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Why the UAE Remains Insulated from Militant Groups
- 1. Eden Cope
Professor David Goetze
Political Science 4990
10 December 2015
Are the UAE Insulated from Militant Islamist Groups Because of US and UK Involvement,
a Strong Military or Stable Government?
The United Arab Emirates is situated along the Persian Gulf, bordering Saudi Arabia and
Oman. The nation, specifically the city of Dubai, is a worldrenowned tourist and business
destination, recognized for its fascinating architecture and technological advancement. Because a
large number of the countries in the Arab world have been suffering radical Islamist threats and
political unrest in recent years, the United Arab Emirates appears a regional anomaly at first
glance. In this paper I will discuss the possible reasons why the United Arab Emirates has
remained relatively secure and continues to draw in tourists and foreign workers. I will address
the question of whether the United Arab Emirates are insulated from militant Islamist groups
because of US and UK involvement, a strong military, or stable government.
The hypothesis of this paper is that these three factors, while not being the only
determinants of UAE national security, have had a strong influence in the nation and have
largely prevented terrorist threats from prevailing there. For example, Kenneth Christie presents
a comparative study of the state formation of Pakistan and the UAE in order to name what could
cause such a dramatic gap between the two nations in the frequency of terrorist attacks. I
- 2. 2
therefore hypothesize that the governmental structure and policies of the UAE play a particularly
important role in maintaining this security.
My investigation of the research question about how the United Arab Emirates has the
appearance of insulation from extremist influence will contribute to a body of knowledge about
security in the Persian Gulf region. This has the potential to highlight measures that can be taken
to stabilize other Arab regimes, many of which do not enjoy a comparable level of security from
extremist threats.
Research Plan
Because of the impracticality of direct observation of these phenomena and their effects
in the UAE, the information for this research project will be obtained through secondary
sources—the academic works of others who have examined, reported on or performed research
on subjects closely related to the topic. The methodology of this paper will be to read these
secondary sources and, based on a scrutiny of the authors’ arguments and observations, draw
meaningful conclusions that support or deny my hypothesis. In the course of my research, it is
possible that other factors may be unexpectedly discovered as carrying more weight, which will
affect the outcome of this research. If more information is needed and further sources are found,
these will be explored and their contributions added to this paper.
The basic assumption that this paper seeks to verify is that the UAE are indeed relatively
insulated from violent Islamist groups and their influence. If the research demonstrates that this
is the case, then the dependent variable would be this insulation, while the independent variable
would be the factors protecting the UAE. This paper will explore if involvement by the United
- 3. 3
States and United Kingdom, a strong military, and a stable government are those influential,
independent variables. The two basic pieces of information sought will be first, a brief
exploration of the extent of whether the UAE are insulated from such threats at all, and second,
whether three previously mentioned factors hold weight in the matter.
One source of knowledge for this research project is the work of Brent J. Talbot and
Jeffrey J. Hicks, entitled The US Role in Preserving Gulf Security. This will provide some
preliminary knowledge on US involvement in the region and can begin to address the first
previously mentioned factor in UAE security. If the US has played a role in the protection of the
UAE from militant extremism, then that criterion will be used to partially verify my hypothesis.
Another source of knowledge on the issue is the book The Political Economy of Energy,
Finance and Security in the United Arab Emirates by Karen Young. This book my provide some
insight into the governmental structure and policies of the nation, which may describe in more
detail the security measures taken to ensure political stability and safety of inhabitants. Perhaps
this will be a preliminary source of support for the idea that stable government in the UAE may
play an important role in its apparent insulation from jihadist groups. The book may also, on the
other hand, point out weaknesses which would discount my hypothesis that the UAE is in fact
insulated from such threats at all.
The academic article The UAE, the “Arab Spring” and Different Types of Dissent by
Forstenlechner, Rutledge and Alnuaimi may also provide valuable information into how the
Arab Spring may have had effects on the UAE and how the country seemed to retain stability
- 5. 5
US involvement in the region may affect security of the UAE and may provide insight on how
this connects with terrorist organizations.
