This document provides an overview of organic vegetable gardening and soil health. It discusses the benefits of organic gardening including safer methods, fresh and nutritious food, and better taste. The document emphasizes that healthy soil is key, providing structure, nutrients, and a home for beneficial organisms. Ideal soil composition is discussed, including proper texture, topsoil, and plant nutrients. The document provides instructions for testing soil texture and taking a soil sample to evaluate nutrients, pH, and organic matter content. Maintaining proper soil pH is important for plant growth.

1. Organic Vegetable
Gardening 101
Workshop manual
THE ROBERT A. MACOSKEY CENTER
for Sustainable Systems Education and Research
at Slippery Rock University of Pennsylvania
247 Harmony Road
Slippery Rock, PA 16057
Phone: (724) 738-4050
e-mail: macoskey.center@sru.edu
www.sru.edu/ramc

2. Table of Contents
The Benefits of Organic Gardening 2
It All Starts With Soil 4
Sustainable Garden Design 8
Garden Preparation 12
Selecting and Buying Seeds and Transplants 15
Starting Seeds 16
Starting Seeds Indoors 18
Making Soil Blocks 19
Preparing a Seed Bed and Sowing or Transplanting 22
Garden Maintenance
Weed Management 23
Water Management 26
Pest Management 27
Reference Resource 30
Appendix 32
Written by Kristin Quell, Kyle Holzheuter, Thomas Reynolds, Julia Shock, Juliette Jones, Chris Sanford and
Abigail McCullough
Edited by Thomas Reynolds
© 2008 Slippery Rock University. All rights reserved. This publication is protected by federal copyright law.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by
any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, or to be used to make derivative
work without prior permission from the author.

3. 2
The Benefits of Organic Vegetable Gardening:
An Overview
What is Organic Vegetable Gardening?
Organic vegetable gardening is a safer and healthier way to garden, both for the environment as well as for you and
your family. Organic gardeners avoid the use of synthetic herbicides, pesticides, and fertilizers that contaminate the
soil, air, water and eventually humans as well. Organic gardeners develop an understanding of ecological systems,
and use a holistic approach to try and provide the best circumstances for their plants to grow with a minimum
number of inputs.
The Benefits – Safe, Fresh, Nutritious
A safer way to garden
If you take a quick look at your local garden supply store (or big box retailer) you will probably find the “gardening
sprays and fertilizers” aisle quite easily. If you read the labels of these products (put on a pair of disposable gloves first)
you will most likely find a warning something like this: “Keep off skin. Do not breathe spray. Wash hands and
exposed skin after use. Dangerous to fish/aquatic life. Extremely dangerous to bees. Warning: this product contains
metaldehyde which can kill if eaten. -Everyday low price: $2.49” It might occur to you that perhaps you might not
want to use this product on something that you were eventually going to eat. You certainly would not be anxious to
have your friends and loved ones close by if you chose to use that particular product in the garden landscape! A
garden should be a place where you can spend time with your friends and family, a safe haven from harmful chemicals.
Organic vegetable gardening is an activity that the whole family can be involved in.
No pesticide residues in your food
Food that comes from an organic garden won‟t have any pesticide residues. A 2006 study by a research team from
Emory University in Atlanta found that children who ate only organic foods had urine samples that contained nearly
no byproducts of two regularly used pesticides (malathion and chlorpyrifos). When the children began eating
conventionally grown foods, the quantity of these byproducts rose rapidly to as much as 263 parts per billion.
Another study done at the University of Washington (2003) found that children who ate organic fruits and vegetables
had on average 9 times less pesticide concentration than children consuming conventional produce.
Better Nutrition, Better Health
As soon as you harvest a tomato from the vine, the nutritional value of the fruit begins to decline. Since organic
gardeners can pick and eat in the same day, this means the produce can be eaten at it‟s nutritional peak! As well,
since the introduction of synthetic chemical-based agriculture in the 1930‟s, the nutritional content of our food has
steadily declined. The breeding of modern plants for quick growth, high yields, and long shelf life rather than for
nutrient density is partly to blame; but perhaps the greater problem lies in the use of synthetic chemicals in intensive
farming systems. Agricultural systems that rely on synthetic chemicals for their primary nutrient input don‟t replace
minerals, trace elements and other compounds that crops take up from the soil as they grow. As the soil becomes
depleted, the nutrient density of the harvest declines. Lack of good nutrition is a major factor in the occurrence of
many diseases including cancer. The organic vegetable gardener adds lots of organic matter back to the soil, which
helps to balance out what is lost from the harvest. A 2001 report by the British Soil Association reviewed 400
different nutritional studies and concluded that foods grown organically definitively have more vitamins and minerals.

4. 3
A recent article in the Journal of Applied Nutrition compared nutritional content of organic vs. conventionally grown
produce, and found:
63% more calcium, which helps to prevent osteoporosis, and is key in aiding contraction and relaxation of body
muscle tissue.
138% more magnesium, which reduces mortality from heart attacks,
prevents muscle spasms, and eases the symptoms of PMS.
390% more selenium, an antioxidant that protects humans from
environmental chemicals, cancers, and heart disease.
70% more boron, which prevents osteoporosis
78% more chromium, a micronutrient that prevents adult diabetes and
atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries).
9 times more salicylic acid, which has anti-inflammatory properties and
helps prevent colon cancer and atherosclerosis.
15.1% less nitrates, which are thought to elevate the risk of cancer, in
organic produce than their conventional counterparts.
Better taste
Organic gardeners can enjoy the benefits of harvesting and eating in the same day. Most conventional produce found
at the grocery store has traveled an average of 1400 miles and changed hands at least 5 times between the farmer and
the consumer. This forces farmers to prefer varieties that ship well, over those with abundant flavor, or nutritional
qualities. The organic gardener can choose varieties that are well adapted to their site, and that have exceptional
flavor too!
Better garden performance
Organic gardens are generally better adapted to climatic stress than their conventional counterparts. Soils with high
levels of organic matter (the organic gardener‟s favorite soil amendment) can help to moderate soil moisture
fluctuations, and can improve overall plant health. Soil organic matter also increases beneficial soil microorganisms
that play a vital role in maintaining soil fertility and suppressing harmful pests. Commonly used herbicides and
insecticides kill these microorganisms, reducing your garden‟s productivity potential, and also its ability to weather
environmental stresses.
Less environmental impact
Organic gardening minimizes the impact on air, water, and soil by avoiding the use of synthetic herbicides, pesticides
and fertilizers. The organic gardener embraces the concept of interdependence of the garden landscape with the rest
of the planet and practices the ecological paradigm that “Waste Must Equal Food”.
Less dependency on nonrenewable resources = Food Security
Organic gardening relies primarily on local renewable resources such as; neighbor‟s horses and autumn leaves as
inputs. The social impacts of going organic can also include decreased reliance on global corporations and increased
strength of local and bioregional resource networks.

5. 4
It All Starts with the Soil
Soil Health
Healthy soil provides an ideal growing environment for your garden plants. Soil provides the physical structure in
which plant roots grow; a supply of nutrients upon which plants feed; and a home to a variety of organisms like
worms, insects and beneficial bacteria.
Figure 1
Soil is made up of four general parts:
Ideal Garden Soil Composition
Water (also called soil solution) contains dissolved nutrients and is
the main source of water for plants.
Air
Air provides roots with oxygen and helps to remove excess carbon
25%
dioxide from root respiration.
Minerals
Minerals composed of three sizes of particles, sand, silt and clay. 45%
Water
Organic Matter is made up of living organisms, fresh residues, and
25%
well decomposed residues.
Organic Matter
5%
Soil Texture
Soil texture is a term commonly used to designate the distribution of the different sizes of mineral particles in a soil.
This does not include organic matter. The mineral particles vary in proportion from sand to silt to clay. Sand
particles are relatively large, forming large pores with little capacity to hold water and plant nutrients. Silt particles
are smaller than sand and have a better capacity to hold water. Clay particles are extremely small and tend to cause
soils to harden when dry and to become sticky when wet. Clay soils hold large amounts of water and plant nutrients,
but allow less movement of water and air through the soil into the root zone.
Most soil is a mixture of various mineral sizes known as loam. An ideal soil contains sufficient sand to keep the soil
porous and sufficient clay to hold nutrients and water for plant growth needs. Thus, the ideal soil texture for a
garden is a clay loam or a silt loam. Good soil makes gardening easier and produces higher yields. Yet, many gardens
are located on less than ideal soil. This is especially true if a garden is located near a house where construction of the
house resulted in removal of the topsoil.
How to Test Soil Texture at Home
To determine the percentage of sand, silt, and clay perform this simple jar test. Compare results to the texture class
triangle in Appendix A.
Materials:
Jar (a mayonnaise jar is perfect) Half that jars worth of water
Half that jars worth of soil from your garden area Tablespoon of liquid soap

