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The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 1
THE IMPACT OF
DATAFICATION
ON STRATEGIC
LANDSCAPES
Industry
transformation
The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 2
THE IMPACT OF DATAFICATION
ON STRATEGIC LANDSCAPES
This series of reports on Industry Transformation
provides insights into how the strategies of market
players in various industries are being impacted by
the macrotrends of digitisation and datafication. The
methods consist of a blend of quantitative and qualita-
tive analysis including:
> A series of in-depth interviews with a broad range
of business people within traditional industries in
order to understand the shifting boundaries as a
result of datafication
 The integrated industry analysis models of Impe-
rial College Business School to forecast trends and
gauge the digital capabilities of various industries.
 Information-Driven Global Value Chain analysis that
provides a framework for understanding how data
will contribute to re-defining industries
 Macroeconomic methods
Ericsson conducted this report series in collaboration
with Imperial College Business School and the RCUK
Digital Economy Sustainable Society Network+. It con-
sists of multiple parts examining the general impacts of
datafication on strategic landscapes as well as an in-
depth analysis of several industrial structures, covering
various market sectors including
utilities, retail, food and agriculture,
digital money, media and broadcast-
ing, transportation, and governance,
among other ongoing studies.
Special thanks to Dr. C.E.A. Mulligan from Imperial
College, London without whose insights, authorship
and research leadership this report series would not
have been possible. In addition, the contributions of
Drs. Zeyenp Gurguc and Giaime Berti were invaluable
to the development of the concepts and ideas con-
tained in these reports.
PREFACE
The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 3
TABLE OF
CONTENTS
1. Introduction	 4
1.1 Digitalisation vs Datafication	 5
2. Datafying personality	 7
  2.1 Impact of Datafication of Personality on Industries	 8
  2.1.1 Datafication Of Personal Behaviour – The Case Of Netflix	 9
3. Datafying Business Processes	 10
  3.1 Impact of datafication of business process on industries	 11
  3.1.1. Datafication Of Business Processes – The Case Of Micro Supply Chains	 12
4. Datafying Cities	13
  4.1 Impact of datafication of cities on industries	 14
5. Datafying Private Lives	15
  5.1 Impact of datafication of private lives on industries – the Case of Healthcare	 16
6. Preparing your Industry for Datafication	18
  6.1 Datafication and Information Value Chains	 19
  6.2 Overcoming Critical Barriers	 21
  6.2.1 Security and Privacy	 22
  6.2.2 Risk and Insurance	 23
  6.2.3 Data Provenance	 24
  6.2.4 Regulation	 25
7. Selected Bibliography	26
Appendix A – Evolution of digitalisation and impact on RD	27
Appendix B – Evolution of Embedded and Unembedded Knowledge	28
The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 4
INTRODUCTION
Since the 1960’s, digital technology has been redefin-
ing how companies and humans co-ordinate busi-
ness activities and with one another. In a process of
dramatic digitalisation communication networks, data
centres and computing capacity were installed and
now span nearly every part of our globe, instantly con-
necting people and companies with one another and
the information they need to make their daily decisions.
From large-scale financial transactions to where to buy
a decent cup of coffee in an unfamiliar location, satel-
lites, copper, fibre, routers, switches and radio waves
all combine together dedicated to our common human
need to communicate news, our ideas, our hopes and
business plans with others.
This is not the end of the story, however, as a new
process of datafication1
is emerging across the world.
In contrast to digitalisation, which enabled productivity
improvements and efficiency gains on already existing
processes, datafication promises to completely redefine
nearly every aspect of our existence as humans on this
planet. Significantly beyond digitalisation, this trend
challenges the very foundations of our established
methods of measurement and provides the opportunity
to recreate societal frameworks, many of which have
dictated human existence for over 250 years.
1
Lycett, 2013
Datafication creates a
fundamentally new strategic
landscape. Any company, large
or small, any NGO, in fact any
organisation active in society now
needs to fully explore the new
value creation space instigated
by datafication.
The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 5
1.1
Digitalisation
VS DATAFICATION
Much analysis investigates the role of digital tech-
nologies from the perspective of digitalisation. In this
report, however, we investigate the emergence of a
new phenomenon – datafication, which is set to have a
dramatic impact on the economy and broader society.
It is useful, therefore to begin with a definition of the
differences between these two concepts.
TIME
1960 1985 2014
Computing industry
Telecom industry
Semiconductor industry
DEGREEOFDIGITALISATION
Process
automation
Business process
reengineering
”IT inside”
(corporations)
“Mobile inside”
(everything)
Sensors/activators
(Chipset in everything)
DIGITALISATION + DATAFICATION = Disruption of economy, society, everything
Information goods
Books
CDs
etc…
• High cost of production
• Low marginal cost of
reproduction
Information goods
(digital network)
Wikipedia
Stock prices
Time reporting
• High cost of production
• Marginal cost of
reproduction
tends towards zero
Information domain
(broadband networks)
Combination of one
or more information
goods
• High cost of production
• Marginal cost of repro-
duction tends towards
zero
• Value added through
combining information
sources together
Figure 1: – Evolution of digitalisation and datafication Figure 2: Evolution of digitalisation as a result of increasing bandwidth
and cloud computing
Digitalisation has been primarily about productivity
improvements in corporations, allowing for the creation
of economies of scale that span the globe. Through
implementing IT in payroll, finance, human resources
and other core business processes of a corporation,
these solutions were able to streamline the processes
of doing business, link together disparate data sets for
deeper insights and use digital technology platforms
in order to create a 24-hour information-technology
driven business. The evolution of this process is il-
lustrated in Appendix A - Evolution of digitalisation and
impact on RD processes.
Digitalisation is a process that has been active within
society since the late 1950s, with the birth of the
semiconductor industry. It refers to the conversion of
pieces of information into digital formats, for example
text into HTML pages, music into MP3s, images into
JPEG or similar. As the process of digitalisation has
progressed, the amount of data that could be pro-
cessed has increased exponentially. Digitalisation,
therefore, from a simplistic perspective may be viewed
as the embodiment of idea creation – it is capturing
human ideas in digital form for transmission, re-use
and manipulation, as illustrated in Figure 2.
The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 6
Datafication, meanwhile, relates to the use of digital
technologies to unembed the knowledge associated
with physical objects by decoupling them from the
data associated with them. Datafication is manifesting
itself in society in a variety of forms and is often – but
not always – associated with sensors/actuators and
the emerging Internet of Things (IoT). Datafication may
take many forms and in many cases a mobile device
is enough to create unembedded knowledge of a
person, a thing or a piece of infrastructure. There are
many examples, from putting sensors on a bridge to
monitor structural integrity, monitoring parking spaces,
performing a 3D scan of an object to print it out later,
to measuring the activity levels of a person for health,
etc… The evolution to unembedded knowledge is
covered in Appendix B - Evolution of Embedded and
Unembedded Knowledge.
Datafication is a relatively new phenomenon compared
to digitalisation and is characterised by an interac-
tion between digital and physical objects and mass
customisation of products and services for – and
by – end-users rather than merely process automa-
tion or efficiency improvements, although datafication
techniques can of course be used for this as well. The
manner in which process improvements will be im-
plemented is fundamentally different for datafication,
however, and it implies a different strategic landscape,
as well as the necessity for new managerial capacities
in order to handle these issues effectively.
A key differentiating aspect between digitalisation and
datafication will be the manner in which data analytics
is applied to the problem spaces that they cover. Digi-
talisation will use data analytics based on traditional
sampling mechanisms, while datafication will over time
come to rely on the new forms of quantification and
associated data mining techniques.
1.1 DIGITALISATION VS DATAFICATION
Digital technologies are recognised as creating disrup-
tion of established industries, etc… but we are cur-
rently in the throes of something much more profound
– datafication does not change just how we do busi-
ness with one another, or how we manage our com-
panies, lives and cities – it begins to challenge some
of the fundamental mechanisms upon which society
has always depended upon – from the basis of the
techniques used in the scientific method to how the
economy is measured and structured. In the following
sections, we investigate a few of these changes.
DIGITALISATION DATAFICATION
Platform economics Unfinished products and platforms.
Process automation, corporate
control over value chain
Mass customisation, end-user
control over value chain.
Complementary products
(3rd party apps)
Maker culture and augmented
manufacturing.
Digital only
Digital and interaction with
physical world.
Data analytics based on sampling
Data analytics based on
quantification.
Table 1: Characteristics of Digitalisation and Datafication
The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 7
2.
DATAFYING
PERSONALITY
As stated, datafication does not have to rely on sen-
sors or actuators – it represents changes at work
in markets rather than solely within the technology
domain. For example, as mobile devices have evolved
to hold our preferred music selections, our social
networks, our video and TV choices and the third party
games and applications we select to augment the base
software with, it opens up the mobile to a range of new
possibilities. A mobile device is sold as a ‘platform’ to
end-users – it is in some sense ready to be “finished”
by the end-user who purchases it with apps and other
personalisation of the software. The nature of the
mobile device nearly everyone has in their pocket is
therefore deeply personal and the records of their us-
age of the device divulge deep details about who they
really are.
Let’s take the example of personality, which most peo-
ple will agree cannot be “digitalised”. Within psychol-
ogy, there are five broad factors that form the most
widely accepted and used model of personality. The
five factors are: openness, conscientiousness, extra-
version, agreeableness, and neuroticism. Traditionally,
personality is measured by interviews and self-assess-
ment questionnaires through sampling techniques. Us-
ing nothing more than standard mobile network CDRs,
however, it is possible to reliably predict personality2
.
The ability to accurately predict personality types
using mobile phone data holds the potential for “cost-
effective, questionnaire-free investigation of personal-
ity-related questions at a scale never seen before” (De
Montjoye et al, 2013).
A mobile device, however, allows us to take datafica-
tion significantly further than just understanding the
user’s personality. The manner in which an end-user
chooses to use the games they have installed can also
provide detailed indications of trustworthiness, credit
ratings, risk profile and many other aspects of a human
being’s interactions with companies can be “datafied”
through analysing mobile phone logs.
