Alavi glossary m

The glossary of Second Language Acquisition (pages 192-195)
Proffessor: Dr. Siros IzadPanah
Provided by: Mansooreh Alavi
E-mail: alavi_m64@yahoo.com
Morpheme: is the smallest grammatical unit in a language. A morpheme is not word identically. If a
morpheme can stand alone, it will function as a word (e.g. book, ship, etc). If a morpheme cannot
stand alone, it will be part of a word (e.g. –tion in attention).
Morphology: is the study of morphemes and the way they are made in language.
Motivation: is a psychological quality that helps people to reach a goal. In language, motivation is a
need and desire to learn.
Multidimensional Model: is an approach to SLA. This approach claims:
• Learners acquire certain grammatical structures in a developmental sequence.
• Developmental sequences reflect how learners overcome processing limitations.
• Language instruction will be successful only if learners mastered the processing operations which
are associated to previous stage of acquisition.
According to Clahsen “linguistic structures which require a high degree of processing capacity will be
acquired late.”
Multilingual competence: Those people who grow up in a multilingual environment acquire
multilingual competence by using two or more languages from childhood. According to Cook,
multilingual competence is: “The compound state of a mind with two or more grammars.”
Multilingualism: is the ability to use two or more languages.
Naturalistic L₂ learning: is the informal L₂ learning contexts.
Natural order: or Universal Sequence raises this question if there is a universal sequence in the
grammatical development of language learners. For example, Brown (1973) showed that both L₁ and
L₂ learners of English first acquire the progressive –ing and plural –s.
Negative evidence: is the explicit and direct correction of inappropriate utterances of learners.
Negative transfer: or Interference happens when an L₁ structure or rule is used in L₂ utterances and
that use is inappropriate and considered an “error”.
Negotiation of meaning: communication requires learners not only listen but also speak as well. In
fact, by negotiation of meaning learners collaborate in interaction in order to prevent breakdown of
communications. For example, they request for clarification or check the comprehension.
Neurolinguistics: is study of language and brain. Neurolinguistics examines the location of language
in brain and the way language is represented in brain. It studies how location and organization of
language can differ in the heads of monolingual versus multilingual speakers by considering what is
added and changed in people brain when they learn another language. In addition, neurolinguistics
influenced cognitive perspectives on SLA in 1960. This field of study has been interest of biologists
and psychologists since the nineteenth century.
Nominalization: is a process in which the whole sentences are transformed into fillers. For example,
in English this is achieved by changing sentences into fillers for noun phrase positions. In fact, this

process transforms several simple sentences into one sentence. For instance, the sentence “I
analyzed the report” changes into “my analysis of the report.”
Oral (mode): is a channel of communication which consists of Listening and Speaking. On the other
hand, L₂ activities involving language use are classified into oral mode (Listening and Speaking) and
written mode (Reading and Writing).
Orthography: is the symbolic writing system or the way in which words are spelled.
Output: Information processing consists of three stages: Input, Central processing, Output. Output is
the production stage. The language that learners produce in speech/sign or in writing forms in SLA.
Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP): PDP is a connectionist approach (connectionists focus on the
increasing strength of stimulus and responses). PDP states that processing takes place in a network
of nodes (units) in the brain. These nodes are connected by pathways. Learners receive repeated
patterns of units in input; they extract regularities in patterns, and the associations are
strengthened.
Parameters: Universal Grammar is a set of principles. These principles contain Parameters.
Parameters are limited points or choices of universal principles. Parameters hypothesized to be
innate; children are assumed to unconsciously analyze the input they received and construct the
appropriate L₁ grammar. Children never select parametric values outside of universal grammar
channel.
Patterns of activation: In Parallel Distributed Processing of Connectionist approach, learners are
exposed to repeated patterns of units in inputs, they extract regularities in the patterns; probabilistic
associations are strengthened. Probabilistic associations that develop between nodes in the brain as
language learning takes place are named patterns of activation or connection strengths.
Performance: or Linguistic Performance is the actual production of learners in different stages of
acquisition.
Phonemes: are speech sounds that make a difference in meaning.
Phonemic coding ability: Carroll introduced four underlying factor of aptitude. One of these factors
is phonemic coding ability. Phonemic coding ability is capacity to process auditory input (sound) and
organize it into segments which can be stored and retrieved.
Phonology: study of sound systems of different languages.
Phonotactics: is subcategory of phonology. It is possible sequences of speech sounds(consonants
and vowels) in any given language.
Plasticity: is the capacity of brain in early childhood which can assume new functions. If one area of
brain damaged in childhood, another area of the brain can assume to the functions of the damaged
area because it has plasticity capacity.
Positive evidence: Actual utterances or the input which is provided from experiencing L₂ in natural
use or formal instruction.