6. 5
First add the water to the jar. Next, add the soil. Finally add the tablespoon of liquid detergent. Screw the cap on
tight and shake vigorously for a minute (or until the soil is completely in suspension). Set the jar in a place it can
remain undisturbed for 48 hours.
Once the soil has settled out of the water, examine the particle distribution of each texture size to determine
percentile. Sand, the largest particles, will settle to the bottom first. Indicate the level of sand with a piece of tape or
a marker. Silt will be the next to settle. Mark the top of the silt level the same way. Clay, the smallest particles, will
be the last to settle. Mark the clay level. Organic matter will float to the top; just ignore it when equating soil
texture.
Now measure the base of the jar to the top of the clay level; this is equivalent to one hundred percent. Then measure
each section: sand, silt, and clay and compare to the total to obtain each individual percentile. For example: If you
have a total of 8 inches of soil from the base to the top level of clay, that equals 100%. The sand is then measured and
found to be 2.5 inches. To find the percentile you would divide 2.5 inches by 8 inches and then multiply that number
by 100. The final number is the percent sand:
2.5” sand / 8” total soil = 0.3125
0.3125 x 100 = 31.25% Sand
The ideal soil texture composition is 40 percent sand, 40 percent silt, and 20 percent clay. This is classified as loam
and is considered the ideal garden soil.
Refurbishing Soil Texture
If your soil is too sandy, you can add silt and clay soil particles to improve the soil texture. If the soil has too much
clay or silt, add sand to improve the soil texture. The addition of soil material can be expensive, especially if the
garden is large. Several pounds of material must be added to adequately change the soil texture. For every three
square feet of garden add one pound of the needed soil texture, mix and test again! Test your soil texture each year
as it will change over time.
Topsoil
Topsoil is the surface layer of soil and can contain abundant organic matter. Topsoil is the portion of the soil in which
plants and other forms of life are most abundant. As these organisms live and die, they add organic matter to soil.
Organic matter is very important in maintaining the health of your soil. Organic matter improves soil tilth, water
holding capacity, promotes the movement of water and air, and supplies plant nutrients. You can use animal
manures, green plant materials, compost, peat moss, and other organic materials to add organic matter to your soils.
If it is not practical to add sand to clayey soils or silt and clay to sandy soils, you can add large amounts of organic
matter to the soil instead with much the same effect. However, if you choose to just add organic matter to the soil,
you will probably need to replenish that organic matter each year. Keep in mind that topsoil takes many years to
form, so don't expect organic matter to immediately correct any problems. It probably will be necessary to repeat
the application of organic material for several years in a row before a poor soil will be greatly improved. Some
organic materials, such as animal manure and green plant materials, supply plant nutrients to the soil. Green plant
materials decompose or rot much more rapidly than materials such as straw, bark, or sawdust. Compost is an
excellent organic material that can be used with great results in the garden. See our publication entitled
“Composting: A Beginner‟s Guide” for more information on how to make your own compost.

7. 6
Plant Nutrients
In addition to water, air, and sunshine, plants need nutrients. Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium
(Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sulfur (S) are often needed in large amounts.
Other elements are needed in small amounts, but are still very important for good plant growth. The nutrients
needed in trace amounts are zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), boron (B), iron (Fe), chlorine (Cl), molybdenum (Mo), and
manganese (Mn).
The fact that all these nutrients are needed does not mean that you must add them to the soil each year. The soil has
the capacity to store and release most of these nutrients as they are needed by the plants. Therefore, you will
typically need to apply only the most heavily used nutrients N, P, K, and S. You can do this by adding one pound of
an organic plant fertilizer for each six square feet of soil. You could also judge your fertilizer needs on a soil test.
Soil Testing
You can use a soil test to evaluate the nutrient levels in your soil, soil pH, and organic matter content. You can have a
test done by a commercial soil testing laboratory (your county Extension office has a list of labs). Cost varies
depending on the number of elements you choose to test for. There are also small soil test kits available online or
from your local garden supply store at a modest price. For small-scale gardens a soil test kit will probably be accurate
enough. If your potential garden site is now supporting healthy weeds, chances are it will do well to support garden
vegetables too. If your garden is going to be located adjacent to an older house (or in a dense urban environment),
sending a soil sample to a laboratory for lead testing is advisable.
Guidelines for taking a soil sample:
1. The best time to take a soil sample is in the summer or fall.
2. Take 8 to 10 random core samples from your garden or lawn area.
3. Sample only areas that are representative of the entire space, excluding problem areas or deep furrows.
4. Take samples from 2-inch to 4-inch soil depths.
5. Collect the samples in a clean container.
6. Mix the core samples, allow to air dry and remove roots and stones.
Soil pH:
Measuring soil pH may be the most beneficial test for the home gardener. Soil pH is an expression of the acidity or
alkalinity of a soil. A pH of 7.0 is neutral. Most plants grow best at a pH of 5.5 to 7.5. A pH below 5.5 is too acidic,
and a pH above 8.2 is too alkaline for most garden plants. Table 1 lists the pH preference of a selection of common
vegetables.
You can correct a pH that is too acidic (5.5 and below) by adding lime. Mix the lime well into the top 6 to 9 inches
of soil. The lime may take a year or more to react with the soil and correct the acidity problem. To correct a pH that
is too alkaline (8.2 and above) you can add sulfur. Mix the sulfur well into the top 6 to 9 inches of soil. Sulfur will
react quickly with the soil particles and may only take a few months to see results.

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Table 1: pH Preference of Common Vegetables
Vegetable Latin Name Preferred pH
Asparagus Asparagus officinalis 6.0 - 8.0
Basil Ocimum basilicum 5.5 - 6.5
Beans, lima Phaseolus limensis 6.0 - 7.0
Beans, snap Phaseolus vulgaris 6.0 - 7.5
Beets, Sugar Beta vulgaris 6.5 - 8.0
Beets, Table Beta vulgaris 6.5 - 8.0
Broccoli Brassica oleracea 6.0 - 7.0
Brussels Sprouts Brassica oleracea 6.0 - 7.5
Cabbage Brassica oleracea 6.0 - 7.5
Cantaloupe, muskmelons Cucumis mela 6.0 - 7.5
Carrot Dausus carota var. sativus 5.5 - 7.0
Cauliflower Brassica oleraccea 5.5 - 7.5
Celery Apium graveoleus var dulce 5.8 - 7.0
Chives Allium schoenoprasum 6.0 - 7.0
Corn Zea mays 5.5 - 7.5
Cucumber Cucumis sativus 5.5 - 7.0
Eggplant Solanum melougena var. esculentum 5.5 - 6.5
Garlic Allium sativum 5.5 - 8.0
Kale Brassica oleracea 6.0 - 7.5
Leek Allium ampeloprasium 6.0 - 8.0
Lettuce Lactuca sativa 6.0 - 7.0
Mustard Brassica juncea 6.0 - 7.5
Onion Allium cepa 6.0 - 7.0
Parsley Betroselium crispum 5.0 - 7.0
Parsnip Pastinaca sativa 5.5 - 7.0
Peas Pisum sativum 6.0 - 7.5
Potato Solanum tuberosum 4.8 - 6.5
Sweet potato Ipomoea batatas 5.2 - 6.0
Pumpkin Cucurbita pepo 5.5 - 7.5
Radish Raphanus sativus 6.0 - 7.0
Rhubarb Rheum x cultorum 5.5 - 7.0
Spinach Spinacia oleracea 6.0 - 7.5
Squash, Crookneck Cucurbita pepo 6.0 - 7.5
Swiss Chard Beta vulgaris 6.0 - 7.5
Tomato Lycopersicum esculentum 5.5 - 7.5
Turnip Brassica rapa 5.5 - 6.8
Watermelon Citrullus lanatus 5.5 - 6.5

9. 8
Sustainable Garden Design
A sustainable garden is a garden that is designed for a specific place. It takes maximum advantage of the
characteristics of a particular location to help you grow healthy, nutritious plants. If you carefully consider the needs
of your plants and the uniqueness of your garden landscape; then design a thoughtful relationship between the two,
you can reduce your labor, save time and money too!
Plant Selection
When planning your garden, the first question you need to ask is “What do I want to grow?” The answer to this
question will influence all the other decisions you make when designing your garden. Sit down and make a list of all
the plants you are considering growing. Here is where you have to do a little research… for each plant, write down
the following information:
Could it use support?
How big does it get? What is it‟s final spacing?
Solar preferences (full sun to full shade)
Planting time (when to start your seeds, when to transplant
your seedlings)
Planting type (direct seed, transplant)
How much should I plant? (how much will I eat?)
What are it‟s companion plants?
You should also find out:
Family name (what other plants is it related to?)
Is it perennial, annual or biennial?
Soil preferences (pH, fertility)
Any special water or maintenance needs?
Choosing a Location / Getting to know your Site
When choosing a location for a vegetable garden, you should consider: soil type, solar access, windbreaks, slope,
water movement, proximity to the home kitchen, circulation routes, tool storage, and water.
Soil Type
The ideal garden soil is a rich loam with good drainage. Loamy soil contains a range of particle sizes ranging from
microscopic clay to grains of sand, and retains moisture without becoming waterlogged. Heavy clay soils drain
poorly, warm up slowly in the spring, and are prone to compaction. Light sandy soils, on the other hand, drain too
rapidly and retain few nutrients. (See the previous section on soil management.)
Solar Access
At 40 degrees north latitude, most annual vegetables require full sun. Plants grown for their fruits, such as tomatoes,
peppers, and eggplant, need the most sun; leafy vegetables like lettuce, spinach, and chard can tolerate some light
shade during part of the day.
Wind Breaks
If possible, choose a garden site sheltered from cold northerly and prevailing winds. The south side of a south facing
wall is ideal and will provide some protection from frost. Consider planting a windbreak, but ensure that the
vegetation will not reduce solar access. Depending on the amount of space, consider a windbreak of full sized trees, a