The second factor to be explored is how UAE military strength has played a role in
protecting the nation from terrorist attacks and influence in comparison with other countries.
News articles by Haneen Dajani and Dana Ford, while not being peerreviewed academic journal
entries, will provide some insight into UAE military strength and will be connected to further
sources for verification later in the research process.
Finally, I will research the third factor, namely a stable Emirati government. This section
of the research will explore the strategies of the UAE government and the historical and political
aspects of its formation and preservation. The book author Karen E. Young will be a source of
information about energy, finance and security, while Malcolm C. Peck will discuss how the
UAE has been able to maintain unity.
Peerreviewed academic journal articles by Ingo Forstenlechner et al., Fatma Al Sayegh,
and Kenneth Christie are important sources of information on the UAE history, government,
state formation and change that have taken place in the UAE and other Gulf states. I will also
explore information in a few additional articles which may not accommodate the three
forementioned factors as neatly. I will be asking what environmental factors contribute to
terrorism, whether those factors are present in the UAE, and how the three above categories hold
influence in these areas. If sources found are not peer reviewed or academic in nature, then
additional verification will be sought in an effort to maintain integrity.
- 6. 6
Research Analysis
The results of my research indicate that the United Arab Emirates are relatively insulated
from acts of terrorism. Nevertheless, security is not perfect. There have been some, although
few, isolated terrorist attacks on those who were perceived to be breaking some Islamic rules
since the nation’s independence from Britain in 1971. Malcolm C. Peck cites a 1981 article of
The Economist, which reported that a bomb was set off in the Hyatt Regency Hotel, killing two
(61, 89). That hotel had served alcohol to Muslims in traditional dress, which provoked
extremists who aimed to use violence to enforce religious rules. In response, the government
tightened the restrictions of religious laws on all Muslims in order to address the concerns of the
extremists and prevent further violence. Nevertheless, though a large percentage of Emiratis are
pious and the Sunni Islam practiced there is conservative in nature, extremism in general is
looked down upon (61). In an article on the Emirati news site The National, a research director
named Michael Denison said, “The absence of major terrorist threats in the UAE flows from a
combination of effective countermeasures and the lack of an ideological base for extremist
groups.” (Dajani 2010) Peck asserts that subversion and terrorism are greater threats to the UAE
than foreign military threats. However, according to the Global Terrorism Index 2015, the UAE
ranks 101 in the world list, notably facing a lower impact from terrorism than even Switzerland
and Iceland (Institute for Economics and Peace 10). The UAE have been able to use a “judicious
mix of diplomatic and social policies and internal security” to protect themselves (Peck 154).
Kenneth Christie described in his research that the police have been shown to effectively catch
militant Islamist threats before the situation escalates and violence occurs (Christie 206).
- 7. 7
My research revealed only mixed support for the hypothesized reasons for UAE security
from extremist threats. Involvement in the Gulf region by the United States has been extensive
and has had powerful effects. US engagement in the region is significantly characterized by the
goal of preserving oil interests—not just for the United States but for western nations and other
allies. In other words, the US defends regional peace (sometimes successfully and sometimes
not) in an effort to keep channels of oil trade flowing. Geographically, the United Arab Emirates
are sandwiched between a series of American airforce bases and armored brigades. The United
States currently has military bases or airports positioned in Bahrain, Oman, Kuwait, Qatar, and
Saudi Arabia (although the Prince Sultan Air Base there was relinquished in 2003) (Military
Bases, 2015; Worldaerodata.com, 2015). The UAE allows the US to use its ports as well as its
Dhafra air force bases for refuelers (AlIstiratijiyah 109). In addition, a naval base opened in
Fujairah, UAE in 2010 (Thenational.ae, 2010).