Figure 3 – Datafication of personality
CONSCIEN
T
IO
USNESS / NEUROTISM
/ EXT
R
AVERSION
A
G
REEABLENESS / OPENNESS
Phone calls
Social media
Games
Internet
Maps
Calendar
Youtube
TV
Music
2
Predicting people personality using novel mobile phone-based metrics
The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 8
2.1
IMPACT OF
DATAFICATION
OF PERSONALITY
ON INDUSTRIES
Datafication of personality has the potential to disrupt
several industries and also the manner in which social
science research itself is conducted. Usage of games
such as Angry Birds (what is a person’s willingness to
take risk?) and Bejeweled Blitz can give away a lot about
a person’s approach to risk and financial management.
This may affect, for example, how insurance companies
develop the risk profile of end-users. In addition, tradi-
tional mobile billing records provide extremely detailed
information about how likely it is that an end-user is go-
ing to repay a loan on time. Such data is already being
used in several nations in order to help the unbanked
access financial services but is also an indication of the
possible disruption to the manner in which credit ratings
are developed and maintained globally.
Human Resources, meanwhile, can start to have a more
detailed understanding of their employees – for exam-
ple would companies like an early warning mechanism
that allowed them to identify managers displaying risk
for fraudulent behavior through the use of their mobile
devices? The recruitment process itself, meanwhile,
may be fundamentally disrupted. Instead of relying on
the traditional personality measurements and the as-
sociated intermediaries, new personality measures will
be developed and new digitally enabled intermediaries
will emerge to handle the required analytics to replace
existing personality and aptitude exam providers.
Social science research itself will also be disrupted.
The traditional methods of sampling in order to de-
velop personality and associated social aspects is
challenged through datafication – instead of using
traditional sampling methods, it may instead be more
powerful to analyse the data for emerging patterns.
Table 2: Impact of datafication of personality on industries
INDUSTRY / AREA IMPACT OF DATAFICATION ON PERSONALITY
Insurance Data used to update risk profile development and business models.
Banking Data used to establish trustworthiness and likelihood of a person paying back a loan.
Human resources Data used to identify e.g. employees risk-taking profiles.
Hiring and recruitment Data used to replace personality tests.
Social science research Datafication replaces sampling techniques and restructures the manner in which social science research is performed.
Media and broadcast Data is used to redefine how content is created by datafication being used to inform content rather than recommendation systems.
The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 9
2.1.1
DATAFICATION OF
PERSONAL BEHAVIOUR
– THE CASE OF NETFLIX
While the datafication of personalities will create
large-scale changes on the manner in which vari-
ous industries are run and measured, the datafication
of personal behaviour may create the possibility for
disruption of well-established industries. An example is
Netflix – which applied a detailed statistical analysis of
many years worth of viewing data and user behavior in
order to change its role in the television industry – from
a content delivery mechanism to a content creator.
Traditionally, recommendation engines have been used
to identify what other types of content an end-user
might like to hire or purchase based on similar user
profiles and advanced personality analysis. Based on
your social influences from social networks, the make-
up of your household and your income levels, content
would be suggested to you.
Netflix instead turned this model on its head and
instead of using the recommendations for making
content suggestions, used it to define an intersection
of genre, actors and directors (Lycett, 2013), which it
developed into its own content – the now well-known
House of Cards, which has received Emmy and
Golden Globe nominations.
This is indicative of an emerging challenge to the
established industrial structure of the television indus-
try, which has traditionally relied on bundling – where
customers bought access via a cable TV provider to a
variety of channels. Essentially, in order to access the
content they wanted, users had to purchase a whole
set of channels that they did not want. Advertisers,
meanwhile, had to buy access to a large set of cus-
tomers in order to reach the ones they really did want
to advertise to.
Through datafication, Netflix has shaken up this busi-
ness model to some extent – using its proximity to
customers to challenge the traditional bundling model
of media and broadcast. Rather than user-generated
content, it is content tailored specifically for its user
base based on their aggregated personal selections.
The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 10
3.
DATAFYING
BUSINESS
PROCESSES
One of the most obvious examples of datafication oc-
curs in business process improvement, where differ-
ent types of datafication are used to streamline and
improve existing business processes. For example,
datafication can be used to reconfigure existing supply
chains and restructure financial services flows within
companies. As will be discussed later, a more disrup-
tive result can be seen in the creation of new forms of
supply chain emerge based on data and information.
The lowering costs of sensors, increased process-
ing capacity and availability of low-cost bandwidth
mean that datafication is starting to enter into business
processes that have until recently been un-monitored
– this process is forcing a reconstruction of existing
supply chain processes and in some cases even help-
ing to create different forms of supply chain.
Financial services, for example, is starting to be changed
by the use of micropayments, which are payments that
cover small, incidental costs for example the purchase
of a coffee or chocolate bar at a train station or as an
individual moves through town for different meetings.
These small scale purchases were previously ‘un-
known’ within most business processes – the pur-
chase of goods was mainly understood via large scale
purchases. The purchasing patterns of individuals,
meanwhile, were limited to mainly larger purchases via
credit cards. A more detailed understanding of how
and when individuals are making small purchases can
have a large impact on e.g. supply chains, however.
For example, a fast moving consumer goods (FMCG)
corporation can make dynamic adjustments to their
production processes based on the real-time pur-
chases of their products. Aggregating large amounts
of these micropayments can be used to gain in-depth
understanding of how money actually flows around
the economy in small amounts. This will provide much
more in-depth analysis of where money is being spent,
by whom and how – allowing for the restructuring of
commercial real estate management by providing
more in-depth knowledge and understanding of when
and where different types of enterprises might want to
locate their stores to gain access to the correct type of
clientele for their products.
The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 11
Table 3: Impact of datafication of business processes on industries
3.1
IMPACT OF
DATAFICATION OF
BUSINESS PROCESS
ON INDUSTRIES
INDUSTRY / AREA IMPACT OF DATAFICATION OF BUSINESS PROCESSES
Micro and ‘short’ supply chains
Datafication eases the creation of short supply chains, creating micro supply chain business processes
encapsulated via low cost technologies such as mobile devices.
Agriculture and food Increased traceablility and removal of intermediaries in the industrial supply chain.
Manufacturing
Feedback from products ‘in use’, rather than sampled provides improved product development practices,
shared data across multiple manufacturers allows increased efficiencies across supply chains.
Commercial real estate management
Redefining how different parts of a city are classified for industrial use. Increased levels of detail for real
estate customers to understand where to locate their businesses for best impact and foot flow.
The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 12
3.1.1.
DATAFICATION OF
BUSINESS PROCESSES
– THE CASE OF MICRO
SUPPLY CHAINS
Applying low costs sensors and mobile devices in
new ways is allowing people to reduce the transaction
costs of creating agile, micro supply chains in a digital
economy. These supply chains connect people togeth-
er in something that is similar to a traditional business
process in a corporation but without the traditional
overheads of supply chain interactions. Relatively
cheap technology means that datafication is able to
help small companies and individuals create these mi-
cro supply chains for a dramatically cheaper price than
existing systems from large-scale ICT suppliers.
Individuals with goods and services to offer are able to
develop multiple streams of business through interact-
ing with such micro supply chains, offering their wares
to assist in different processes as and when required.
More importantly, it is possible to use such a micro
supply chain to smooth supply so that customers can
be guaranteed to receive goods when they need it.
The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 13
4.
DATAFYING
CITIES
Much has been written about the role that new forms
of technology can play in a city – both from a top-
down and a bottom-up, citizen-led perspective. ICT
will be used in a multitude of different manners that
will allow the creation of new data streams in a city
space, assisting with issues such as transport, energy
and water management at a city level, urban planning,
etc… A very simple example of datafication in the city
context is the use of twitter by end-users when there
are problems with public transport or traffic jams on
roads – this datafication of customer sentiment can
be useful in identifying when problems have occurred
and to interact with customers to move towards other
forms of public transport or to provide updates on
the service. Customers are also able to take greater
control over their transport choices - for example, by
subscribing to information about their usual routes, an
end-user may be able to know in advance that there is
no point in going to the train station, but may instead
take a bus or an alternative train line route. Datafica-
tion within a city context therefore enables a range of
disruptive solutions for cities and citizens alike.
Datafication of cities will impact industries such as trans-
port and logistics in dramatic ways – for example the
datafication starting to become the norm in cars means
that logistics companies are now able to make deliver-
ies to your car (ref), rather than to your fixed address,
streamlining the manner in which logistics services oper-
ate in cities. Individuals and the physical services that
they interact with on a daily basis will therefore become
unbundled as a result of datafication – this will reform
the manner in which our physical infrastructure in cities
needs to be built – the division of space in our urban
areas could become dramatically different as a result
of datafication.
As cities increasingly need to compete on a global,
rather than national, level the quality of life and en-
vironment that they are able to provide citizens is
increasing in importance. An emerging area within
cities, therefore, is the datafication of environmental
factors. For example, many cities have and are invest-
ing in environmental monitoring equipment for various
natural resources, for example measuring water or air
quality. This will have a disruptive impact on industries
through the manner in which environmental regulation
is created and implemented. Today, environmental
regulation is handled by setting standards that are
based on data collection, sampling and estimates of
damage developed over several decades. These are
then combined with catastrophe planning and esti-
mates of damage to natural environments based on
rough models of environmental ecosystems. Through
applying datafication, cities and regions could under-
stand in greater detail the impact of pollution and other
industrial activity on the natural resources in question.
Regulation could be based on more detailed knowl-
edge and understanding of the damage of the activity
in question and real-time measurements could change
not just the manner in which industries pollute, but the
manner in which nations decide to regulate that activity
– regulation may be implemented in real-time.
The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 14
Table 4: Impact of datafication of cities on industries
4.1
IMPACT OF
DATAFICATION
OF CITIES ON
INDUSTRIES
INDUSTRY / AREA IMPACT OF DATAFICATION ON CITIES
Manufacturing End of pipe regulation will become adaptive.
Telecom New partnerships required to handle the changing demands on operators.