10. 9
hedgerow or simply rows of tall crops such as sunflowers and corn. In addition to sheltering plants, windbreaks can
also possibly yield mulch, compost, animal forages, nitrogen fixation, edible crops and habitat for insectivorous birds
and beneficial insects.
Slope
Given good solar access, soil drainage, and wind protection, generally a flat area is better than a slope for a garden
site. Slopes are more susceptible to erosion. If a flat area cannot be found, a gentle south facing slope is ideal.
Consider terracing or installing permanent garden bed frames. Avoid an unprotected hill top ridge or a low area with
poor drainage.
Water Movement
Right after or during a heavy rain, walk your property. Observe the hydrology of the site. Where is the water
flowing? Where does water puddle? These are important aspects to consider when choosing a garden location.
Avoid water channels and places where water drains slowly.
Proximity Issues
Efficient energy, resource, and economic planning involves placing elements according to how much they‟re used or
how often they need service. Areas that must be visited every day are located nearby, while places visited less
frequently are located further away.
Consider the distance between your garden and kitchen. Do you sometimes find yourself neglecting to do something
because of its distance? The same will go for your garden. The closer it is to your home, daily circulation routes, and
kitchen, the more likely you are to tend it, harvest, and eat its bounty.
In order to save time and energy, plant the herbs, vegetables, and fruits you use daily closest to the kitchen. Plant the
extensive, one-time harvest crops farther from the house. For example, plant culinary herbs and leafy greens closest
to the kitchen and potatoes and winter squash farther away.
Plant vegetables and soft fruits that come into season quickly or briefly along circulation routes that you‟ll naturally
check daily and harvest readily. For example, you could plant summer squash, strawberries, and low bush
blueberries along the path from the garage to the front door.
Basic Design Elements
Garden Beds
Garden beds should be sized to accommodate a comfortable working reach for planting, weeding, and harvesting.
Beds that are too wide are difficult to maintain, while beds that are very narrow are not as space efficient. To
determine a good spacing for you, kneel down and measure the distance from your knees to the farthest distance you
can reach forward comfortably. Eighteen inches is a common reach. If we account for access to a garden bed from
both sides, (18” x 2) a 3 foot wide bed would be preferred.
Throughout the world, especially in Asia where raised garden beds are a necessity and space is limited, garden beds
are traditionally measured 4 ft. wide. Given that the maximum reach of the average person is 2 ft., the entire surface
of a 4 ft. garden bed can be reached without stepping on the bed. Therefore, it‟s the most efficient use of space.
However, this may be an uncomfortable width for many people. Personally, measure a comfortable reach and double
that length to determine the width of your ideal garden bed.

11. 10
Paths
Just like garden beds, paths should be sized to their use. If you plan to kneel and weed, your path width should
probably be at least 2 feet wide. This allows you to kneel between beds without touching the growing area (which
can compact the soil). A 2 foot width also accommodates a wheelbarrow, but not a garden cart. Consider placing
wider paths near garden entrances and common circulation routes, such as to the compost pile to facilitate easy use.
Fencing
It is quite possible that you may not need a fence around your garden. See the section on „pest management- other
critters‟ for information on choosing a fence type. Before placing your fence, consider the following:
Locate fence gates in strategic locations, and make sure they are wide enough to easily bring your garden cart,
wheelbarrow or other equipment through.
A fence placed directly adjacent to a garden bed can act as a trellis, but you may wish to make the bed narrow
(18”-24”) to facilitate working from only one side.
Fences with broad, round corners are easier to mow around with a riding lawn mower than fences with odd
angles.
One way to keep your fence free of weeds is to install a “permanent” mulch strip around the fence. To do this,
remove a 18-24 inch wide strip of sod (about 3” deep) around the perimeter of
where the fence will go. Lay down a weed barrier like landscape fabric or
cardboard in this shallow trench. Install your fence posts and fence. Then
backfill the trench with a “permanent” mulch like crushed rock or chipped bark.
Water
Although you can depend on a fair amount of rainfall to feed your growing
garden‟s needs, chances are you will have to supplement this rainfall with
another water source. Some consideration of where your water will come from
can help you plan a more sustainable garden landscape. Rain barrels installed
under the gutter downspouts of your roof can go a long way towards meeting your supplemental water needs.
Consider where these barrels are placed relative to the garden, and try to locate them nearby. If you plan to water
your garden from a hose bib on the house, think about where these are located in relationship to the garden
landscape.
Will you carry a watering-can from the spigot or rain barrel to the garden? Or will you use a hose and hand sprinkler
or overhead sprinkler? Know the answers to these questions before your plants are withering and crying for water.
Compost Pile
Some gardeners like to place the compost pile in a location adjacent to or on top of where they plan to garden when
the compost is finished. This way, the finished material can be spread out right in place with little effort. This takes a
little forethought, but can save labor in the long run. Other gardeners like to have the compost pile away from the
garden to have lots of room for turning the materials. Also, depending on the system, you may consider placing the
compost bin in a shady spot in the summer so it doesn‟t dry out too quickly. Either way, consider how you are going
to travel to the compost pile from the garden and vice versa.

12. 11
Tool Storage
Having your garden tools stored far away from the garden can
begin to get annoying after your 4th trip to the basement after
another tool you forgot to bring with you. Consider where you
will store your growing supply of garden tools, and what
relationship this has with the garden.
A “Place” in the Garden
At times, working in the garden (especially pulling weeds) can
be hard work. Consider leaving a bit of space within your
garden to sit down and relax. You might use this spot to sort
your seeds, to write in your garden journal, or to take a well-
deserved nap. Being inside the garden landscape should be an
enjoyable experience, and having a place to sit and admire your
handiwork can rejuvenate what might be flagging gardening passion!
Keeping a Garden Journal
Drawing a Garden Plan
Once you have begun to reason out the best location for your garden, it is time to draw a preliminary garden plan.
Draw the outlines of major landscape features that will influence the proposed garden area including buildings, trees,
and other major landscape elements. Some gardeners like to use graph paper to make it easier to draw to scale. ¼
inch graph paper squares can represent 1 foot squares in the garden. A 3 foot wide garden bed that was 8 feet long
would be drawn as a rectangle that is 3 squares wide by 8 squares long. Sketch some ideas of what you might like
your garden beds to be shaped like. Remember to include paths between your garden beds. Your garden can be just
about any shape you can think of, including triangular and even round! One word of caution: planting crops in
garden beds of non-rectilinear shapes may be more difficult to trellis, overlay with row cover, move a wheelbarrow
through, etc… Take care to think of how you are going to use the garden, and plan accordingly.
Once you have a preliminary garden plan, begin to divide the garden based on your spatial needs for your different
crops. Group the crops together according to their plant families when possible (see appendix for information on
crop rotation and companion planting). Consider the different requirements of each of the plants and place them
accordingly. You will probably draw several different versions until you get one that satisfies you. Now it‟s time to
get out and build garden beds!
After your garden beds have been constructed, inevitably you will have made some changes to your plan. Revise your
plan to reflect the changes you have made. As you direct seed or transplant seedlings into your garden beds, record
their location on your revised garden plan. This way, if you later forget what you planted in a particular area, you will
have something to remind you!
Keeping Yearly Records
This can be as simple as saving your garden plans or using a calendar to record garden and weather information. The
important thing is to find a system that works best for you.

13. 12
Garden Preparation
Prepare the Site
After determining the location of your garden, prepare the site for constructing beds and delineating pathways.
Remember to compost any sod or plant materials removed from the garden site. What style of garden beds and
pathways do you intend to build? There are many choices, each with pros and cons:
First, decide if your beds and pathways will be permanent or annual.
Permanent Beds and Pathways
Pros: Clear delineation of growing area; Concentrates soil building activities and materials;
Better drainage; Warms earlier in spring; Provides some frost protection as heavy, cold air
settles on the lower paths
Cons: Requires more water during hot, dry summers; More initial labor to establish
Annual Beds and Pathways
Pros: Accommodates use of mechanized tillage (Tractor or Rototiller); Easier to change layout of
garden from year to year
Cons: Pathways may be difficult to maintain (Weed pressure, Mud); Slower drainage and
warming in spring
Next, decide if your beds will be flat, contained raised, or freestanding raised.
Flat Beds
Pros: Less work initially; Require less water during hot, dry summers; Easier to redesign from
year to year
Cons: Slower to warm and drain in spring
Contained Raised Beds
Have permanent walls made from wood, brick, stone, or almost any building material.
Pros: Clear delineation of growing area; Concentrates soil building activities and materials;
Better drainage; Warms earlier in spring; Provides some frost protection as heavy, cold air
settles on the lower paths; Can easily be fitted with clear tops to serve as cold frames; Arguably
more aesthetic
Cons: Initial labor and resource investment; Requires more water during hot, dry summers;
Relatively permanent garden design
Freestanding Raised Beds
Made from soil in the garden usually by scraping the soil from pathways and adding it to the bed.
Pros: Clear delineation of growing area; Better drainage; Warms earlier in spring; Provides some
frost protection as heavy, cold air settles on the lower paths; Good flexibility with changing
garden designs and crop rotations
Cons: Annual labor; Erosion