The United States military presence in the Gulf could provoke militant Islamists because
US presence in the historical land of the Prophet and the origin of Islam is seen as a form of
apostasy (107109). As Talbot and Hicks wrote, “Many Arabs believe that Western culture
represents an attack on their own religion and culture, perceiving it as a threat as dangerous as
any military invasion they may face.” (85) However, when Saddam invaded Kuwait, many of the
small Gulf monarchies realized how vulnerable they were to attack and saw the benefit of
allowing US military presence on their land. In addition, when the US withdrew from Saudi
Arabia, this put less pressure on the Saudi government and removed a large part of the reason for
extremist dissatisfaction (AlIstiratijiyah 117). While the US currently has some other smaller
bases in Saudi Arabia, perhaps fewer extremist groups arose in Saudi Arabia and fewer “leaked”
- 9. 9
nation of Iran. Therefore, Iran is not currently a major exporter of Wahhabi extremists and does
not pose a threat of that sort to the UAE.
In comparison to the United States, British military involvement in the Gulf has been less
extensive overall. Instead, the UK has a close trade relationship with the UAE. In 2002, a small
shift in trade made the UAE (rather than Saudi Arabia) Britain’s most important Gulf trading
partner, both in imports and exports (AlIstiratijiyah 160). A legacy of imperialism characterizes
the history of British dealings in the region. Many Gulf territories, including the UAE, were
controlled by Britain and gained their independence in the 1970s. Independence was not
violently asserted but rather slowly and quietly reached through increasing levels of autonomy
over time. As the small Gulf states achieved independence, the UK was able to maintain this
diplomatic trade relationship with the UAE.
Despite this history of “indirect rule” by the British, Britain was not very involved in UAE
state formation (Christie 205). The UAE make up the only state in the Middle East made of
previously separated Emirates which united peacefully (Forstenlechner, Rutledge and Alnuaimi
56). Several factors were conducive to unity from the beginning of the UAE. First, all emirates
were linked by traditional Arab and Islamic values and a common political culture. Second,
political institutions in individual emirates were not strong enough to overpower the others, so
they were able to come together at a national level (Peck 120121). Third, because of a recent
history of shared British protection, imperialism and influence, the leaders of the Emirates had
valuable leadership and cooperation experience. Despite the harm caused by British colonialism
- 10. 10
across the globe, the UAE seem to have benefited in this way—stability was present almost from
the nation’s beginning.
This evidence supports the idea that a strong government is an important factor in keeping
the UAE secure from extremism. PFLOAG (People’s Front for the Liberation of the Occupied
Arab Gulf) was a radical threat in the UAE near the beginning of sovereign statehood, but when
the rulers made national unity a reality in the 1970s, the threat diminished. The US also
ideologically supported unity among the Emirates (121). This may have had effects on UAE
national security against divisive threats because of a political will to cooperate with the US as
an influential superpower. In this way, both influence from the US and UK and a unified, stable
government were important factors allowing the UAE to remain secure.
The UAE government is composed of three political bodies. The first is the Supreme
Federal Council (SFC), which is the highest power in the UAE. It consists of the rulers of the
seven Emirates, who have the power of electing the President and Vice President. The President
has substantial power and ”serves largely to regulate conflicts within the political system.” (122)
The second body is the Council of Ministers, which is made up of the Prime Minister and the
heads of the federal departments. The third political body is the Federal National Council, which
serves as an advisory body, the members of which are appointed by the rulers of the seven
Emirates.
The Emirati constitution is a blend of western and Islamic principles (123). Expats make
up a large part of the administration (though a large proportion of them are from other Arab
countries). With the exception of crucial senior positions, expats have often outnumbered
- 11. 11
Emiratis in most government ministries (124). Nevertheless, locals have special rights that are
inaccessible to noncitizens, which one may suggest prevents some animosity and resentment
towards foreigners.
Though power in the UAE is very conservative, traditional, hierarchical and hereditary, it
does not seem to be exercised in an abusive, oppressive manner. The UAE have enjoyed a
history of competent rulers who have had legitimacy among the people. Many perceive them as
fair and capable leaders of the nation (127). In fact, it appears that the UAE’s lack of
democratization has actually led to the state’s ability to keep an effective control on its borders
and citizens and possibly prevent extremism (Christie 210).