Retail
New demands will be placed on retail to respond to the mass customisation available to consumers. In conjunction with
3D printing, this will see the reformation of the high street.
Transport
Transport will become more responsive to end-users, rather than running according to a timetable. Autonomous cars will
redefine how urban centres are planned.
Logistics Data changes manner in which deliveries are made, when they are made and where they are delivered.
The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 15
5.
DATAFYING
PRIVATE LIVES
Perhaps one of the most obvious examples of datafic-
tion is the role that cheaper sensors and IoT are start-
ing to play in our private lives. A multitude of different
technologies are now available from small and large
companies that help individuals monitor and meas-
ure things that were previously difficult or impossible
to quantify. Everything – from how much energy and
water I use, what my food purchasing habits are, how I
use social networks, the air quality of my local neigh-
borhood, when I am awake and asleep, knowing when
I am stressed or when a certain temperature level has
been reached in the air around me, what road I select
to drive to work as a result, how many cups of coffee
I drink in the morning, how I brush my teeth and what
TV programs I decide to let my kids watch in the back
seat of the car on long journeys – can now be meas-
ured, quantified and compared to other people.
A plethora of new ‘wearable’ technologies have
emerged as a result of the continued reduction in size
of chipsets and batteries – from smart meters to Fit-
Bit®, individuals are now able to ‘quantify’ themselves
in ways previously unimaginable. From the amount
someone sleeps, their heart rate, the oxygen and sugar
levels in their blood, to the amount of exercise they are
taking can be measured and quantified on a near real-
time basis. A near continual flow of information can
now provide deeper insights into a person’s real state
of health. Whereas previously a snapshot in time was
taken at a GPs office of an individual’s health when
problems were suspected, today there is a real-time
flow of information – about how a person is when they
are well, as well as when they are feeling sick.
This type of information can revolutionise the manner
in which clinical research is performed3
. Traditional
medical research has focused on disease, rather than
wellness, often due to constraints on data – for ex-
ample research into diseases has focused on how to
treat people once they have it. People go to the doctor
when they feel sick or are displaying symptoms and
a snapshot in time of their overall health is taken to
assess whether they need medication, further testing
or hospitalisation. The new quantification of self may
allow for more detailed understanding of how a dis-
ease forms in the first place. Rather than just rely on a
snapshot in time, a person’s state of unwellness can
be compared to a data set of a much longer period of
time – including data from when a patient was feeling
well. Over time, traditional sampling techniques can
be augmented with new data analysis techniques that
investigate emerging disease patterns across much
larger datasets, allowing for much earlier detection and
the development of tailored drugs that are more effec-
tive and reduce side effects for individuals.
More than just ‘measure’, however, these devices are
increasingly being used to create ‘triggers’ that encour-
age new types of behavior from the end-users in ques-
tion. Some early examples can be seen in the use of
smart meters, which allow end-users to compare and
contrast how an individual’s energy consumption com-
pares to that of their neighbors, or the app that informs
an end-user when their posture needs correction.
3
Types of Study in Medical Research:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2689572/
The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 16
5.1
IMPACT OF
DATAFICATION OF
PRIVATE LIVES ON
INDUSTRIES – THE
CASE OF HEALTHCARE
Healthcare has traditionally been a binary system –
once a patient was defined as ill and needed to enter
hospital, there were two main outcomes that the sys-
tems was built to deliver – either a patient was cured
and left hospital, or their treatment failed and they died.
With the dramatic improvements in healthcare over the
last approximately 60 years, however, the majority of
major health problems in many nations and the ones
that require the most funding from governments are
‘life-long’ diseases, such as diabetes or heart disease.
These require a different form of healthcare manage-
ment. Initially, using datafication allows for the creation
of ‘triggers’ that can improve end-user behavior and
reduce pressure on the health care systems. Over a
longer period of time, however, datafication completely
redefines how the healthcare industry will be struc-
tured and operate. While datafication of private lives
forms only one part of the forces redefining healthcare,
it is an increasingly important one*.
In Figure 4, we illustrate some of the possible forces
affecting the healthcare industry – the arrows indicate
where datafication has a role to play in changing either
our understanding of those forces or the manner in
which healthcare is delivered as a result.
CURED
HOSPITAL
DEAD
Figure 4 – Healthcare system – binary approach
* The author would like to thank and acknowledge the contribution of a discussion
with Prof. Rifat Atun regarding data and the impact on healthcare for this section.
The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 17
The nature of our world has changed – we are now
a ‘city planet’ – the majority of the earth’s popula-
tion live in cities and associated urban areas, travel
is increasing both locally in cities and globally. At the
same time, climate change and population growth are
changing the manner in which humans interact with
the planet and how we manage natural resources –
the role of datafication in this respect was covered to
some extent in the previous section. Within a health-
care context, however, these create changes in the
nature of ‘environmental stressors’ (Evans  Cohen,
S., 1987) – for example climate change may lead to
changes in temperature, increased air pollution may
have an impact as well as the 24/7 mobile connected
work environment. It is important to remember that
every individual reacts differently to the environmental
stressors in question – and this is one reason that the
datafication of private lives can provide real extra value
to individuals.
Thanks to IoT and datafication of various parts of the
healthcare value chain, there is now data that was not
available previously, eg.. E.g. genomic data at both an
individual level and population level data. Epidemiol-
ogy has also changed – datafication can now help with
lifelong disease management – providing patients with
better care through real-time analysis of diseases such
as diabetes or asthma and in turn reducing the overall
costs of healthcare for the nation in question. Datafica-
tion has also helped to change patho-physiology, for
example with the link between individual genome data
and interaction with environmental stressors now more
clearly defined.
5.1 IMPACT OF DATAFICATION OF PRIVATE LIVES
ON INDUSTRIES – THE CASE OF HEALTHCARE
Table 6: Impact of datafication of private lives on industries
Table 5: Environmental stressors and datafication (adapted from Evans and Cohen, 1987)
Figure 5 – Healthcare and datafication
ENVIRONMENTAL STRESSOR IMPACT ROLE OF DATAFICATION
Heat
Up to 32 degrees, increase in riots.
Change in temp = increase in cardiovascular disease.
Measure heat islands in cities through IoT and other
means.
Measure temperature of individuals to monitor possible
cardiovascular disease.
Noise
Associations with psychological symptoms, psychiatric
admissions, use of tranquilisers, cardiovascular disorders.
Deficits in information-processing tasks with multiple signals.
Decrements in incremental memory.
Real-time measurement of noise levels that an individual
is experiencing.
Measurement of tension and activity indicating that
an end-user may wish to take a break or find someone
quiet for their lunch break .
Crowding
Catecholamines, blood pressure, heart rate,
skin conductance, cortisol levels.
Measurement of the real impact of urbanisation on larger
populations.
INDUSTRY / AREA IMPACT OF DATAFICATION ON PRIVATE LIVES
Healthcare
Fundamental reshaping of how industry handles
patients and how medical research / drug devel-
opment is performed.
Emerging industry /
industry roles
Protection of data and creation of secure brokers
for private information.
Climate
change
Rate of
urbanisation
/travel
Technology
/regulation
Population
growth
Epidemiology
Patho-
physiology
Genetic
data
Environmental
stressors
NATURE
O
F
W
ORLD HAS CHANGED
DETERMINAN
T
S
OF
DISEASE UNDERSTAND
I
N
G
OFDISEASE
HAVE
C
H
ANGED HAS
C
H
AN
GED
One of the most important angles for datafication to
work in the healthcare industry is protection of privacy
and security. We cover these issues in section 6.
The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 18
6.
PREPARING
YOUR INDUSTRY
FOR DATAFICATION
As datafication becomes more common and the im-
pact of peoples’ lives more widespread, the develop-
ment of new frameworks for understanding is becom-
ing increasingly necessary. In addition, datafication
requires a significant re-assessment of several areas
of an industry’s operation. Here we briefly outline a few
areas, including frameworks for understanding how
value chains of data are emerging alongside traditional
supply and value chains and several governance is-
sues industries need to take into account and effec-
tively implement datafication.
The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 19
6.1
DATAFICATION
AND INFORMATION
VALUE CHAINS
One of the main issues to understand is how data
works together and is combined, rather than solely
how it is managed within one company or process
itself. Datafication requires much more than solely
putting sensors around a city or within business
processes – it actually requires new business and
industry processes solely for the management of
data. For the sake of simplicity, we can view ‘sens-
ing’ or ‘datafying’ through to the creation of a viable
‘information product’ as a value chain in and of itself
– an Information Value Chain, illustrated in Figures 6
and 7.
 Inputs: Inputs are the base raw components used
in manufacture to create a product. Examples could
be cocoa beans for the manufacture of choco-
late or data from a sensor, e.g. a sensor gathering
individual data points from a truck’s engine, that will
be collated with other data and turned into a piece
of information. Examples relevant for datafication
include: Devices/Sensors: Open Data, OSS/BSS,
Corporate Databases.
 Production/manufacture: Production/Manufacture
refers to the process by which raw inputs are put
through various processes in order to become part
of a value chain. For example, cocoa beans may
be dried and separated before being transported
to overseas markets. Data, meanwhile, needs to be
verified and tagged for provenance. For example,
open data often needs to be ‘cleaned’ in order to
make it ready for various forms of data analysis and
processing. Examples include: Asset Information
databases, Open Data Sets, Network Information,
Corporate Information Databases.
 Processing: Processing refers to the process
whereby a product is prepared for sale. For exam-
ple, cocoa beans may now be made into cocoa
powder, ready for use in chocolate bars. For a da-
tafication solution, this refers to the aggregation of
multiple data sources to create an information com-
ponent - something that is ready to be combined
with other data sets to make it useful for corporate
or public service decision-making.
Figure 6 – Overview of an information value chain
Source: Höller et al, 2014, From M2M to IoT: An introduction to a new era of intelligence
Inputs
Production/
manufacture
Processing Packaging
Distribution
and marketing
The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 20
 Packaging: Packaging refers to the process
whereby a product can be branded as would be
recognisable to end-user consumers. For example,
a chocolate bar would now be ready to eat and
have a red wrapper with the words “Kit Kat” on it.