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Your next step is to decide if your pathways will be constructed with exposed soil, mulch, or sod.
Exposed Soil Pathways
Pros: Does not require outside inputs; Easy to harvest soil and add to garden beds as needed
Cons: Mud; Weed pressure; Compaction
Mulched Pathways
Pros: Clean, weed free pathways
Cons: Annual addition of woody organic matter; Difficult to harvest soil to add to garden beds
Sod Pathways
Pros: Provides nitrogen rich grass clippings; Clean pathways
Cons: Requires regular mowing; Weed pressure
Cultivation Methods for Pennsylvania
Because of Pennsylvania‟s particular soils and climate, there are several cultivation methods that may be best
employed here, including Standard European-American Vegetable Garden, Mulch Garden, Sheet Mulch Garden,
Biointensive, and Animal Tractor Systems. As with beds and pathways, there are advantages and disadvantages to
each method.
Standard European-American Vegetable Garden
Cultivation of garden by hand or mechanically to prepare seed bed. Re-cultivate to kill weeds.
Pros: Can be mechanized; Apparent increase in fertility (temporary due to increased oxidation
of organic matter); Less work and fewer inputs (initially) than other methods
Cons: Destruction of soil structure; Destruction of soil micro-organisms; Destruction of
earthworms; Creation of hard pan; Brings new weed seeds to the surface with each cultivation
Mulch Garden
In the 1960‟s, Ruth Stout popularized mulch gardening as a polemic to the traditional
European-American garden. As opposed to bare soil cultivation, mulch covers exposed
soil.
Pros: Mulch inhibits weed seed germination and suppresses weeds; Mulch protects
the soil from erosion, compaction, and oxidation; Mulch limits evaporation,
retaining soil moisture; As organic mulch decomposes, it adds valuable organic
matter to the soil
Cons: Organic mulch is in short supply; Mulch can harbor some pests, namely
slugs; Mulch doesn‟t control perennial weeds
Sheet Mulch Garden (aka: Lasagna Garden)
Sheet mulching creates a weed free garden by growing above a weed barrier
Pros: Relatively quick and easy to establish; Can be used on poor and weedy soils; No disruption
of soil organisms; Controls weeds; Soil protected from erosion, compaction, and oxidation; As
organic mulch decomposes, it adds valuable organic matter to the soil
Cons: Organic compost is expensive; Mulch can harbor some pests, namely slugs; Plants initially
unstable; Cannot grow root crops the first year

15. 14
Biointensive
Features permanent double-dug beds and intensive planting
Pros: Good aeration of soil; Breaks hardpan; Allows deep crop root penetration; Reduces water
use through increased capillary rise
Cons: One time substantial disruption of soil organisms; One time substantial input of manual
labor; Not easily suited to heavy clay soils
Animal Tractor System
Can be used in combination with other methods.
Pros: Animals clear garden beds of weeds and insects; Animals fertilize garden without human
labor or double handling of manure
Cons: Soil compaction; Under the National Organic Program (NOP), raw manure requires an
interval of 120 days between application and crop harvest when the edible portion of the crops
destined for human consumption are in contact with soil, and 90 days for crops whose edible
portion does not have direct contact with the soil surface or soil particles

16. 15
Selecting and Buying Seeds
and Transplants
Local Seed and Transplant Sources:
The Macoskey Center at SRU Three Sisters Farm
Three Sisters Farm Wolf Creek Farm
Wolf Creek Farm
247 Harmony Road Darrel Frey
Darrel Frey JohnJohn and Susan Biberich
and Susan Biberich
Slippery Rock, PA 16057
16057 134 Obitz Rd.
134 Orbitz Road 3175 Scrubgrass Rd.
3175 Scrubgrass Road
724-738-4050
724-794-4050 Sandy Lake, PA 16145
Sandy Lake, PA 16145 Grove City, PA 16127
Grove City, PA 16127
macoskey.center@sru.edu 724-376-2797
724-376-2797 814-786-7675 786-7675
Phone (814)
defrey@bioshelter.com
defray@bioshelter.com
www.bioshelter.com
www.bioshelter.com
Mail Order Seed Distributors (check the Internet for dozens of online sources)
Commercial Growers Heirloom Seeds Organic Biodynamic
Heirloom Seeds: Organic: Biodynamic:
* Johnny‟s Selected Seeds * Seed Savers Exchange * Seeds of Change * Turtle Tree Seeds
Seed Savers Seeds of Change Turtle Tree Seeds
* Seeds Seeds
F FEDCO * Heirloom Seed Co. * High Mowing Seeds
Exchange High Mowing Seeds
Burpee Seeds Heirloom Seeds
Heirloom vs. Hybrid Seed
Prior to the 1930‟s, commercial hybrid seeds were largely non-existent. All of the seed a farmer or gardener used
was open pollinated, came from the previous year‟s crop, and would grow true to type. After 1930, hybrids began to
take hold and new varieties began to appear in the seed catalogs.
Hybrid seed is produced by artificially cross-pollinated plants. Hybrids are bred to improve the characteristics of the
resulting plants, such as better yield, greater uniformity, disease resistance, longer shelf-life, and so forth. However,
hybrids will not reproduce true to form. Since hybrid seed cannot be saved with certainty, farmers and gardeners
using hybrid seed are dependent on seed companies to supply their seed.
Seed Saving
Seed saving is the practice of saving seeds from open-pollinated vegetables and flowers for use from year to year. This
is the traditional way farms and gardens are maintained. Seed saving requires time and energy for gathering and
organizing seeds, and extensive garden planning. A common objection to the use of seed saving is the possibility that
plant diseases from one year may transfer to the next year. However, seed saving is cost effective and resource
efficient, and provides an excellent educational opportunity within the garden.
Buying Seed
When buying seed, try to purchase seed varieties developed or specified for your geographic region. Penn State
Cooperative Extension provides a list of proven commercial, hybrid varieties for Pennsylvania soils (for more
information go to http://hortweb.cas.psu.edu/pubs/pdfs/veggies/variety_recommendations.pdf )
Consider purchasing from seed suppliers in the Northeast region. When buying seed from a smaller seed company or
retail store, check the date and germination rate on the seed package. Ensure that the seed was grown out last season
for distribution this season. Consider the germination rate when sowing.

17. 16
Buying Transplants
Only purchase healthy transplants. Do not purchase seedlings that show signs of
nutrient deficiency or stunted growth. The first weeks of a seedling‟s life
determines its potential as a mature plant. Don‟t spend the time, money, and
garden space on mediocre transplants. Look for stocky plants with dark green
foliage and strong, thick stems. Tall, leggy, pale-green or yellow plants grow
more slowly and will not mature as readily. Avoid diseased or damaged plants
and those with open flowers or developing fruits. Examine the undersides of the
leaves for insects and insect eggs. Pull the plant gently but firmly out of the pot.
The white roots should hold the potting soil together without a tight mass of
dying roots at the bottom. If there is a tight mass of dying, yellow roots they will
have to be removed before transplanting.
Starting Seeds
Plant Hardiness
Generally, annual vegetables can be divided into two groups, cool-season and warm-season.
Cool-season Vegetables
These vegetables thrive in cool weather and tolerate varying levels of frost. Examples of cool-season vegetables are
beets, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, carrot, cauliflower, collards, garlic, kale, kohlrabi, leeks, lettuce, mustard
greens, onion, Asian greens, peas, radish, spinach, Swiss chard, and turnip.
Warm-season Vegetables
These vegetables are less hardy than cool-season vegetables. They thrive in warm weather, and are generally frost
intolerant. Examples of warm-season vegetables include beans, corn, cucumber, eggplant, melons, okra, peppers,
pumpkin, squash, sunflower, sweet potatoes, and tomatoes.
Direct-seeding vs. Transplanting
Direct-seeding establishes plants by sowing seed directly in the soil, while transplanting involves starting seed indoors
and then replanting young seedlings into the garden.
Direct-seeding
Direct-seeding is resource-efficient, as it does not require indoor growing space, potting mix or greenhouse supplies
such as plug trays or pots. This method usually does not require daily watering as potted seedlings do. Structurally,
direct-seeded plants have a better change of developing strong, undisturbed root systems. The direct-seeding method
is employed outside, and therefore the gardener has less control over spacing of the plants. Directly-seeded plants
often require thinning, and are subject to more competition from weeds. Also, this method relies on the natural
growing season, which may vary from year to year.
Transplanting
Starting plants indoors requires indoor growing space with lights or adequate solar access. You must have adequate
supplies for seedling care, such as potting mix, trays, plug trays, and pots. This method requires daily watering of
plants, and plant root systems can be compromised by their containers. Transplanting allows for a longer growing
season, as you can easily start seeds inside before outside conditions are favorable. When transplanting, the gardener
has more control over plant spacing and mulching, and the plants experience less competition from weeds.