Peace is not perfect in the Emirates. In 1972 Fujairah and Sharjah fought over land
traditionally used by tribesmen of both emirates. To prevent further violence, the government
had to intervene. Nevertheless, major causes of conflict have mostly been settled (Peck 129). In a
unique manner, the tribal heritage and organizational style of the Emirates have been harnessed
and channeled into a positive and secure attribute of governance.
Shaikh Zayed was the ruler of Abu Dhabi and the President of the UAE for 33 years from
the formation of statehood until his death in 2004. He was instrumental in the creation and
preservation of federal union among the Emirates. He used Abu Dhabi’s financial resources to
keep the Emirates united despite conflicting alignments and tribal affiliations. Zayed was willing
to make political sacrifices for this unity, allowing equality between Abu Dhabi and Dubai in
their power in the nation. He made efforts to share power and responsibilities among different
tribal and emiral leaders (129130). The UAE’s leaders continue in their strong commitment to
- 13. 13
‘leftist’ and alien movements, including Islamic militancy. Such policies indicate that the UAE
aimed to uproot fanaticism and fundamentalism.” (110).
The stability offered by the government was present even during the Arab Spring. In 2012,
UAE citizens seemed rather content with relatively tolerant conditions in their country and the
reforms going on there at the time (Forstenlechner, Rutledge and Alnuaimi 55). However, the
MB (Muslim Brotherhood) and its UAE movement Al Islah had been active for years and
became more well known during 2012, the year of the Arab Spring. Despite its presence, the MB
was not seen as a significant threat because too few Emiratis subscribed to its ideologies. There
have been no street demonstrations and ”the Arab Spring has taken no casualties in the UAE.”
(56)
The research supports the hypothesis that a stable government and US and UK influence
were significant factors in the UAE’s domestic security. The third aforementioned possibility is
that the Emirati military is an effective deterrent to terrorism. Research offers mixed support for
that statement. A 2014 CNN article by Dana Ford features Mariam Al Mansouri, the UAE’s first
female fighter pilot, who led an airstrike against ISIS. This article paints a picture of the Emirates
as a place of both female empowerment and strong military power. However, Al Sayegh states
that while increased female participation in public life has been the goal of the Emirati
government, patriarchal systems and limitations upon women are very much still in place (115).
Because many fundamentalist groups seek to tighten restrictions on women’s rights, female
empowerment is commonly used as a sort of measuring stick to assess a country’s level of
terrorism. However, further research is necessary to determine if there is such a correlation
- 14. 14
between female empowerment, female military involvement, and successful containment of
extremism.
The UAE are indeed an attractive and important trade partner for American, Britain,
Russian, French, Korean, and other weapons manufacturers (Young 102). The UAE are mostly
consumers, rather than producers, of military technology. Though the Gulf states went through a
buildup of weapons technology after the Gulf War, (Talbot and Hicks 83) the UAE military has
yet to define itself as a political force (Young 105). In Emirati society, military is for the service
of the rulers and citizens. There have been no violent coups or subjugations of civilians/leaders.
Political legitimacy is not defined in terms of the military (106). The military of the UAE is
therefore a reflection of the stable government, which seems to prevent terrorism more than the
military itself.
Not surprisingly, much military support in the UAE comes from the US. In 2011, the
government confirmed that it had hired the US to provide training and mercenary support (108).