In information value chains, however, the data will
have to be combined with other information from
internal corporate databases, for example, to see
whether the data received requires any action. This
data would be recognisable to the end-users that
need to use the information, either in the form of
visualisations or an Excel spreadsheet. The brand-
ing of data is also extremely important as data
branded with the “Office of National Statistics”, or
ONS is considered more reliable – and therefore
often more valuable – than data that is compiled by
unknown sources uncovered with a Google search.
6.1 DATAFICATION AND INFORMATION VALUE CHAINS
 Distribution/marketing: This process refers to the
channels to market that a company selects for sell-
ing its products. There are a broad variety of such
channels in many different industries. For example,
a chocolate bar may be sold at a supermarket, a
kiosk, or even online. A datafied solution, how-
ever, will generally have produced an Information
Product that can be used to create new knowledge
within a corporate environment - examples include
more detailed scheduling of maintenance based on
real-world information or improved product design
due to feedback from solution. Alternatively, these
information products could be offered for sale to
other players in the industrial structure that would
benefit from access to tailored ‘knowledge’ from
the different parties.
Figure 7 – An information-driven value chain
Source: Höller et al, 2014, From M2M to IoT: An introduction to a new era of intelligence
Corporate
databases
OSS/BSS
Open data
Devices/
sensors
Inputs
Corporate
information
Network
information
Open data
sets
Large-scale system integrators
Infrastructure enables (discussed in chapter 2)
Asset
information
Data
combination
Information
components
Information
products
Production/
manufacture
Processing Packaging
Distribution
and marketing
Information
marketplaces
The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 21
6.2
OVERCOMING
CRITICAL
BARRIERS
Datafication is far from solely a technical issue – as
outlined within this document, it touches on every
aspect of an industrial structure from regulation to
business workflows as well as the management and
strategy processes of companies involved. The eco-
nomic and social value may be tempered by privacy
and trust concerns and in some cases, these concerns
may even prevent usage by individuals and citizens. In
order for the benefits to be accrued therefore, certain
value chain governance issues need to be thought
through and addressed appropriately. Each industry
will face its own distinct barriers to the use of datafica-
tion and every industry will therefore need to develop
its own unique approach to the issues presented by
datafication. This section presents some of the most
common issues that are shared across industries.
While technology will play a role in solving these is-
sues, many must also be the focus on in-depth discus-
sion across industry about the role that we wish data
to play in our lives and our societies – and where we
are willing to draw the line between public and private
lives and corporate and broader social and govern-
mental responsibility. Our aim with this report series is
not to provide definitive answers, but rather to trigger
much-needed debate about how to establish proper
boundaries in. These issues will be covered in more
detail in the reports for each industrial sector.
The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 22
6.2.1
SECURITY
AND PRIVACY
One of the most commonly discussed barriers in
the digital economy is the effective management of
security and privacy for corporations, individuals and
government institutions – often these even appear to
be conflicting interests. In many of the new informa-
tion-driven value chains, however, users are required
to trust that their data is being used appropriately, in a
manner that they would approve of and by entities that
they would ensure such data to. Many datafication
solutions rely on cloud computing and data analytics
as core components – users are unlikely, therefore, to
ever have detailed knowledge of the exact location of
how and where their data is stored (and the legal
ramifications of the data being stored there), or what
other data it is being stored with.
Many different methods have been proposed for solv-
ing the issues of privacy – from creating private stores
for personal digital data to a broad variety of security
mechanisms. Each industry will need to implement
its own privacy standards and assess which technical
solution will work best within its industrial boundaries.
Failures to protect this privacy and security may lead
to legal issues, as discussed in Section 6.2.4.
The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 23
6.2.2
RISK AND
INSURANCE
As datafication, in particular within industrial value
chains, becomes prevalent, the amount of risk as-
sociated with the use – and most importantly – the
potential re-use of data by third parties creates new
forms of risk for companies and individual economic
actors. Traditionally, risk is transferred to another party
via insurance. Many industries have well-established
catastrophe planning models that help ‘price’ risk and
the associated insurance to cover for that risk.
While cyberinsurace does exist in some forms, it is of-
ten unclear as to whether datafication and associated
techniques are actually covered. Insurance related to
data mainly covers a company from data attacks – e.g.
the recent breach of Target’s data systems and theft
of credit card data which cost $61 million in expenses,
with $44 million insurance receivable offset . This,
however, is insurance in the face of a nefarious attack
against Target.
Within an information value chain, however, an ‘accor-
dion’ of contracts is created – often via the use of Open
APIs that allow companies to interact, access and use
one another’s data via a series of digital contracts
implemented mainly in computer code and terms of
use. It is currently unclear whether cyberinsurance
actually covers what happens when others use data
created by a different economic entity in their product
development or decision-making processes – who
bears the liability for bad data used within an information
value chain? As datafication becomes more deeply
embedded in our day-to-day lives, the possibility of an
information value chain process causing catastrophic
damages on people or property increases.
Each industry will therefore need to investigate which
cybersecurity standards are appropriate and imple-
ment best practice around such standards. In addition,
each industry will need to work to develop a clearer
understanding of the kinds of amounts of loss that
incidents across an information value chain can cause
for individuals, companies and governments as a result
of implementing such techniques.
A key aspect of proving liability for data is the use of
data provenance techniques in the development and
implementation of information value chains.
4
Target Q4 2013 results, www.target.com
The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 24
6.2.3
DATA PROVENANCE
With the proliferation of datafication the need to know
where data originated and how it has been manipulat-
ed in transit is increasingly important. This ‘lineage’ in-
formation may be stored in machine readable format to
be included in data processing along any information
value chain, telling the next user in the chain how the
data has been processed and manipulated in previous
stages. Such information can be used to help deter-
mine whether data is “fit for purpose” as it transforms
into an information product.
Different industries will require provenance to be de-
livered in a different form for a multitude of purposes.
For example, the provenance of health data may need
tagged for, e.g. location and virus data for aggregated
analysis of health crises across the nation but contain
more detailed provenance data about an individual if
required for creating, e.g. tailored drugs for a patient.
The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 25
6.2.4
REGULATION
Regulation poses one of the biggest challenges as da-
tafication progresses – how should societies effectively
regulate for large scale information value chains where
data is possibly shared across corporate, government
and even national boundaries about individuals and
combined into a variety of new information products?
Regulatory bodies have so far failed to keep up to date
with the existing technological changes and they are
now faced with a technological change that may have
dramatically more impact on individuals and corpora-
tions alike. The area of how to best regulate the rise
of data’s importance in our lives is hotly debated in
various circles. Regulation needs to be dramatically
updated to reflect issues related to protecting individu-
als from personal harms related to data analytics or
“predictive personal data harms” (Crawford  Schultz,
J., 2014), where individuals may be put at risk from
harms that are derived from collecting, aggregating,
processing and analysing how individual’s use data or
other parts of their digital ‘footprint’.
Regulation is therefore a challenging area for industrial
structures as regulatory bodies struggle to understand
and define the impact of datafication on its particular
area. Industries and individuals therefore need to
foster the technological understanding and discus-
sions on regulation associated with datafication as
soon as possible.
The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 26
7.
SELECTED
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Special issue on secure and privacy-aware data Management, Distributed Parallel
Databases (2014) 32:1–3, DOI 10.1007/s10619-014-7144-z
Bambauer, J., 2014, Is Data Speech? Stanford Law Review Vol. 66:57 January 2014
Buneman, P., Davidson, S., 2010, Data provenance – the foundation of data quality,
available from: http://www.sei.cmu.edu/measurement/research/upload/Davidson.pdf
Buneman, P., et al, Why and Where: A Characterization of Data Provenance?,
available from: http://db.cis.upenn.edu/DL/whywhere.pdf
Crawford, K., and Schultz, J., 2014, Big Data and Due Process: Toward a Framework to
Redress Predictive Privacy Harms, Boston College Law Review, Vol. 55, No. 1, 2014
De Montjoye et al, 2013, Predicting people personality using novel mobile phone-based
metrics, Social Computing, Behavioral-Cultural Modeling and Prediction Lecture Notes
in Computer Science Volume 7812, 2013, pp 48-55
Evans, G. W.  Cohen, S. (1987). Environmental stress. In D. Stokols,  I. Altman (Eds.),
Handbook of environmental psychology, Vol. I (pp. 571-610). New York: Wiley.
Höller, J., et al, upcoming 2014, From M2M to IoT: An Introduction to a New Age of
Intelligence, Elsevier, July 2014
Lycett, M., 2013, ‘Datafication’: making sense of (big) data in a complex world,
European Journal of Information Systems (2013) 22, 381–386
Maull, R., Godsiff, P., Mulligan, C.E.A, 2014, The Impact of Datafication on Service
Systems,(HICSS), 47th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, 2014
Mulligan, C.E.A., 2011, The Communications Industries in the Era of Convergence,
Routledge Academic Press
Simmhan, Y., Plale B., Gannon, D., 2005, A Survey of Data Provenance in e-Science,
SIGMOD Record, Vol. 34, No. 3, 2005
The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 27
APPENDIX A
– EVOLUTION OF
DIGITALISATION AND
IMPACT ON RD
ERA ECONOMICS OF API USAGE IMPACT ON RD
1960s – 1970s APIs are used for the division of labour internally in companies.
Different programming teams can use each others code.
Code re-use.
Late 1970s – early 2000s
APIs used to fuel internationalisation of production and the globali-
sation of industry, in particular supply chains and value networks.
Different teams located in different parts of the world can
use each other’s code.
System integration becomes a key issue for RD.
Late 2005 – onwards
Competitive clash of platforms based on open APIs.
APIs create temporary monopolies on mobile devices,
not just internet.
Supply chains reconfigure and some become ‘virtual’.
Underlying platforms dominated by total cost of ownership.
Data analytics increases in importance the system Integra-
tion leads to massive amounts of data from both internet
and mobile devices that needs to be understood.