18. 17
Recommendations
Some gardeners prefer to direct-seed most root crops, including turnip, radish, beetroot, potato, carrots, and
parsnips. It is also the preferred method for growing garlic, Swiss chard, spinach, peas, beans, corn, and okra.
Transplanting is the preferred method for leeks, onions, cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, kale, collards, Brussels
sprouts, kohlrabi, Asian greens, head lettuce, melons, cucumber, squash, pepper, tomato, eggplant, sweet potato,
and basil.
Reading a Seed Packet
There are several key pieces of information on a seed packet that will help you decide what seeds to buy and plant:
days, germination rate, and cultural recommendations.
Days: indicates the number of days typically needed after germination for a plant to reach maturity
Germination Rate: indicates what percentage of seeds germinated under ideal conditions before seed was
sold
Cultural Recommendations: may include information such as when to plant, soil temperature required
for germination, planting depth and spacing
Rules of Thumb
There are several general rules to follow when starting seeds. First, determine if the plant is tolerant of frost (see
Plant Hardiness). This will determine the appropriate time of year to direct-seed or transplant. Consider whether
the plant thrives in cool or warm weather; this will indicate the soil temperature required for germination.
Remember that appropriate planting depth is 2-3 times the width of the seed. Finally, keep spacing in mind when
direct-seeding or transplanting. Follow spacing recommendations on the seed packet, and try to visualize how much
space each plant will need when full-grown.
Planting guide for Slippery Rock
Average Last Frost: May 8 with latest being June 12, 1972
Average First Frost: October 12 with earliest being August 28, 1982

19. 18
Starting Seed Indoors
Indoor Seed Starting Supplies
For the beginner gardener, hard plastic plug trays and 4” pots are easiest to use when starting seeds indoors. Plug
trays use less potting mix than flats and can be easier to manage. Hard plastic pots are sturdy, reliable, and can be
used year after year. However, purchasing plug trays and plastic pots is not necessary to start seed indoors. Used
containers (such as from yogurt) with drainage holes punched in the bottom can be used as pots to start seeds. You
can also make your own pots from yesterday‟s newspaper.
Making Newspaper Pots
1. Find a can or jar roughly the size you would like your pot to be.
2. Cut newspaper strips to an appropriate size. The width of the strips should be the desired height of the pot plus
an additional 1-2 inches. The length of the strips determines how permanent the pot will be.
3. For example, a 15.5 oz can will make a pot about 3 ½ inches across. Take a strip of newspaper 6-8 inches wide
and 20-22 inches long and roll it around the can with two inches hanging off one end of the can.
4. Fold the protruding newspaper over the bottom of the can, folding in the edges to overlap.
5. Place the can and newspaper down on the folded paper end on a hard table or countertop.
6. Press hard while turning so that the folded edges press together tightly. Some people choose to use tape to hold
the folded edges together, but the pots should hold together well without the extra support. You may choose to
fold the top edges of the paper down into the pot for added sturdiness.
7. Remove the paper pot from the can and use as you would any other transplant pot, but be very careful when
moving them so as not to tear the paper.
8. Remember to store your pots on a waterproof surface since some water will leak when you water your seeds and
plants.
9. When you plant them in the ground, pierce and tear the pot as much as you‟d like to encourage its
decomposition
Try different paper thicknesses and see what works best for you and your plants. You may need to make especially
thick pots for large plants or for plants spending longer than average in the paper pots before being transplanted.
Also, wooden newspaper pot makers are commercially available. Now that‟s putting bad news to good use!

20. 19
Making Soil Blocks
What is a soil block?
A soil block is a block of growing medium that has been lightly compressed and shaped by a form. A soil block serves as
both a container and the soil for starting and growing seedlings, eliminating the need for plastic pots and trays for
transplanted seedlings. Seedlings grown in soil blocks form stronger root systems than those grown in containers due
to increased oxygen to the roots and the soil block‟s natural tendency to “prune” roots. This creates a substantial
advantage when seedlings are transplanted into the field, because plants establish themselves more quickly and,
because of lessened root disruption, they are less prone to transplant shock. The key to making good soil blocks is to
use a mix containing the correct proportions of peat, compost, soil, and sand or perlite. A “blocking” mix needs
extra fibrous material - peat - to bind the material together and help the block retain moisture. Some commercially
available peat-lite mixes may work, but often contain wetting agents and/or fertilizers that make it unsuitable for
organic use.
Soil Block Mix Recipe*
A standard 10-quart bucket is the unit of measurement for the bulk ingredients. A standard cup measure is used for
the supplementary ingredients. This recipe makes approximately 2 bushels of mix. Follow the steps in the order
given:
3 buckets brown peat (standard peat moss, use a premium grade)
½ cup lime. Mix ingredients together thoroughly.
2 buckets coarse sand or perlite
3 cups base fertilizer (equal part mix blood meal, colloidal phosphate, and greensand). Mix.
1 bucket garden soil
2 buckets well-decomposed compost. Mix ingredients together thoroughly.
* From The New Organic Grower, by Eliot Coleman (JSS part #9899).
Moisten the mix thoroughly using one part warm water for every three parts blocking mix. Successful soil block
making depends on the mix being wet enough, rather than wet like soil mix in traditional flats. The mix should have
the consistency of soft putty or wet cement, so that a small amount of water oozes through small openings in the
blocker as the blocks are made, and that the individual soil blocks cling to the blocker without falling out
prematurely.
How to use the Soil Block Maker
Blockers can be used on any flat work surface. Push the prepared soil mix into a mound that is 1¼ to 1½ times
deeper than the height of the soil blocker. Push the blocker into the mix until it strikes the work surface. Twist the
blocker a quarter-turn and lift. Set the blocker where you plan to grow your seedlings such as a wooden or plastic
tray, push down on the handle while raising the blocker. Rinse the blocker in warm water before making the next set
of blocks. Place the seed into the indentation of each block, and cover according to the culture information on your
seed packet. Prevent drying by covering blocks with clear plastic until the seeds have germinated.
*From Johnny‟s Selected Seeds: What you should know about Johnny’s Soil Block Maker.
Alternative Soil Block Mix Recipe
1 part peat moss/Coir 1 part compost 1 part seed starting potting mix
For instructions on making your own Soil Block mold, please visit the following website:
www.toppers-place.com/soil_blocks.htm

21. 20
Potting Mix
There are as many potting mix recipes as there are gardeners. As with plug trays and plastic pots, you can purchase
commercial potting mix, make your own fancy mix, or like the paper pots, you can use ingredients found around
your home. Nonetheless, all good potting media must meet the needs of plant roots for air, water, nutrients, and
support.
The trick is finding the right balance between nutrients, water retention, and water drainage. Dark topsoil, compost,
and organic fertilizers can provide nutrients. Peat, coir (coconut fiber), vermicompost, and clay topsoil generally
retain moisture. Vermiculite, perlite, and sand improve drainage.
The following is a traditional potting mix:
1/3 mature compost or leaf mold, screened
1/3 garden topsoil (fine loam preferred)
1/3 sharp sand
In How to Grow More Vegetables…, John Jeavons's recommends a simple potting mix of equal parts by volume of
compost and bed soil (saved from a biointensive production bed during the double-digging process). If nothing else,
use your darkest, most humus rich topsoil from your garden or woods. If you‟re already composting, start with your
compost and work from there. Try a 50/50 soil and compost mix. Add fine river sand to improve drainage. If you
water in the morning and it dries out by the end of the day, add materials that retain water. If your mix holds
moisture for more than a couple of days or grows algae, you probably want to improve drainage.
Do not allow your homemade potting mix to dry out. Your compost-topsoil potting mix is home to innumerable soil
microorganisms that depend on moisture to live. Keep it slightly moist but not damp.
Steps to a Successful Start
Instructions on starting seed indoors are usually given on seed packages, in seed catalogs, or in gardening books. The
following are the steps you‟ll likely take when starting seeds indoors.
1. Determine when you intend to transplant. This is determined by the frost sensitivity of the plant. Generally,
warm season vegetables are transplanted after the last frost while cool season vegetables can be transplanted a
week or two before the last frost.
2. Determine the number of weeks required before transplanting outside. This in turn, is determined by the usual
amount of time a particular vegetable needs to mature before it can be transplanted, as well as the size of its
container. A plant‟s root system will fill a small container and need to be transplanted before it can fill a large
container.
3. Once you‟ve determined when you intend to transplant and the number of weeks a particular vegetable requires
to mature before transplanting, count backwards to determine your seed starting date.
4. Determine what containers you‟ll use to start your seeds.
5. Fill containers just below the top with potting mix.

22. 21
6. Sow seed
7. Either press in the seed to the recommended depth or sift a thin layer of loose potting mix over the top.
8. Consider lighting. Some seeds require light to germinate while others prefer total darkness. The seed packet or
catalogue should specify if a seed has particular requirements.
9. Water from the bottom, top, or both. Consider using a soaker pan to water from the bottom. The water will rise
through the container by capillary rise. Watering from the bottom encourages proper root growth and minimizes
damping off. When watering from the top, use a spray bottle or watering can with a fine overhead spray. A
strong stream of water can wash away seeds and topple seedlings.
10. Do not allow the seed container to dry out. Keep potting mix moist through regular watering, but not
waterlogged or the seeds may rot before germinating.
11. Watch for signs of germination. The first thing you'll see will be a set of what appear to be small leaves. These
are actually food storage cells called cotyledons. (Germination times vary greatly; again, your seed packet will tell
you when to expect the first signs of life.) Continue to water so that the soil stays evenly moist.
12. Put the container(s) in full sun.
13. Prick out or thin seedlings when appropriate. Pricking out is transplanting a young seedling into a larger indoor
container. When a seedling has outgrown its container or has too much competition from other seedlings, it can
be pricked out and transplanted into a larger container. When pricking out, use a fork to gently dig out the
seedling. Use a fork handle to make a hole in a new container for transplanting. After the seedling is transplanted
to the new container, press lightly around its base to ensure good root to soil contact.
14. Hardening off: Before transplanting your seedlings outside, they must be hardened off, that is, acclimated to the
outside. Transplanting is a shock to a plant. Changing environments is shocking to a plant. Rather than hit a
seedling with two shocks at once, gardeners want to transplant in stages. Hardening off can take up to a week
depending on the weather. Begin by bringing your seedlings outside on a calm, warm, sunny day. Remember to
take them back in at night.