This was meant to counter domestic threats. International politics of security between the Gulf
countries have also led to a defensive stance against terrorism among each other, especially since
America’s invasion of Iraq and the “war on terror.” Militarization and political intervention
between the nations of the Gulf Cooperation Council have increased (111). Even before this war,
the Gulf War provoked a defensive reaction among the Gulf monarchies. After the Gulf War,
many of the small states in the Gulf Cooperation Council wanted to increase their security and
bought large amounts of fighter planes and forces. This may be a contributing reason to why
many of the small Gulf countries are relatively secure compared to other Arab countries. The
pre9/11 journal article entitled The US Role in Preserving Gulf Security stated, ”Prior to the
- 15. 15
Gulf War, only Oman and Bahrain permitted any type of US presence on their soil. Now, we
have signed defense cooperation agreements with Kuwait, the UAE, and Qatar.” (Talbot and
Hicks 7879) Talbot and Hicks mentioned that the UAE decided not only to take advantage of
US military strength, but also purchase jet fighters from France. Even Oman provided the UAE
and some other Gulf states with Soldiers due to military shortages and has served as mediator
between the UAE and Iran (81). To sum up the military question, the UAE military may serve as
a minor deterrent for terrorists, but most military support in the country consists of foreign forces
(heavily US) and fighting equipment. The Gulf states’ defensive posture postGulf War and
post9/11 may have also played a role. Nevertheless, overall the national government combined
with the influence of the US and the UK have played a greater role in insulating the UAE against
extremism. Other factors playing into the equation is the local Emirati political culture and its
tolerant yet simultaneously conservative nature, which have partially been a product of these
institutions. This suggests that the UAE, even in times when its people dislike Western leaders,
have a social environment that is not conducive to generating and harboring extremism. The
region’s history, foreign influence, stable statebuilding and governance and cultural forces have
combined to create a Gulf nation with a level of stability and security that stands out in
comparison to its neighbors.
Conclusion
- 16. 16
The initial hypotheses that the United Arab Emirates are insulated from militant Islamists
due to US and UK involvement, a stable government and a strong military were shown to be
partially true. The United States’ military actions and decisions in the Middle East indirectly
created and added a layer of security for the UAE as a side effect. While the United States
relinquished bases in neighboring Saudi Arabia and thereby lowered threats of radicals there, it
also made agreements to use the bases of other smaller Gulf monarchies which may have
contributed to a level of stability in those countries west of the Gulf. While many people resented
American presence, they also saw it as necessary after Saddam’s 1990 invasion of Kuwait.
Historical involvement by the UK and its “indirect rule” over the Emirates gave the new
nation a solid foundation on which to build stable government. Because Britain did not directly
govern and control the Emirates in the same manner that it exercised imperial control in other
countries, there arose a group of experienced Emirati leaders. The nonviolent nature of the
Emirates’ independence also created an environment in which a stable state building process
could take place. The rulers of the UAE, especially Shaikh Zayed, were instrumental in
channeling the nation’s hierarchical, tribal heritage into a uniting force rather than a divisive one
by giving attention to the unique interests of rulers and tribal leaders. Hence, there are few
extremist groups in the Emirates who turn to violence to make their voices heard. In addition, the
culture of the Emirates, while Islamic and conservative, is tolerant and looks down upon
extremism. Moreover, the police forces are especially competent at detecting and neutralizing
violent, extremist threats.
The research about the UAE military’s strength and its effects on terrorism prevention
appear inconclusive. While the Emirati military, largely USsupported, has made efforts to fight
- 17. 17
ISIS in other countries, this does not answer the question of whether this military strength has
brought added domestic security. Of the three above factors, the governmental structures and
history of the Emirates have played the biggest role in keeping extremists at bay. Economic and
trade policies, both foreign and domestic may also matter and should be studied further. The
finances gained from trade, tourism and oil likely affect the Emirati government’s resources and
ability to implement effective measures for the prevention of terrorist groups.
What keeps a nation secure from militant Islamists is therefore a complex phenomenon
that is affected by combined factors of governance, culture, history, economics, and foreign
involvement. As complex as they are, it is important to study these factors in order to reach
greater understanding of how actors and leaders can improve security in a time when terrorism is
a major international concern. The results of the above research indicate a few lessons to be
learned from the United Arab Emirates. First, enforcing democracy abroad in nations with
diverse heritages is not always the superior option and is frequently an untimely and ineffective
method to establish security. Another lesson is that unwanted United States military presence can
lead to further radicalization, while desired military presence may have benefits for nations that
see themselves as vulnerable. Third, in order to prevent militant, extremist organizations from
developing, political leaders need to listen to the grievances of diverse groups within their
nations and work on collaborative solutions.
- 18. 18
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