Source: Mulligan, 2011
The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 28
APPENDIX B
– EVOLUTION OF
EMBEDDED AND
UNEMBEDDED
KNOWLEDGE
INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION
SEMICONDUCTOR E-COMMERCE DIGITAL ECONOMY
Value “Value-in-use” Value determined in use
Value determined
in use and re-use,
and exchange
Embedded through
manufacture “Value-in-exchange”
 Value determined trough
market (transactions)
Marketing
Service
science
Matter in motion
 The “4Ps”
of marketing
Service
logic
Goods Goods = intangible objects
Goods = tangible objects
Goods = both
tangible and
intangible objects
Technology
Artefacts Application
of steam
engine
Technology used
in manufacture
of tangible goods
Technology as
embodiment
of “idea creation”
Microprocessor
is “pure idea”
Connection
of technology
systems (decoupling of
embedded knowledge)
Steam
Engine
Skills
Skills lead
to an excess
of tangible goods
for exchange
Skills embedded
into goods
and products
Knowledge embedded
into computer systems
Unembedded
knowledge
1776 ~1850 1960 1990 2010
Source: Mulligan, 2011
LME-14:001164 Uen
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Telefonaktiebolaget LM Ericsson
SE-126 25 Stockholm, Sweden
Telephone +46 8 719 00 00
www.ericsson.com
Ericsson is the driving force behind the Networked Society - a world leader in communications
technology and services. Our long-term relationships with every major telecom operator in the world
allow people, businesses and societies to fulfil their potential and create a more sustainable future.
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Datafication is transforming the industry landscape

  • 1. The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 1 THE IMPACT OF DATAFICATION ON STRATEGIC LANDSCAPES Industry transformation
  • 2. The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 2 THE IMPACT OF DATAFICATION ON STRATEGIC LANDSCAPES This series of reports on Industry Transformation provides insights into how the strategies of market players in various industries are being impacted by the macrotrends of digitisation and datafication. The methods consist of a blend of quantitative and qualita- tive analysis including: > A series of in-depth interviews with a broad range of business people within traditional industries in order to understand the shifting boundaries as a result of datafication  The integrated industry analysis models of Impe- rial College Business School to forecast trends and gauge the digital capabilities of various industries.  Information-Driven Global Value Chain analysis that provides a framework for understanding how data will contribute to re-defining industries  Macroeconomic methods Ericsson conducted this report series in collaboration with Imperial College Business School and the RCUK Digital Economy Sustainable Society Network+. It con- sists of multiple parts examining the general impacts of datafication on strategic landscapes as well as an in- depth analysis of several industrial structures, covering various market sectors including utilities, retail, food and agriculture, digital money, media and broadcast- ing, transportation, and governance, among other ongoing studies. Special thanks to Dr. C.E.A. Mulligan from Imperial College, London without whose insights, authorship and research leadership this report series would not have been possible. In addition, the contributions of Drs. Zeyenp Gurguc and Giaime Berti were invaluable to the development of the concepts and ideas con- tained in these reports. PREFACE
  • 3. The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. Introduction 4 1.1 Digitalisation vs Datafication 5 2. Datafying personality 7   2.1 Impact of Datafication of Personality on Industries 8   2.1.1 Datafication Of Personal Behaviour – The Case Of Netflix 9 3. Datafying Business Processes 10   3.1 Impact of datafication of business process on industries 11   3.1.1. Datafication Of Business Processes – The Case Of Micro Supply Chains 12 4. Datafying Cities 13   4.1 Impact of datafication of cities on industries 14 5. Datafying Private Lives 15   5.1 Impact of datafication of private lives on industries – the Case of Healthcare 16 6. Preparing your Industry for Datafication 18   6.1 Datafication and Information Value Chains 19   6.2 Overcoming Critical Barriers 21   6.2.1 Security and Privacy 22   6.2.2 Risk and Insurance 23   6.2.3 Data Provenance 24   6.2.4 Regulation 25 7. Selected Bibliography 26 Appendix A – Evolution of digitalisation and impact on RD 27 Appendix B – Evolution of Embedded and Unembedded Knowledge 28
  • 4. The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 4 INTRODUCTION Since the 1960’s, digital technology has been redefin- ing how companies and humans co-ordinate busi- ness activities and with one another. In a process of dramatic digitalisation communication networks, data centres and computing capacity were installed and now span nearly every part of our globe, instantly con- necting people and companies with one another and the information they need to make their daily decisions. From large-scale financial transactions to where to buy a decent cup of coffee in an unfamiliar location, satel- lites, copper, fibre, routers, switches and radio waves all combine together dedicated to our common human need to communicate news, our ideas, our hopes and business plans with others. This is not the end of the story, however, as a new process of datafication1 is emerging across the world. In contrast to digitalisation, which enabled productivity improvements and efficiency gains on already existing processes, datafication promises to completely redefine nearly every aspect of our existence as humans on this planet. Significantly beyond digitalisation, this trend challenges the very foundations of our established methods of measurement and provides the opportunity to recreate societal frameworks, many of which have dictated human existence for over 250 years. 1 Lycett, 2013 Datafication creates a fundamentally new strategic landscape. Any company, large or small, any NGO, in fact any organisation active in society now needs to fully explore the new value creation space instigated by datafication.
  • 5. The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 5 1.1 Digitalisation VS DATAFICATION Much analysis investigates the role of digital tech- nologies from the perspective of digitalisation. In this report, however, we investigate the emergence of a new phenomenon – datafication, which is set to have a dramatic impact on the economy and broader society. It is useful, therefore to begin with a definition of the differences between these two concepts. TIME 1960 1985 2014 Computing industry Telecom industry Semiconductor industry DEGREEOFDIGITALISATION Process automation Business process reengineering ”IT inside” (corporations) “Mobile inside” (everything) Sensors/activators (Chipset in everything) DIGITALISATION + DATAFICATION = Disruption of economy, society, everything Information goods Books CDs etc… • High cost of production • Low marginal cost of reproduction Information goods (digital network) Wikipedia Stock prices Time reporting • High cost of production • Marginal cost of reproduction tends towards zero Information domain (broadband networks) Combination of one or more information goods • High cost of production • Marginal cost of repro- duction tends towards zero • Value added through combining information sources together Figure 1: – Evolution of digitalisation and datafication Figure 2: Evolution of digitalisation as a result of increasing bandwidth and cloud computing Digitalisation has been primarily about productivity improvements in corporations, allowing for the creation of economies of scale that span the globe. Through implementing IT in payroll, finance, human resources and other core business processes of a corporation, these solutions were able to streamline the processes of doing business, link together disparate data sets for deeper insights and use digital technology platforms in order to create a 24-hour information-technology driven business. The evolution of this process is il- lustrated in Appendix A - Evolution of digitalisation and impact on RD processes. Digitalisation is a process that has been active within society since the late 1950s, with the birth of the semiconductor industry. It refers to the conversion of pieces of information into digital formats, for example text into HTML pages, music into MP3s, images into JPEG or similar. As the process of digitalisation has progressed, the amount of data that could be pro- cessed has increased exponentially. Digitalisation, therefore, from a simplistic perspective may be viewed as the embodiment of idea creation – it is capturing human ideas in digital form for transmission, re-use and manipulation, as illustrated in Figure 2.