23. 22
Preparing a Seed Bed and Sowing or Transplanting
Step 1: Remove large weeds from the garden bed.
Step 2: Turn under the residue.
Step 3: Break up large clumps of soil with a hoe or digging fork.
Step 4: Rake out the remaining clumps of soil and stones leaving a fine tilth.
Step 5: Mark planting rows
Direct-Seeding: Using a string as a guide or by just eyeballing it, make a shallow furrow in the soil using the
handle of a tool or a dibble stick. The depth of the furrow depends on the size of the seed.
Transplanting: Using a string, dibble stick, or good judgment.
Step 6: Plant Seed or Transplant
Direct-Seeding: Generally the depth a seed should be planted is 2-3 times its width.
Transplanting: Bury the seedling up to its first true leaves, the adult leaves above the cotyledons. With some
plants, be sure not to cover its growing point.
Step 7: Ensure good soil contact
Direct-Seeding: Cover seed and apply light pressure to ensure good seed to soil contact.
Transplanting: Press around the base of the seedling to eliminate air pockets around seedling roots which may
cause the roots to dry out.
Step 8: Water
Direct-Seeding: Maintain a moist seed bed until the seeds have germinated.
Transplanting: Thoroughly water seedlings. Check daily to ensure seedlings have taken and water if needed.

24. 23
Garden Maintenance
Weed Management
Every organic garden has it‟s share of weeds. Fertile soil with lots of organic matter that is suited to your vegetables
will also be attractive to uninvited guests as well. “A good garden grows great weeds.” Not all weeds are a plague on
the garden, and the organic gardener will learn to value the helpful ones. The others can be dealt with using simple,
low-tech tools and well-timed action.
Mulch, mulch, and more mulch
Weeds (just like your vegetables) need air and light to survive and thrive. Using 2 - 4” of mulch to cover the soil in
your garden will help to prevent weeds from getting started.
Reasons to Mulch
Mulch control weeds efficiently and safely.
Organic mulch improves the soil as it decomposes.
Using mulch makes your garden more water efficient as well as more drought tolerant.
The insulating properties of mulch can prevent the ground from frost-heaving in the winter.
Mulching helps to prevent soil compaction due to crusting caused by rainfall impact.
Mulch timing
Wait to mulch heat loving plants (peppers, tomatoes, eggplant, etc…) until after the weather warms up. Your cool
weather plants (broccoli, kale, etc..) will produce longer if you mulch them while the soil is still cool.
Choosing a Mulch
The best mulch is whatever you happen to have available… straw, newspaper, leaves, grass clippings, etc. It should
be free of synthetic chemicals, and be able to be incorporated into the garden bed or the compost pile at the end of
it‟s useful life. See the chart on the next page for more details on selecting a mulch.
A note on plastic mulches:
Plastic mulches suppress weeds and increase the soil temperature faster than most other mulches. Heat loving plants
will thrive using plastic mulches. Special consideration has to be made for watering the roots of plants under the
plastic mulch. Plastic mulch is made from non-renewable resources and cannot be tilled into the soil at the end of the
year… unless it is made from a biodegradable cornstarch-based material. (Google “Garden Bio-Film” for more
details)

25. 24
Table 2: Types and Properties of Common Garden Mulches
Type Features Best Uses Sources Tips
Decomposes quickly;
Be careful not to use
acidic; good conditioner
Pathways; around sawdust from plywood,
Aged Sawdust when worked into soil;
vegetables, but requires Local Sawmills or from treated lumber
(partially rotted) can temporarily deplete
nitrogen supplement as these contain harmful
nitrogen at soil surface;
chemicals.
flammable
Lay at least 10 layers of
Slow to decompose; Tree Service; yard wood
Wood chips Pathways newspaper or one layer
stays in place chipper
of cardboard down first.
Around vegetables after Make sure the straw
Good insulator;
soil has warmed; over doesn‟t have seed heads
Straw lightweight; flammable; Local farm
garden beds in winter in it, otherwise you are
Lasts one season
(remove in spring) planting grass!
Readily available;
decomposes quickly;
Let your clippings dry
could temporarily Around vegetables;
out before you use
Grass clippings deplete nitrogen at soil possibly better used in Your yard
them, or else they can
surface; could contain compost piles
be slimy.
herbicides; lasts one
season or less
Good insulator;
lightweight; most are
acidic; can blow away if Your yard, your
Winter cover; cools soil Stockpile leaves in the
Leaves not shredded or neighbors yard (ask
in summer fall for use in the spring.
composted; slugs love to first!)
hide here; lasts one
season
Dark color can help to
heat soil; if not well Your compost pile; Make your own
Compost composted, could be Around vegetables landscape and garden compost. It‟s good for
weedy; will increase soil centers you and your garden.
organic matter

26. 25
Hoeing
An annual weed will die if you sever its stem from the root just below the soil surface. Your hoe should be sharp,
otherwise hoeing is more work than it‟s worth. Look for a collinear hoe, a swan neck hoe, or an oscillating hoe as
they are better adapted to weeding than a traditional square-headed garden hoe. Don‟t bend over to hoe and your
back will thank you. Instead, hold the hoe with your thumbs pointed up, as you would a broom. Use a pulling or
drawing motion with the head of the hoe cutting through the top half inch of the soil.
Avoid hoeing too deeply around plants with shallow root systems like squash, cucumbers, and melons. It‟s easy to
damage these plants, so consider using mulch instead.
Hand Pulling
Pulling those pesky buggers from the soil can be a chore, but may be necessary to remove weeds that are in spots too
small for a hoe. Weeding is easier when the soil is damp, so wait until after a rain, or after you water the garden.
One trick to comfortable weed pulling:
Put your hands in front of you, thumbs up with palms facing you, one in front of the other.
Rolling your hands one over the other, pinch your thumb and forefinger together on the weed as you reach the
outermost edge of your reach and pull backwards coming underneath the now forward-moving other hand. As you
pull back, fold your arms to the side, not down.
Weeds with a deep taproot (dandelion, canada thistle, etc..) can be removed easier with the use of a weed knife as
follows:
Grasp the plant foliage near the base of the plant. With your other hand, insert the weed knife into the soil
alongside the root of the plant. Rotate the weed knife to loosen the soil around the root. Lever the tool partially
out of the soil to lift the root and pull the weed free.
Come to know your weeds
Learning what weeds are common in your garden may help you to decide not to pull them in the first place. Some
common garden weeds are edible:
Amaranth - Nutritious with many vitamins and minerals
Burdock - Healthful root, grown as a vegetable in Japan
Dock - Root considered a tonic
Chicory - Similar to dandelion
Chickweed - Rich in iron and vitamin C
Dandelion - Rich in vitamin C and high in calcium. Widely used for diuretic properties, dandelion consumption
is also said to reduce serum cholesterol and uric acid.
Lambs quarters - High in vitamin C, vitamin A, iron
Purslane - Contain alpha-linolenic acid, one of the highly sought-after Omega-3 fatty acids
Shepherd‟s purse - Packed with vitamin A, C & K, calcium, sodium and sulphur
A Gentle Caution: As with any wild plant, make sure you know what it is, and how to use it before you eat it!

27. 26
Water Management
Plants are sensitive to changes in soil moisture. Too much water in the soil can cause an oxygen deficiency, which
will result in root damage. Too little water in the soil won‟t allow the plant to carry out it‟s essential biological
functions. Mulching is a good way to conserve water and keep the garden beds evenly moist, especially during the
summer months. Adding organic matter (compost, manure, green manures) to your soil will increase the capacity of
the soil to hold moisture.
Water consistency is most critical:
when germinating seeds
when plants are young seedlings
immediately after transplanting seedlings
when forming and ripening fruits
Tomatoes are particularly sensitive to fluctuations in soil moisture. Not enough water or irregular watering can cause
underdeveloped fruit, fruit cracking, and blossom end rot.
Know when to water
Watering the garden in the morning is your best bet. If you aren‟t able to water in the morning, water in the early
evening. Watering during the heat of the day is wasteful as most of the water will evaporate before the plants have a
chance to take it up. Don‟t water your garden late in the evening. The plants will probably remain wet through the
night, encouraging mold and fungus growth.
Know where to water
Water the roots of the plants, not the leaves and stems. This can be difficult
to accomplish with a hose and sprayer, or a conventional overhead sprinkler
system. A watering can with a fine rose is easier to control than the hose, but
can be tedious when watering the whole garden. Using a soaker hose (or drip
irrigation) laid under 2” of mulch is ideal. A soaker hose “sweats” water from
tiny holes along the length of the hose. It emits water slowly and
continuously along the hose length, and can be woven around plantings in
various shapes.
Know how to water
Don‟t water lightly and daily. Water weekly and heavily. You want the soil
to become wet to a depth of 5 to 6 inches. The soil will also be able to retain
this moisture for several days. Heavily moisten the soil each time you water,
and allow the plants to take up most of that moisture from the soil before
watering again. As a rough guideline, your garden will need 1” of water
(rainfall + irrigation) every week.