Positive transfer: When L₁ structure or rule is used in L₂ and that use is appropriate and correct.
Positive transfer facilitates L₂ learning.
Poverty-of-the-stimulus: This is an argument which states that children can learn beyond what they
receive. Children hear a set of incomplete, simple, and only finite sentences but they can produce
grammatical, complex sentences. This shows that there must be an innate capacity for L₁ acquisition.
Pragmatic competence: In communicative situations we need to convey meaning. For example, in
communication we use speech acts such as request for something, apologize, promise, deny, etc.
knowing when to use these speech acts are called pragmatic competence.
Pragmatic function: When we use language we want to achieve a goal such as conveying
information, controlling others behavior, or expressing emotions. These are what we want
accomplish with use of language.
Pragmatic mode: This term refers to a style. This style expresses the meaning depending on the
context.
Principles: In Universal Grammar of Chomsky, principles are qualities which all languages in the
world have in common.
Principles and parameters (model): Universal Grammar is defined as a set of principles which are
properties of all languages .some of these principles contain parameters. Knowledge of principles
and parameters are considered to be innate. So children never violate principles nor do they select
parameters out of Universal Grammar.
Private speech: self- talk which children use (in particular) and more mature individuals use to
control thought and behavior. In fact, in mature individuals this self-talk leads to inner-talk. Vygostky
was interested in private speech.
Procedural knowledge: Knowledge which involves how to do something, knowing a procedure for
doing something. This kind of knowledge requires practice. For example, if someone knows the
grammatical rules s/he has Declarative knowledge, but to speak correctly s/he needs to practice.
Processability(theory): is a psychological framework. Its goal is to determine and explain sequences
in which processing skills develop in relation to language learning. For example, in order to change a
declarative sentence in English to a question, learners use a series of stages.
Productive activities: In L₂ learning activities are divided into two types: productive and receptive.
Productive activities are L₂ use in order to communicate meaning to others. Speaking and writing are
productive activities.
Recast: is the indirect correction. Teacher repeats the same thing that learner has said but in fact,
s/he corrects the part of language use.
Receptive activities: In L₂ learning activities are divided into two types: receptive and productive.
Receptive activities are L₂ use in order to interpret the meaning of others. This happens by using
listening and reading activities.

Reduced form: are the less complex grammatical structures. These structures often observed in
informal language. We can observe some of these forms in omission of past tense markers,
assimilation and, etc.
Reduced function: is smaller range of communicative needs that are accomplished by interlanguage
in especially if learner is still in contact with members of L₁ community speech.
Registers: are varieties or differences of language that are used in particular situations. These
variations are corresponded to formal and informal situations. For example, in academic writing
formal registers are used but in everyday language informal registers used.
Restructuring: happens in central processing in information processing. For example, inductive
grammar learning is connected with central processing and restructuring occurs in central
processing. Restructuring makes mental representations more coordinated, integrated, and
efficient.
Rule-governed behavior: this quality of language is derived from Transformational-generative
grammar. It says that ability knowing a language is based on set of underlying rules.
Scaffolding: is the verbal guidance of an expert to help the learner do any task or verbal
collaboration of peers to perform a task. Scaffolding happens to a learner as an active participant.
Schemes: All types of pre-existing knowledge that readers and listeners bring to interpret the
meaning.
Second language (L₂): Generally, any language that we acquire after first language is L₂. Specifically,
learning another language than first language which is socially dominant and needed for education,
employment, and other purposes is L₂.
Second language acquisition: Learning another language subsequent to first language especially for
one who is in childhood and process of this learning is named second language acquisition.
Second language learning: Adding another language to ones first or native language.
Semantics: In order to analyze language linguists divide language into different levels. One of these
levels is semantics which is study of meaning.
Sequential multilingualism: Learning additional languages after L₁ is sequential multilingualism.
Social psychology: studies language both from psychological and social perspectives. It is subfield of
psychology. This study focus on how identity, status, and values affect L₂.
Social strategies: strategies for learning which are in development of communicative competence.
Sociocultural theory (SCT): This theory belongs to Vygotsky (1962). This theory emphasizes
interaction. In this view learning is seen as a social process.
Speech acts: Speakers use language to fulfill their goals. In order to accomplish these goals speakers
use utterances such as requesting something, apologizing, promising, denying, expressing emotions,
etc. These utterances are called speech acts.