  • 6. The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 6 Datafication, meanwhile, relates to the use of digital technologies to unembed the knowledge associated with physical objects by decoupling them from the data associated with them. Datafication is manifesting itself in society in a variety of forms and is often – but not always – associated with sensors/actuators and the emerging Internet of Things (IoT). Datafication may take many forms and in many cases a mobile device is enough to create unembedded knowledge of a person, a thing or a piece of infrastructure. There are many examples, from putting sensors on a bridge to monitor structural integrity, monitoring parking spaces, performing a 3D scan of an object to print it out later, to measuring the activity levels of a person for health, etc… The evolution to unembedded knowledge is covered in Appendix B - Evolution of Embedded and Unembedded Knowledge. Datafication is a relatively new phenomenon compared to digitalisation and is characterised by an interac- tion between digital and physical objects and mass customisation of products and services for – and by – end-users rather than merely process automa- tion or efficiency improvements, although datafication techniques can of course be used for this as well. The manner in which process improvements will be im- plemented is fundamentally different for datafication, however, and it implies a different strategic landscape, as well as the necessity for new managerial capacities in order to handle these issues effectively. A key differentiating aspect between digitalisation and datafication will be the manner in which data analytics is applied to the problem spaces that they cover. Digi- talisation will use data analytics based on traditional sampling mechanisms, while datafication will over time come to rely on the new forms of quantification and associated data mining techniques. 1.1 DIGITALISATION VS DATAFICATION Digital technologies are recognised as creating disrup- tion of established industries, etc… but we are cur- rently in the throes of something much more profound – datafication does not change just how we do busi- ness with one another, or how we manage our com- panies, lives and cities – it begins to challenge some of the fundamental mechanisms upon which society has always depended upon – from the basis of the techniques used in the scientific method to how the economy is measured and structured. In the following sections, we investigate a few of these changes. DIGITALISATION DATAFICATION Platform economics Unfinished products and platforms. Process automation, corporate control over value chain Mass customisation, end-user control over value chain. Complementary products (3rd party apps) Maker culture and augmented manufacturing. Digital only Digital and interaction with physical world. Data analytics based on sampling Data analytics based on quantification. Table 1: Characteristics of Digitalisation and Datafication
  • 7. The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 7 2. DATAFYING PERSONALITY As stated, datafication does not have to rely on sen- sors or actuators – it represents changes at work in markets rather than solely within the technology domain. For example, as mobile devices have evolved to hold our preferred music selections, our social networks, our video and TV choices and the third party games and applications we select to augment the base software with, it opens up the mobile to a range of new possibilities. A mobile device is sold as a ‘platform’ to end-users – it is in some sense ready to be “finished” by the end-user who purchases it with apps and other personalisation of the software. The nature of the mobile device nearly everyone has in their pocket is therefore deeply personal and the records of their us- age of the device divulge deep details about who they really are. Let’s take the example of personality, which most peo- ple will agree cannot be “digitalised”. Within psychol- ogy, there are five broad factors that form the most widely accepted and used model of personality. The five factors are: openness, conscientiousness, extra- version, agreeableness, and neuroticism. Traditionally, personality is measured by interviews and self-assess- ment questionnaires through sampling techniques. Us- ing nothing more than standard mobile network CDRs, however, it is possible to reliably predict personality2 . The ability to accurately predict personality types using mobile phone data holds the potential for “cost- effective, questionnaire-free investigation of personal- ity-related questions at a scale never seen before” (De Montjoye et al, 2013). A mobile device, however, allows us to take datafica- tion significantly further than just understanding the user’s personality. The manner in which an end-user chooses to use the games they have installed can also provide detailed indications of trustworthiness, credit ratings, risk profile and many other aspects of a human being’s interactions with companies can be “datafied” through analysing mobile phone logs. Figure 3 – Datafication of personality CONSCIEN T IO USNESS / NEUROTISM / EXT R AVERSION A G REEABLENESS / OPENNESS Phone calls Social media Games Internet Maps Calendar Youtube TV Music 2 Predicting people personality using novel mobile phone-based metrics
  • 8. The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 8 2.1 IMPACT OF DATAFICATION OF PERSONALITY ON INDUSTRIES Datafication of personality has the potential to disrupt several industries and also the manner in which social science research itself is conducted. Usage of games such as Angry Birds (what is a person’s willingness to take risk?) and Bejeweled Blitz can give away a lot about a person’s approach to risk and financial management. This may affect, for example, how insurance companies develop the risk profile of end-users. In addition, tradi- tional mobile billing records provide extremely detailed information about how likely it is that an end-user is go- ing to repay a loan on time. Such data is already being used in several nations in order to help the unbanked access financial services but is also an indication of the possible disruption to the manner in which credit ratings are developed and maintained globally. Human Resources, meanwhile, can start to have a more detailed understanding of their employees – for exam- ple would companies like an early warning mechanism that allowed them to identify managers displaying risk for fraudulent behavior through the use of their mobile devices? The recruitment process itself, meanwhile, may be fundamentally disrupted. Instead of relying on the traditional personality measurements and the as- sociated intermediaries, new personality measures will be developed and new digitally enabled intermediaries will emerge to handle the required analytics to replace existing personality and aptitude exam providers. Social science research itself will also be disrupted. The traditional methods of sampling in order to de- velop personality and associated social aspects is challenged through datafication – instead of using traditional sampling methods, it may instead be more powerful to analyse the data for emerging patterns. Table 2: Impact of datafication of personality on industries INDUSTRY / AREA IMPACT OF DATAFICATION ON PERSONALITY Insurance Data used to update risk profile development and business models. Banking Data used to establish trustworthiness and likelihood of a person paying back a loan. Human resources Data used to identify e.g. employees risk-taking profiles. Hiring and recruitment Data used to replace personality tests. Social science research Datafication replaces sampling techniques and restructures the manner in which social science research is performed. Media and broadcast Data is used to redefine how content is created by datafication being used to inform content rather than recommendation systems.
  • 9. The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 9 2.1.1 DATAFICATION OF PERSONAL BEHAVIOUR – THE CASE OF NETFLIX While the datafication of personalities will create large-scale changes on the manner in which vari- ous industries are run and measured, the datafication of personal behaviour may create the possibility for disruption of well-established industries. An example is Netflix – which applied a detailed statistical analysis of many years worth of viewing data and user behavior in order to change its role in the television industry – from a content delivery mechanism to a content creator. Traditionally, recommendation engines have been used to identify what other types of content an end-user might like to hire or purchase based on similar user profiles and advanced personality analysis. Based on your social influences from social networks, the make- up of your household and your income levels, content would be suggested to you. Netflix instead turned this model on its head and instead of using the recommendations for making content suggestions, used it to define an intersection of genre, actors and directors (Lycett, 2013), which it developed into its own content – the now well-known House of Cards, which has received Emmy and Golden Globe nominations. This is indicative of an emerging challenge to the established industrial structure of the television indus- try, which has traditionally relied on bundling – where customers bought access via a cable TV provider to a variety of channels. Essentially, in order to access the content they wanted, users had to purchase a whole set of channels that they did not want. Advertisers, meanwhile, had to buy access to a large set of cus- tomers in order to reach the ones they really did want to advertise to. Through datafication, Netflix has shaken up this busi- ness model to some extent – using its proximity to customers to challenge the traditional bundling model of media and broadcast. Rather than user-generated content, it is content tailored specifically for its user base based on their aggregated personal selections.
  • 10. The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 10 3. DATAFYING BUSINESS PROCESSES One of the most obvious examples of datafication oc- curs in business process improvement, where differ- ent types of datafication are used to streamline and improve existing business processes. For example, datafication can be used to reconfigure existing supply chains and restructure financial services flows within companies. As will be discussed later, a more disrup- tive result can be seen in the creation of new forms of supply chain emerge based on data and information. The lowering costs of sensors, increased process- ing capacity and availability of low-cost bandwidth mean that datafication is starting to enter into business processes that have until recently been un-monitored – this process is forcing a reconstruction of existing supply chain processes and in some cases even help- ing to create different forms of supply chain. Financial services, for example, is starting to be changed by the use of micropayments, which are payments that cover small, incidental costs for example the purchase of a coffee or chocolate bar at a train station or as an individual moves through town for different meetings. These small scale purchases were previously ‘un- known’ within most business processes – the pur- chase of goods was mainly understood via large scale purchases. The purchasing patterns of individuals, meanwhile, were limited to mainly larger purchases via credit cards. A more detailed understanding of how and when individuals are making small purchases can have a large impact on e.g. supply chains, however. For example, a fast moving consumer goods (FMCG) corporation can make dynamic adjustments to their production processes based on the real-time pur- chases of their products. Aggregating large amounts of these micropayments can be used to gain in-depth understanding of how money actually flows around the economy in small amounts. This will provide much more in-depth analysis of where money is being spent, by whom and how – allowing for the restructuring of commercial real estate management by providing more in-depth knowledge and understanding of when and where different types of enterprises might want to locate their stores to gain access to the correct type of clientele for their products.
  • 11. The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 11 Table 3: Impact of datafication of business processes on industries 3.1 IMPACT OF DATAFICATION OF BUSINESS PROCESS ON INDUSTRIES INDUSTRY / AREA IMPACT OF DATAFICATION OF BUSINESS PROCESSES Micro and ‘short’ supply chains Datafication eases the creation of short supply chains, creating micro supply chain business processes encapsulated via low cost technologies such as mobile devices. Agriculture and food Increased traceablility and removal of intermediaries in the industrial supply chain. Manufacturing Feedback from products ‘in use’, rather than sampled provides improved product development practices, shared data across multiple manufacturers allows increased efficiencies across supply chains. Commercial real estate management Redefining how different parts of a city are classified for industrial use. Increased levels of detail for real estate customers to understand where to locate their businesses for best impact and foot flow.
  • 12. The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 12 3.1.1. DATAFICATION OF BUSINESS PROCESSES – THE CASE OF MICRO SUPPLY CHAINS Applying low costs sensors and mobile devices in new ways is allowing people to reduce the transaction costs of creating agile, micro supply chains in a digital economy. These supply chains connect people togeth- er in something that is similar to a traditional business process in a corporation but without the traditional overheads of supply chain interactions. Relatively cheap technology means that datafication is able to help small companies and individuals create these mi- cro supply chains for a dramatically cheaper price than existing systems from large-scale ICT suppliers. Individuals with goods and services to offer are able to develop multiple streams of business through interact- ing with such micro supply chains, offering their wares to assist in different processes as and when required. More importantly, it is possible to use such a micro supply chain to smooth supply so that customers can be guaranteed to receive goods when they need it.
  • 13. The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 13 4. DATAFYING CITIES Much has been written about the role that new forms of technology can play in a city – both from a top- down and a bottom-up, citizen-led perspective. ICT will be used in a multitude of different manners that will allow the creation of new data streams in a city space, assisting with issues such as transport, energy and water management at a city level, urban planning, etc… A very simple example of datafication in the city context is the use of twitter by end-users when there are problems with public transport or traffic jams on roads – this datafication of customer sentiment can be useful in identifying when problems have occurred and to interact with customers to move towards other forms of public transport or to provide updates on the service. Customers are also able to take greater control over their transport choices - for example, by subscribing to information about their usual routes, an end-user may be able to know in advance that there is no point in going to the train station, but may instead take a bus or an alternative train line route. Datafica- tion within a city context therefore enables a range of disruptive solutions for cities and citizens alike. Datafication of cities will impact industries such as trans- port and logistics in dramatic ways – for example the datafication starting to become the norm in cars means that logistics companies are now able to make deliver- ies to your car (ref), rather than to your fixed address, streamlining the manner in which logistics services oper- ate in cities. Individuals and the physical services that they interact with on a daily basis will therefore become unbundled as a result of datafication – this will reform the manner in which our physical infrastructure in cities needs to be built – the division of space in our urban areas could become dramatically different as a result of datafication. As cities increasingly need to compete on a global, rather than national, level the quality of life and en- vironment that they are able to provide citizens is increasing in importance. An emerging area within cities, therefore, is the datafication of environmental factors. For example, many cities have and are invest- ing in environmental monitoring equipment for various natural resources, for example measuring water or air quality. This will have a disruptive impact on industries through the manner in which environmental regulation is created and implemented. Today, environmental regulation is handled by setting standards that are based on data collection, sampling and estimates of damage developed over several decades. These are then combined with catastrophe planning and esti- mates of damage to natural environments based on rough models of environmental ecosystems. Through applying datafication, cities and regions could under- stand in greater detail the impact of pollution and other industrial activity on the natural resources in question. Regulation could be based on more detailed knowl- edge and understanding of the damage of the activity in question and real-time measurements could change not just the manner in which industries pollute, but the manner in which nations decide to regulate that activity – regulation may be implemented in real-time.