28. 27
Look for signs of water stress in plants
Signs of water stress in plants include:
droopy plants in the morning or late evening
brown edged leaves
undersized or misshaped fruit
smaller than normal leaves
Pest Management - Insects
Much like weeds, there are both „good‟ and „bad‟ insects to have in the garden.
The key to insect management in the organic garden is observation and
appropriate response to pest damage.
Observe the suspects
It is important to identify the insects in your garden that may be causing your
problems. Collect a few in a jar and get a close look at them. Observe what they
are doing in the garden. Are they eating your plants, or are they eating other bugs?
Do some research and understand the lifecycle of the suspect. Good pest managers
think like an insect, and look for ways to interrupt their lifecycle.
Grow a diverse garden
Having biodiversity in your garden will ensure that a particular pest won‟t decimate an entire section of your garden.
It will also discourage an insect population explosion at the expense of your harvest. Multiple plantings of the same
crop in different locations may also ensure some of your harvest remains intact.
Grow healthy plants
Frequently, insects attack those plants that are weak and/or stressed in some way. Are you providing the correct
environment for your crops to grow in? Are your crops well suited to the site? Growing healthy plants will go a long
way towards fighting pest pressure.
Encourage beneficial predators (good bugs)
Include plants in your garden that attract and feed beneficial insects. These include: marigolds, zinnias, cosmos,
yarrow, fennel, dill, tansy, daisies and nasturtiums. The beneficial insects will predate on the “bad” bugs. Attract
birds (insect predators) to the garden by including hedgerows, berried ornamental plants, a water source and bird
feeders.
Use barriers
To combat flying insects such as flea beetles, use row covers such as Reemay or Agribon. Secure the edges carefully.
Take care to remove the cover for at least 3 hours every day if blossoming plants require pollination. Once plants are
well established, (6-10 weeks) the cover may be removed completely. Dust barriers (on the ground around plants)
made from wood ashes or diatomaceous earth are effective against cabbage root maggots, slugs and snails; but need to
be reapplied after a rain. Cutworm collars made from newspaper that extend 1” below the surface of the soil will
deter cutworm caterpillars from attacking newly transplanted seedlings.

29. 28
Hand Removal
In smaller gardens, it‟s a simple matter to find and remove pest insects and drop them in a container of soapy water.
Check the underside of leaves and stems for egg masses as well as mature insects. Catching the pests early in their
development can go a long way toward avoiding a much bigger problem down the line.
Organic Sprays
When insect pests are beyond what is reasonable for hand removal, consider an organic spray such as a horticultural
oil, insecticidal soap, and garlic/hot pepper sprays. Some work by smothering the pests, others make the plants
unpalatable to the insects. Choose a product specific to the insect pest you have. Continued application may be
necessary after plants are exposed to rainfall.
Pest Management - Other Critters
As mentioned previously, the key to insect management in the organic garden is
observation and appropriate response to pest damage. This same idea holds true for other
critters as well. Pest pressure can be particularly high early in the season, when wild food
plants may be scarce. Be vigilant, and you can outwit the critters and keep your harvest.
Identify the suspects
It is important to identify the critters in your garden that may be causing your problems. Try to observe who is
causing the damage, and you can select a countermeasure that has a good chance of working. Develop an
understanding what your particular pest may be after, then try the following tactics.
Change the habitat
If you can remove the food source, or other things that may be attracting the critter in the first place, they will
probably find someplace else to hang out.
Create animal anxiety
Just like most people, critters don‟t like being nervous. Introduce things into the garden landscape that will create
tension in their lives. Try keeping a dog, cat, or a small flock of chickens near or around the garden to keep the
critters on their toes. Predator imitations (fake snakes, owls), shiny objects (i.e. aluminum pie plates blowing in the
wind), or odd sounds may also prove to be successful.
Use barriers
Most critters can be discouraged through the use of row covers such as
Reemay or Agribon. As plants get bigger, you may need to support the row
cover on wire hoops. Secure the edges carefully. Take care to remove the
cover for at least 3 hours every day if blossoming plants require pollination.
Rabbits and groundhogs can be discouraged fairly well with a low (1-2‟ tall)
fence made from inexpensive chicken wire. Bury the fencing a few inches
below the soil to discourage animals pushing under the fence.

30. 29
Particularly stubborn animals that burrow under your fence can most likely be caught in a live trap and relocated. If
your neighbor has dogs (or you have sheep or goats) and you want to keep them out of the garden, something taller
will be necessary (3‟-4‟). If it‟s cats, put your fence posts on the inside of the fence, and use thin wood posts (2” or
less), or metal “T” posts as they will have difficulty climbing them. Deer are difficult to control via standard fencing,
and have been known to clear up to 6‟ tall obstructions with little difficulty. Consider other management strategies
before investing in an expensive deer fencing system.
Repel with smell
Deer and other mammals are sensitive to unusual scents, so try hanging a few mesh bags with fragrant soap, dog or
human hair, or even dirty socks around the garden perimeter. Garlic and/or hot pepper spray is also a possible
deterrent. Remember to reapply after a rain, or if the scent is beginning to wear thin!

31. 30
Reference Resources
Baker, Jerry. Jerry Baker‟s Giant Book of Garden Solutions: 1,954 Natural Remedies to Handle Your Toughest
Garden Problems. Jerry Baker Publishing. 2004.
Bartholomew, Mel. Square Foot Gardening: A new way to garden in Less Space with Less Work. Rodale, Inc.
2005.
Beck, Malcolm & Walters, Charles.The Secret Life of Compost: A “How-to” & “Why” Guide to Composting-
Lawn, Garden, Feedlot, or Farm. Acres U.S.A. 1997.
Bucks, Christine. Great Garden Fix-Its: Organic Remedies for Everything from Aphids to Weeds.
Rodale Inc. 2001.
Campbell, Stu. Let It Rot: The Gardener‟s Guide to Composting. Storey Books. 1998.
Coleman, Eliot. Four-Seasons Harvest: Organic Vegetables from your Home Garden all year long. Chelsea Green
Publishing Company. 1999.
Coleman, Eliot. The New Organic Grower: A Master‟s Manual of Tools and Techniques for the Home and Market
Gardener. Chelsea Green Publishing Company. 1995.
Cunningham, Sally. Great Garden Companions. Rodale Press, Inc. 2000.
Ebeling, Eric. Basic Composting: All the Skills and Tools You Need to Get Started. Stackpole Books. 2003.
Epstein, Eliot. The Science of Composting. CRC. 1996
Fedco Seeds. Seed Saving for Beginners. http://fedcoseeds.com/seeds/seed_saving.htm. 2006.
Fedco Seeds. Vegetable Planting Guide. http://fedcoseeds.com/seeds/veggie_chart.htm. 2007.
Fedor, John. Organic Gardening for the 21st Century: A Complete
Guide to Growing Vegetables, Fruits, Herbs, and Flowers.
Readers Digest. 2001.
Jason, Dan. Greening the Garden: A guide to sustainable growing. New
Society Publishers. 1991.
Jeavons, John. How to Grow More Vegetables*. Ten Speed Press. 2002.
Kaufman, Eli Rogosa. From Generation to Generation: An activity
guidebook in the living tradition of seed saving.
www.fedcoseeds.com/forms/seedschool.pdf. 2001.

32. 31
Larkcom, Joy. The Organic Salad Garden. Frances Lincoln Publishing. 2002.
Rodale, Inc. Organic Gardening Magazine Online. www.organicgardening.com. 2006
Schwenke, Karl. Successful Small-scale Farming: An Organic Approach. Storey Books. 2003.
Topper’s Place. Making Soil Block Molds. http://www.toppers-place.com/soil_blocks.htm. 2008.
Witman, Ann. Organic Gardening for Dummies. IDG Books Worldwide, Inc. 2001.

33. 32
Appendix
Soil Texture Classification Chart
Penn State Crop Rotation Document
Penn State Companion Plants Document
Seed Saving for Beginners
Vegetable Families
Vegetable Planting Guide
(NOTE: Planting dates for the Slippery Rock area are approx. a week earlier then listed.)

34. 33
Soil Texture Classification Chart

35. 34
Reprinted with permission, 2006
HEALTHY PLANTS START HERE
Crop Rotation
What is crop rotation, and why is it important?
Crop rotation is an easy way to control diseases and insects at no cost.
For example, tomatoes, cauliflower or cabbage planted in the same
location each year will actually encourage buildup of certain diseases in
the soil. By rotating crops, you are removing the host plant and
preventing the spread of disease. Also, as overwintering insects emerge
from the soil in the spring, they expect to find the same plant in the same
place. By moving garden plants around, insect pests will have a harder
time finding their target.
How does crop rotation affect the soil?
Each crop has different fertilizer requirements. By changing the location
of your crops you can avoid the risk of depleting the soil of specific
nutrients. Some crops will actually add essential elements to the soil. By
using crop rotation, you can actually build up the soil over the years.
How do I do this?
It’s easy! Plants are often grouped by families that share similar growth
habits and cultural requirements. By knowing your plant families (and
their garden companions) you can create a plan for your own garden
rotation. The following example divides the garden into four sections. As
you can see, each year, the vegetable groups are planted in a different
section of the garden.
Tomato/Potato Greens Legumes Squash/Corn
Year 1 Peppers, Cauliflower Peas Cucumbers
Tomato Cabbage, Broccoli Beans Squash, Corn
Eggplant, Potato Lettuces Pole beans Pumpkins
Squash/Corn Tomato/Potato Greens Legumes
Cucumbers Peppers, Cauliflower Peas
Year 2
Squash, Corn Tomato Cabbage, Broccoli Beans
Pumpkins Eggplant, Potato Lettuces Pole beans