S-R-R: stimulus-response-reinforcement: are factors which behaviorists applied for learning process.
Linguist input is considered stimuli; responses are to those stimuli, and reinforcement can be
positive or negative.
Stimulus-response theory: This theory introduced by behaviorist. This theory states that children
can learn language by imitation. In addition, it studies the relationship between stimuli and
response.
Structural function: Every element of language plays a role in sentence. For example, subject or
object, or an agent or goal is some of these roles. These roles are called structural functions.
Structuralism: structuralism was the dominant linguistic model in 1950s. Structuralism (e.g.
Bloomfield 1933) divided language into three levels: phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and
lexicon. Structural linguists believed in primacy of speech over written language.
Subject-predicate structure: Every sentence consists two parts: subject and a predicate. Predicate
tells something about subject. Subject is recognized by putting who or what in sentence. In fact,
subject-predicate structure involves an amount of grammatical marking because of agreement it
requires between sentence elements.
Subtractive bilingualism: is when members of minority group are learned the dominant L₂ of
majority group and they are more likely to experience some loss of ethnic identity and L₁ skills.
Wallace Lambert (1974) differentiates between additive and subtractive bilingualism.
Sylvain fissure: is the part of brain which divides the frontal lobes and temporal lobes in both
hemispheres.
Symbolic mediation: is a link between a person’s current mental state and higher order functions
provided by language. This is part of Vygotskyˊs socicultural.
Syntactic mode: A style of expressing meaning which relies on formal grammatical elements.
Syntax: is linguistic system of grammatical relationships of words within sentences.
Systematic linguistics: has been developed by M.A.K. Halliday (1950s). This model analyzes language
in terms of interrelated systems of choices. In this view, it is not a system of rules which govern
language structure, but rather “meaning potential”.
Target language: is language that is the aim of learning.
Tone: is a phonological feature. In some languages (e.g. Chinese) changing in tone plays an
important role in word identification.
Top-down processing: The brain processes information in two ways: top-down processing and
bottom-up processing. In top-down processing, past experience or prior knowledge of content in
long term memory is used to interpret the meaning.
Topic-comment (structure): In linguistics, the topic of a sentence is what is being talked about and
comment is what is being said about topic. Unlike subject-predicate structure, the topic-comment
structure does not require the agreement.

Transactional (purpose): Interpersonal situations subdivided into two: interactional purpose and
transactional purpose. The transactional purpose is task-oriented.
Transfer: Influence of L₁ on L₂ (using L₁ rules or structures on L₂) is called transfer. Transfer is divided
into: positive and negative transfer (or interference).
Transformational-generative grammar: is Chomskys internal focus on study of SLA. Chomsky
assumed that children acquire language by an innate capacity which is biologically endowed.
Transitional competence: This view considers the learners language as a target of analysis which is
independent of L₁ and L₂. In addition, the state of learner knowledge is seen as a transitional
competence on the path of SLA.
Typology: The classification of languages and their features into categories and types are named
typology.
Ultimate achievement: include what features must be achieved at the end of L₂ study.
Universal grammar (UG): UG is a framework introduced by Chomsky. What all languages have in
common is universal grammar. Chomsky and his followers claimed that native language can be
acquired by innate knowledge that human species endowed genetically.
U-shaped development: In u-shaped development, learner first uses correct form such as plural
men in English, followed by incorrect mans, finally again appears as men.
Utterance structure: is the way learners put their words together.
Variable: A characteristic of learner language. Differences in context result in different patterns of
language use.
Variable features: Multiple linguistic forms that are used by different speakers of a language or by
same speakers at different times, with same or similar meaning or function. They occur at every
linguistic level: vocabulary, phonology, syntax, etc. For example, native speakers of English may say: I
ate dinner or I ate supper (variable vocabulary).
Variation theory: studies the systematic differences in learner production which depends on context
of use.
Vocabulary: The level of language in linguistic which related to words and their meanings.
Wernicke’s area: is left frontal lobe of the brain which is involved in the understanding of written
and spoken language.
Written (mode): Activities involving language use are classified into oral mode and written mode.
The written mode includes reading and writing activities.
Zone of proximal development (ZPD): Vygotsky believes in this area much of symbolic mediation
occurs. This is an area where learners can achieve potential only with assistant. In addition,
according to Vygotsky: in ZPD children learn more with support of adults around them.
ZISA: The acronym for a research project titled Zweitspracherwerb italienischer und spanischer
Arbeiter “ second language development of Italian and Spanish workers.”

Alavi glossary m

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