  • 14. The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 14 Table 4: Impact of datafication of cities on industries 4.1 IMPACT OF DATAFICATION OF CITIES ON INDUSTRIES INDUSTRY / AREA IMPACT OF DATAFICATION ON CITIES Manufacturing End of pipe regulation will become adaptive. Telecom New partnerships required to handle the changing demands on operators. Retail New demands will be placed on retail to respond to the mass customisation available to consumers. In conjunction with 3D printing, this will see the reformation of the high street. Transport Transport will become more responsive to end-users, rather than running according to a timetable. Autonomous cars will redefine how urban centres are planned. Logistics Data changes manner in which deliveries are made, when they are made and where they are delivered.
  • 15. The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 15 5. DATAFYING PRIVATE LIVES Perhaps one of the most obvious examples of datafic- tion is the role that cheaper sensors and IoT are start- ing to play in our private lives. A multitude of different technologies are now available from small and large companies that help individuals monitor and meas- ure things that were previously difficult or impossible to quantify. Everything – from how much energy and water I use, what my food purchasing habits are, how I use social networks, the air quality of my local neigh- borhood, when I am awake and asleep, knowing when I am stressed or when a certain temperature level has been reached in the air around me, what road I select to drive to work as a result, how many cups of coffee I drink in the morning, how I brush my teeth and what TV programs I decide to let my kids watch in the back seat of the car on long journeys – can now be meas- ured, quantified and compared to other people. A plethora of new ‘wearable’ technologies have emerged as a result of the continued reduction in size of chipsets and batteries – from smart meters to Fit- Bit®, individuals are now able to ‘quantify’ themselves in ways previously unimaginable. From the amount someone sleeps, their heart rate, the oxygen and sugar levels in their blood, to the amount of exercise they are taking can be measured and quantified on a near real- time basis. A near continual flow of information can now provide deeper insights into a person’s real state of health. Whereas previously a snapshot in time was taken at a GPs office of an individual’s health when problems were suspected, today there is a real-time flow of information – about how a person is when they are well, as well as when they are feeling sick. This type of information can revolutionise the manner in which clinical research is performed3 . Traditional medical research has focused on disease, rather than wellness, often due to constraints on data – for ex- ample research into diseases has focused on how to treat people once they have it. People go to the doctor when they feel sick or are displaying symptoms and a snapshot in time of their overall health is taken to assess whether they need medication, further testing or hospitalisation. The new quantification of self may allow for more detailed understanding of how a dis- ease forms in the first place. Rather than just rely on a snapshot in time, a person’s state of unwellness can be compared to a data set of a much longer period of time – including data from when a patient was feeling well. Over time, traditional sampling techniques can be augmented with new data analysis techniques that investigate emerging disease patterns across much larger datasets, allowing for much earlier detection and the development of tailored drugs that are more effec- tive and reduce side effects for individuals. More than just ‘measure’, however, these devices are increasingly being used to create ‘triggers’ that encour- age new types of behavior from the end-users in ques- tion. Some early examples can be seen in the use of smart meters, which allow end-users to compare and contrast how an individual’s energy consumption com- pares to that of their neighbors, or the app that informs an end-user when their posture needs correction. 3 Types of Study in Medical Research: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2689572/
  • 16. The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 16 5.1 IMPACT OF DATAFICATION OF PRIVATE LIVES ON INDUSTRIES – THE CASE OF HEALTHCARE Healthcare has traditionally been a binary system – once a patient was defined as ill and needed to enter hospital, there were two main outcomes that the sys- tems was built to deliver – either a patient was cured and left hospital, or their treatment failed and they died. With the dramatic improvements in healthcare over the last approximately 60 years, however, the majority of major health problems in many nations and the ones that require the most funding from governments are ‘life-long’ diseases, such as diabetes or heart disease. These require a different form of healthcare manage- ment. Initially, using datafication allows for the creation of ‘triggers’ that can improve end-user behavior and reduce pressure on the health care systems. Over a longer period of time, however, datafication completely redefines how the healthcare industry will be struc- tured and operate. While datafication of private lives forms only one part of the forces redefining healthcare, it is an increasingly important one*. In Figure 4, we illustrate some of the possible forces affecting the healthcare industry – the arrows indicate where datafication has a role to play in changing either our understanding of those forces or the manner in which healthcare is delivered as a result. CURED HOSPITAL DEAD Figure 4 – Healthcare system – binary approach * The author would like to thank and acknowledge the contribution of a discussion with Prof. Rifat Atun regarding data and the impact on healthcare for this section.
  • 17. The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 17 The nature of our world has changed – we are now a ‘city planet’ – the majority of the earth’s popula- tion live in cities and associated urban areas, travel is increasing both locally in cities and globally. At the same time, climate change and population growth are changing the manner in which humans interact with the planet and how we manage natural resources – the role of datafication in this respect was covered to some extent in the previous section. Within a health- care context, however, these create changes in the nature of ‘environmental stressors’ (Evans Cohen, S., 1987) – for example climate change may lead to changes in temperature, increased air pollution may have an impact as well as the 24/7 mobile connected work environment. It is important to remember that every individual reacts differently to the environmental stressors in question – and this is one reason that the datafication of private lives can provide real extra value to individuals. Thanks to IoT and datafication of various parts of the healthcare value chain, there is now data that was not available previously, eg.. E.g. genomic data at both an individual level and population level data. Epidemiol- ogy has also changed – datafication can now help with lifelong disease management – providing patients with better care through real-time analysis of diseases such as diabetes or asthma and in turn reducing the overall costs of healthcare for the nation in question. Datafica- tion has also helped to change patho-physiology, for example with the link between individual genome data and interaction with environmental stressors now more clearly defined. 5.1 IMPACT OF DATAFICATION OF PRIVATE LIVES ON INDUSTRIES – THE CASE OF HEALTHCARE Table 6: Impact of datafication of private lives on industries Table 5: Environmental stressors and datafication (adapted from Evans and Cohen, 1987) Figure 5 – Healthcare and datafication ENVIRONMENTAL STRESSOR IMPACT ROLE OF DATAFICATION Heat Up to 32 degrees, increase in riots. Change in temp = increase in cardiovascular disease. Measure heat islands in cities through IoT and other means. Measure temperature of individuals to monitor possible cardiovascular disease. Noise Associations with psychological symptoms, psychiatric admissions, use of tranquilisers, cardiovascular disorders. Deficits in information-processing tasks with multiple signals. Decrements in incremental memory. Real-time measurement of noise levels that an individual is experiencing. Measurement of tension and activity indicating that an end-user may wish to take a break or find someone quiet for their lunch break . Crowding Catecholamines, blood pressure, heart rate, skin conductance, cortisol levels. Measurement of the real impact of urbanisation on larger populations. INDUSTRY / AREA IMPACT OF DATAFICATION ON PRIVATE LIVES Healthcare Fundamental reshaping of how industry handles patients and how medical research / drug devel- opment is performed. Emerging industry / industry roles Protection of data and creation of secure brokers for private information. Climate change Rate of urbanisation /travel Technology /regulation Population growth Epidemiology Patho- physiology Genetic data Environmental stressors NATURE O F W ORLD HAS CHANGED DETERMINAN T S OF DISEASE UNDERSTAND I N G OFDISEASE HAVE C H ANGED HAS C H AN GED One of the most important angles for datafication to work in the healthcare industry is protection of privacy and security. We cover these issues in section 6.
  • 18. The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 18 6. PREPARING YOUR INDUSTRY FOR DATAFICATION As datafication becomes more common and the im- pact of peoples’ lives more widespread, the develop- ment of new frameworks for understanding is becom- ing increasingly necessary. In addition, datafication requires a significant re-assessment of several areas of an industry’s operation. Here we briefly outline a few areas, including frameworks for understanding how value chains of data are emerging alongside traditional supply and value chains and several governance is- sues industries need to take into account and effec- tively implement datafication.
  • 19. The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 19 6.1 DATAFICATION AND INFORMATION VALUE CHAINS One of the main issues to understand is how data works together and is combined, rather than solely how it is managed within one company or process itself. Datafication requires much more than solely putting sensors around a city or within business processes – it actually requires new business and industry processes solely for the management of data. For the sake of simplicity, we can view ‘sens- ing’ or ‘datafying’ through to the creation of a viable ‘information product’ as a value chain in and of itself – an Information Value Chain, illustrated in Figures 6 and 7.  Inputs: Inputs are the base raw components used in manufacture to create a product. Examples could be cocoa beans for the manufacture of choco- late or data from a sensor, e.g. a sensor gathering individual data points from a truck’s engine, that will be collated with other data and turned into a piece of information. Examples relevant for datafication include: Devices/Sensors: Open Data, OSS/BSS, Corporate Databases.  Production/manufacture: Production/Manufacture refers to the process by which raw inputs are put through various processes in order to become part of a value chain. For example, cocoa beans may be dried and separated before being transported to overseas markets. Data, meanwhile, needs to be verified and tagged for provenance. For example, open data often needs to be ‘cleaned’ in order to make it ready for various forms of data analysis and processing. Examples include: Asset Information databases, Open Data Sets, Network Information, Corporate Information Databases.  Processing: Processing refers to the process whereby a product is prepared for sale. For exam- ple, cocoa beans may now be made into cocoa powder, ready for use in chocolate bars. For a da- tafication solution, this refers to the aggregation of multiple data sources to create an information com- ponent - something that is ready to be combined with other data sets to make it useful for corporate or public service decision-making. Figure 6 – Overview of an information value chain Source: Höller et al, 2014, From M2M to IoT: An introduction to a new era of intelligence Inputs Production/ manufacture Processing Packaging Distribution and marketing
  • 20. The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 20  Packaging: Packaging refers to the process whereby a product can be branded as would be recognisable to end-user consumers. For example, a chocolate bar would now be ready to eat and have a red wrapper with the words “Kit Kat” on it. In information value chains, however, the data will have to be combined with other information from internal corporate databases, for example, to see whether the data received requires any action. This data would be recognisable to the end-users that need to use the information, either in the form of visualisations or an Excel spreadsheet. The brand- ing of data is also extremely important as data branded with the “Office of National Statistics”, or ONS is considered more reliable – and therefore often more valuable – than data that is compiled by unknown sources uncovered with a Google search. 6.1 DATAFICATION AND INFORMATION VALUE CHAINS  Distribution/marketing: This process refers to the channels to market that a company selects for sell- ing its products. There are a broad variety of such channels in many different industries. For example, a chocolate bar may be sold at a supermarket, a kiosk, or even online. A datafied solution, how- ever, will generally have produced an Information Product that can be used to create new knowledge within a corporate environment - examples include more detailed scheduling of maintenance based on real-world information or improved product design due to feedback from solution. Alternatively, these information products could be offered for sale to other players in the industrial structure that would benefit from access to tailored ‘knowledge’ from the different parties. Figure 7 – An information-driven value chain Source: Höller et al, 2014, From M2M to IoT: An introduction to a new era of intelligence Corporate databases OSS/BSS Open data Devices/ sensors Inputs Corporate information Network information Open data sets Large-scale system integrators Infrastructure enables (discussed in chapter 2) Asset information Data combination Information components Information products Production/ manufacture Processing Packaging Distribution and marketing Information marketplaces
  • 21. The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 21 6.2 OVERCOMING CRITICAL BARRIERS Datafication is far from solely a technical issue – as outlined within this document, it touches on every aspect of an industrial structure from regulation to business workflows as well as the management and strategy processes of companies involved. The eco- nomic and social value may be tempered by privacy and trust concerns and in some cases, these concerns may even prevent usage by individuals and citizens. In order for the benefits to be accrued therefore, certain value chain governance issues need to be thought through and addressed appropriately. Each industry will face its own distinct barriers to the use of datafica- tion and every industry will therefore need to develop its own unique approach to the issues presented by datafication. This section presents some of the most common issues that are shared across industries. While technology will play a role in solving these is- sues, many must also be the focus on in-depth discus- sion across industry about the role that we wish data to play in our lives and our societies – and where we are willing to draw the line between public and private lives and corporate and broader social and govern- mental responsibility. Our aim with this report series is not to provide definitive answers, but rather to trigger much-needed debate about how to establish proper boundaries in. These issues will be covered in more detail in the reports for each industrial sector.