36. 35
Legumes Squash/Corn Tomato/Potato Greens
Year 3 Peas Cucumbers Peppers, Cauliflower
Beans Squash, Corn Tomato Cabbage, Broccoli
Pole beans Pumpkins Eggplant, Potato Lettuces
Greens Legumes Squash/Corn Tomato/Potato
Cauliflower Peas Cucumbers Peppers,
Year 4 Cabbage, Broccoli Beans Squash, Corn Tomato
Lettuces Pole beans Pumpkins Eggplant, Potato
There are a few simple rules for crop rotation:
· Don’t follow tomato, peppers or eggplant with potatoes, or each other.
· Allow 3 years before replanting the same group in any given bed.
· Onions may be planted throughout all groups.
· Beets, carrots and radishes may be planted among any group, and
replanted as early crops are removed.
· Don’t forget to interplant with companion plants to minimize pesticide
use. See the Companion Plants handout for some ideas on this practice.
· Keep good notes so you can duplicate successes.
Another interesting idea-“Green Manure”
To help build organic matter, you might also consider using a “green
manure” sometimes called a cover crop. There are both summer and
winter cover crops. Buckwheat makes a great summer cover, and would
be used in conjunction with your garden rotation plan. Cereal rye is a
good choice for fall planting. Sow it after your fall garden cleanup and
then till it under in the spring. By adding organic matter in this way, you
will increase aeration and water holding capacity of your soil, prevent
weed growth and soil erosion, and support the beneficial organisms
necessary for a healthy, living soil.
Where can I get more information?
We’ve only touched on the basics of crop rotation, but as you can see, it
is a great way to reduce, or even eliminate the use of extra fertilizers in
your garden. In addition, you are also building the soil. It is a proven, no
cost method of vegetable production. Organic gardeners have been using
these practices for years. Check your local library, the internet or organic
gardening books and magazines for more information. Your local
cooperative extension office is also a great resource.
This publication was made possible by funding from the U.S EPA, PA Dept. of Ag. Penn State, IPM, Penn State Cooperative Extension.

37. 36
Reprinted with permission, 2006
HEALTHY PLANTS START HERE
Companion Plants
What is a companion plant?
· Companion plants help other plants grow.
· Companion plants may enrich the soil by providing nutrients or
organic matter.
· They may provide shade or mulch for shorter plants or bare soil.
· They may prevent pest problems by repelling unwanted bugs, or by
attracting beneficial insects.
· Companion plantings combine more than one crop in a given area, so
garden space is used efficiently.
What kind of plants makes good companions? Many herbs and
flowers make good companions for vegetable crops. The best companion
gardens are a diverse mixture of vegetables, herbs and flowers. Some
companions actually add nutrients to the soil. This reduces the need to
apply additional fertilizer.
What are some examples? Plants with cup-shaped or open flowers are
great for attracting beneficial insects. Borage is a great choice for
attracting these garden friends. Dahlias and marigolds will repel
nematodes in the soil and nasturtiums will deter pests that attack the
curcurbit (cucumber) family. Beans will actually “fix” nitrogen from the
air into the soil. Often strongly scented plants will confuse insect pests
as they are looking for vegetables.
What are some good garden companions? One of the original
companion gardens is the Three Sisters Garden, which has been used
by Native Americans for generations. They plant corn with pole beans
and then underplant with pumpkins or squash. The corn provides a
structure for the beans to grow, the beans add nitrogen for heavy
feeding corn, and the squash leaves act as mulch by shading plant
roots, reducing water evaporation and preventing weed growth.

38. 37
corn with pole beans and then underplant with pumpkins or squash.
The corn provides a structure for the beans to grow, the beans add
nitrogen for heavy feeding corn, and the squash leaves act as mulch by
shading plant roots, reducing water evaporation and preventing weed
growth.
Other Examples include:
· Sweet alyssum planted under broccoli or among potatoes will attract
beneficial insects and prevent weeds from growing.
· Potatoes and beans make a great combination. They both tend to
confuse each other’s insect pests.
· Tall flowers provide needed shade to lettuce as the weather gets hot.
· Heavily scented plants such as marigolds, basil and artemesia can be
used to confuse pests.
· Plant crops to trap unwanted insects. Potato Beetles love eggplant and
flea beetles love radishes. You can use these plants to monitor insect
levels and, as plants become infested, they can be simply destroyed,
bug and all!
· Yarrow has insect-repelling abilities too, plus its leaves make a great
addition to compost.
· Many herbs will attract the beneficial insects you want into the garden.
Use flowers from the aster family like sunflowers, coneflowers, Black-
eyed Susans and daisies to attract these good guys. Plants from the
parsley family (parsley, corriander, and dill) are also good attractors.
· Experiment and see what works for you.
· Don’t forget to keep a record. You’ll want to duplicate your successes
next year.
As you can see, the key to a good companion garden is diversity!
Where can I get more information?
We’ve only touched on the basics of companion planting, but as you can
see, it is a great way to reduce, or even eliminate the use of pesticides in
your yard. It is a proven, no cost method of vegetable production.
Organic gardeners have been using these practices for years. Check
your local library, the internet or organic gardening books and
magazines for more information. Your local cooperative extension is also
a great resource.
This publication was made possible by funding from the U.S EPA, PA Dept. of Ag. Penn State, IPM, Penn State Cooperative Extension.

39. 38
Seed Saving for Beginners Reprinted with permission 2008
Isolation Seed
Vegetable Cycle Pollination Pollinator Notes
Distance Longevity
Bean A Self 100' 2-3 yrs Lose vigor rapidly.
Soybean A Self 100' 2-3 yrs Space farther apart than for market crops.
Beet/Chard B Cross Wind 1/2 mi 3-5 yrs Beets cross with chards.
Hot-water treated seeds last only 1 yr.
Broccoli/Kale/
B Cross Insects 1/2 mi 3-5 yrs Crossing among brassica species is
Cauliflower
complex, consult a good reference book.
Carrot B Cross Insects 1500' 2-3 yrs Crosses with wild species.
Celery B Cross Insects 1500' 2-3 yrs
Corn A Cross Wind 1/2 mi 2-3 yrs Adequate population essential.
Cucumber A Cross Insects 1500' 5-10 yrs Harvest at yellow blimp stage.
Eggplant A Self 150' 2-3 yrs
Leek B Cross Insects 1500' 2 yrs
Onion B Cross Insects 1500' 1 yr
Lettuce A Self 50' 2-3 yrs Start indoors, need long season for seed.
Muskmelons will not cross with
Melon A Cross Insects 1500' 5-10 yrs
watermelons.
Mustard A Cross Insects 1/2 mi 3-5 yrs Crosses with wild species.
Pea A Self 50' 2-3 yrs Do not save seed from diseased plants.
Some varieties cross more readily than
Pepper A both Insects 500' 2-3 yrs
others.
Radish A Cross Insects 1500' 3-5 yrs
Spinach A Cross Wind 1/2 mi 2-3 yrs
Squash/ moschata 2-3 yrs, pepo & maxima 3-5 yrs.
A Cross Insects 1500' 2-5 yrs
Pumpkin These three species generally do not cross.
Potato-leaf types need the greater
Tomato A Self 25'-100' 5-10 yrs
isolation distance.

40. 39
Cycle: A=annual, B=biennial.
Pollination: Self=self-pollinated, Cross=outcrossed, pollinated by another plant.
Isolation Distance: recommended distance by which different varieties must be separated to prevent
unwanted cross pollination.
Seed Longevity: Averages, not guarantees. Seed longevity depends on the conditions under which the crop
was grown and how the seeds have been stored.
Minimum Populations: Crossers require minimum populations to maintain vigor and avoid inbreeding
depression. Recommended minimum number of plants: 25 cucumbers, squash, melons; 50-100 radishes,
brassicas, mustards; 200 sweet corn.
Basic Definitions
Open-pollinated varieties will grow true to type when randomly mated within their own variety. Seed saved from these
plants will breed true, provided the plants have been properly isolated from different varieties of the same species.
Hybrid varieties are those produced from the crossing of two different inbred lines. Seed saved from hybrid varieties will
not breed true in the next generation.
Amongst open-pollinated plants, self-pollinated (selfers) usually reproduce by using their own pollen. Crossers
usually reproduce through the transfer of pollen from one plant to a different plant of the same species.
Plants are classified into kinds by genus, general kind, and species, specific kind within the genus. For example, some
squashes are Cucurbita pepo. Cucurbita is the genus and pepo is the species. A variety is a particular named kind. In
Cucurbita pepo Sweet Dumpling, Sweet Dumpling is the variety.
Seed Storage
Keep your seed alive by storing it properly! Humidity and heat are the enemies of seed longevity. Humidity causes the
quickest deterioration. Ideal moisture content for most seed is no more than 10-12% so store at low relative humidity.
Optimum storage is in a sealed jar in a freezer or refrigerator. Failing that, the sum of temperature plus relative
humidity where seed is kept should never exceed 100.
Never store seed in a humid, warm or sunny spot.
Don‟t ever leave it in a greenhouse or hoophouse for even a few hours.
Most seed stored properly will last for several years. A few seeds are good for one year only, such as onions, parsnips,
parsley, chives, shiso, scorzonera, Batavian endive, licorice, pennyroyal, St Johnswort, liatris, delphinium, larkspur,
perennial phlox, and any seed that has been pelleted or hot-water treated. If in doubt, try germinating a sample of old
seed in moist paper towels.