of the CASR (thin dotted arrow), but rather acts as an inhibitor of the latter, probably by interfering with intracellular molecular pathways. Indeed, lithium inhibits specifically and strongly (transparent thick arrow) the enzyme inositolmonophosphatase (IMPase) and reduces the production of IP3 and Ca-i. Thus, lithium might have a dual effect on the CASR; the final effect of lithium on parathyroid chief cells might be the result of a balance between a weak activation at the level of the CASR and a stronger inhibition of intracellular pathways at the level of the IMPase.
1-which can be very troublesome, is frequently observed. This tremor can be attenuated by reducing the day doses and increasing the evening dose. i.e. by giving a higher dose the evening than the morning. Beta-blockers can also decrease tremor.2-, because lithium inhibits the response of the kidney to the antidiuretic hormone on aquaporins 2. This polyuria can decrease during treatment, but when it persists and induces a diabetes insipidus, the treatment should be stopped.3-Inhibition of secretion of thyroid hormones, which generally induces a 4-with neutrophils reaching from 10 000 to 20 000 mm3 instead of 7 to 8 000 normally. This hyperleucocytosis is reversible with the discontinuation of the treatment. The symptoms announcing poisoning are muscular contractions, difficulties of writing, a difficult step, apathy and dysarthria.
The proposed mechanisms of action of valproic acid–induced AP are a direct toxic effect of free radicals on the pancreatic tissue and a depletion of superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase
Somnolence (or "drowsiness") is a state of near-sleep, a strong desire for sleep, or sleeping for unusually long periodsParkinsonism (also known as Parkinson's syndrome, atypical Parkinson's, or secondary Parkinson's) is a neurological syndrome characterized by tremor, hypokinesia, rigidity, and postural instability
Somnolence (or "drowsiness") is a state of near-sleep, a strong desire for sleep, or sleeping for unusually long periodsParkinsonism (also known as Parkinson's syndrome, atypical Parkinson's, or secondary Parkinson's) is a neurological syndrome characterized by tremor, hypokinesia, rigidity, and postural instability