  • 22. The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 22 6.2.1 SECURITY AND PRIVACY One of the most commonly discussed barriers in the digital economy is the effective management of security and privacy for corporations, individuals and government institutions – often these even appear to be conflicting interests. In many of the new informa- tion-driven value chains, however, users are required to trust that their data is being used appropriately, in a manner that they would approve of and by entities that they would ensure such data to. Many datafication solutions rely on cloud computing and data analytics as core components – users are unlikely, therefore, to ever have detailed knowledge of the exact location of how and where their data is stored (and the legal ramifications of the data being stored there), or what other data it is being stored with. Many different methods have been proposed for solv- ing the issues of privacy – from creating private stores for personal digital data to a broad variety of security mechanisms. Each industry will need to implement its own privacy standards and assess which technical solution will work best within its industrial boundaries. Failures to protect this privacy and security may lead to legal issues, as discussed in Section 6.2.4.
  • 23. The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 23 6.2.2 RISK AND INSURANCE As datafication, in particular within industrial value chains, becomes prevalent, the amount of risk as- sociated with the use – and most importantly – the potential re-use of data by third parties creates new forms of risk for companies and individual economic actors. Traditionally, risk is transferred to another party via insurance. Many industries have well-established catastrophe planning models that help ‘price’ risk and the associated insurance to cover for that risk. While cyberinsurace does exist in some forms, it is of- ten unclear as to whether datafication and associated techniques are actually covered. Insurance related to data mainly covers a company from data attacks – e.g. the recent breach of Target’s data systems and theft of credit card data which cost $61 million in expenses, with $44 million insurance receivable offset . This, however, is insurance in the face of a nefarious attack against Target. Within an information value chain, however, an ‘accor- dion’ of contracts is created – often via the use of Open APIs that allow companies to interact, access and use one another’s data via a series of digital contracts implemented mainly in computer code and terms of use. It is currently unclear whether cyberinsurance actually covers what happens when others use data created by a different economic entity in their product development or decision-making processes – who bears the liability for bad data used within an information value chain? As datafication becomes more deeply embedded in our day-to-day lives, the possibility of an information value chain process causing catastrophic damages on people or property increases. Each industry will therefore need to investigate which cybersecurity standards are appropriate and imple- ment best practice around such standards. In addition, each industry will need to work to develop a clearer understanding of the kinds of amounts of loss that incidents across an information value chain can cause for individuals, companies and governments as a result of implementing such techniques. A key aspect of proving liability for data is the use of data provenance techniques in the development and implementation of information value chains. 4 Target Q4 2013 results, www.target.com
  • 24. The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 24 6.2.3 DATA PROVENANCE With the proliferation of datafication the need to know where data originated and how it has been manipulat- ed in transit is increasingly important. This ‘lineage’ in- formation may be stored in machine readable format to be included in data processing along any information value chain, telling the next user in the chain how the data has been processed and manipulated in previous stages. Such information can be used to help deter- mine whether data is “fit for purpose” as it transforms into an information product. Different industries will require provenance to be de- livered in a different form for a multitude of purposes. For example, the provenance of health data may need tagged for, e.g. location and virus data for aggregated analysis of health crises across the nation but contain more detailed provenance data about an individual if required for creating, e.g. tailored drugs for a patient.
  • 25. The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 25 6.2.4 REGULATION Regulation poses one of the biggest challenges as da- tafication progresses – how should societies effectively regulate for large scale information value chains where data is possibly shared across corporate, government and even national boundaries about individuals and combined into a variety of new information products? Regulatory bodies have so far failed to keep up to date with the existing technological changes and they are now faced with a technological change that may have dramatically more impact on individuals and corpora- tions alike. The area of how to best regulate the rise of data’s importance in our lives is hotly debated in various circles. Regulation needs to be dramatically updated to reflect issues related to protecting individu- als from personal harms related to data analytics or “predictive personal data harms” (Crawford Schultz, J., 2014), where individuals may be put at risk from harms that are derived from collecting, aggregating, processing and analysing how individual’s use data or other parts of their digital ‘footprint’. Regulation is therefore a challenging area for industrial structures as regulatory bodies struggle to understand and define the impact of datafication on its particular area. Industries and individuals therefore need to foster the technological understanding and discus- sions on regulation associated with datafication as soon as possible.
  • 26. The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 26 7. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY Special issue on secure and privacy-aware data Management, Distributed Parallel Databases (2014) 32:1–3, DOI 10.1007/s10619-014-7144-z Bambauer, J., 2014, Is Data Speech? Stanford Law Review Vol. 66:57 January 2014 Buneman, P., Davidson, S., 2010, Data provenance – the foundation of data quality, available from: http://www.sei.cmu.edu/measurement/research/upload/Davidson.pdf Buneman, P., et al, Why and Where: A Characterization of Data Provenance?, available from: http://db.cis.upenn.edu/DL/whywhere.pdf Crawford, K., and Schultz, J., 2014, Big Data and Due Process: Toward a Framework to Redress Predictive Privacy Harms, Boston College Law Review, Vol. 55, No. 1, 2014 De Montjoye et al, 2013, Predicting people personality using novel mobile phone-based metrics, Social Computing, Behavioral-Cultural Modeling and Prediction Lecture Notes in Computer Science Volume 7812, 2013, pp 48-55 Evans, G. W. Cohen, S. (1987). Environmental stress. In D. Stokols, I. Altman (Eds.), Handbook of environmental psychology, Vol. I (pp. 571-610). New York: Wiley. Höller, J., et al, upcoming 2014, From M2M to IoT: An Introduction to a New Age of Intelligence, Elsevier, July 2014 Lycett, M., 2013, ‘Datafication’: making sense of (big) data in a complex world, European Journal of Information Systems (2013) 22, 381–386 Maull, R., Godsiff, P., Mulligan, C.E.A, 2014, The Impact of Datafication on Service Systems,(HICSS), 47th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, 2014 Mulligan, C.E.A., 2011, The Communications Industries in the Era of Convergence, Routledge Academic Press Simmhan, Y., Plale B., Gannon, D., 2005, A Survey of Data Provenance in e-Science, SIGMOD Record, Vol. 34, No. 3, 2005
  • 27. The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 27 APPENDIX A – EVOLUTION OF DIGITALISATION AND IMPACT ON RD ERA ECONOMICS OF API USAGE IMPACT ON RD 1960s – 1970s APIs are used for the division of labour internally in companies. Different programming teams can use each others code. Code re-use. Late 1970s – early 2000s APIs used to fuel internationalisation of production and the globali- sation of industry, in particular supply chains and value networks. Different teams located in different parts of the world can use each other’s code. System integration becomes a key issue for RD. Late 2005 – onwards Competitive clash of platforms based on open APIs. APIs create temporary monopolies on mobile devices, not just internet. Supply chains reconfigure and some become ‘virtual’. Underlying platforms dominated by total cost of ownership. Data analytics increases in importance the system Integra- tion leads to massive amounts of data from both internet and mobile devices that needs to be understood. Source: Mulligan, 2011
  • 28. The impact of datafication on strategic landscapes 28 APPENDIX B – EVOLUTION OF EMBEDDED AND UNEMBEDDED KNOWLEDGE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION SEMICONDUCTOR E-COMMERCE DIGITAL ECONOMY Value “Value-in-use” Value determined in use Value determined in use and re-use, and exchange Embedded through manufacture “Value-in-exchange” Value determined trough market (transactions) Marketing Service science Matter in motion The “4Ps” of marketing Service logic Goods Goods = intangible objects Goods = tangible objects Goods = both tangible and intangible objects Technology Artefacts Application of steam engine Technology used in manufacture of tangible goods Technology as embodiment of “idea creation” Microprocessor is “pure idea” Connection of technology systems (decoupling of embedded knowledge) Steam Engine Skills Skills lead to an excess of tangible goods for exchange Skills embedded into goods and products Knowledge embedded into computer systems Unembedded knowledge 1776 ~1850 1960 1990 2010 Source: Mulligan, 2011
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