3. Lowstand Highstand
Alluvial channel
Distributary channel
l
leve
sea
and
Highst
level leve
l
sea sea
and and
Lo wst Lo wst
Bas
in f
loo
r fa
n
> Changes with sea level. The rise and fall of sea level influence the location of clastic sediment deposits and control the environments under which
carbonates form. With decreasing sea level, higher-energy flows are able to carry sediments basinward, eventually depositing them in lowstand basin-floor
fan complexes. Conversely, increasing sea level moves the coastline landward, with deposition closer to the coastline.
increasing pressures and temperatures accompa- production engineers must contend with similar coarse-grained clastics are retained by fluvial
nied by changing chemical and biological condi- phenomena to counteract the effects of fluid systems or deposited at the beach, rather than in
tions. These new conditions promote further incompatibility, mobilization of clays and reser- deep marine settings (above). It is the lowstand
consolidation and cementation of loose sediment voir compaction. This article discusses diagene- settings that are responsible for most of the
and ultimately form lithified rock.8 sis as it affects conventional reservoirs, focusing coarse-grained siliciclastics deposited in deep-
Important factors that influence the course of primarily on porosity and permeability changes water petroleum basins.10
diagenesis are classified as either sedimentary or in siliciclastic and carbonate rocks. By contrast, the deposition of most carbon-
environmental. Sedimentary factors include ates is largely controlled by marine biological
particle size, fluid content, organic content Setting the Stage activity, which is viable only within a narrow
and mineralogical composition. Environmental Porosity and permeability are initially controlled range of light, nutrient, salinity, temperature and
factors are temperature, pressure and chemical by sedimentary conditions at the time of deposi- turbidity conditions. These requirements tend to
conditions.9 Particles in a layer of sediment may tion but are subsequently altered through dia- restrict most carbonates to relatively shallow,
be subjected to genesis. The environment of deposition sets the tropical marine depositional settings. Because
• compaction, in which particles are moved into stage for diagenetic processes that follow. carbonate deposition is affected by inundation of
closer contact with their neighbors by pressure Depositional environments for siliciclastic sedi- shallow marine platforms, most carbonate sedi-
• cementation, in which particles become coated ments, from which sandstones 02 formed, differ
Matt—Figure are ment is generated during highstands of sea level
or surrounded by precipitated material greatly from those of carbonates, which can form and is curtailed during lowstands.11
• recrystallization, in which particles change limestones. These rocks also differ in their reac- These differences in siliciclastic and carbon-
size and shape without changing composition tions to changes in their environment. ate deposition can ultimately affect reservoir
• replacement, in which particles change compo- Siliciclastics are primarily the product of ero- quality. Sand deposited during highstands may be
sition without changing size or form sion from a parent source. They are transported eroded and transported downstream during low-
• differential solution, in which some particles by some medium—fresh water, seawater, ice or stands. In contrast, carbonates deposited during
are wholly or partially dissolved while others wind—to their depositional site. Sand deposition highstands may be uncovered during lowstands,
remain unchanged is controlled by sediment supply, and the supply leaving them exposed to meteoric fluids that sub-
• authigenesis, in which chemical alterations of coarser grains, in particular, is affected by ject them to chemical changes, reworking and
cause changes in size, form and composition. energy of the transport medium. For water-driven porosity modifications such as karsting.
Any one of these transformations can signifi- systems, energy is largely a function of sea level. A variety of outcrops and their unique
cantly impact porosity and permeability and thus During periods of relatively low sea level, or low- diagenetic environments have been studied and
modify reservoir volume and flow rate. These stand conditions, coarse-grained sediments can described extensively, leading geologists to rec-
effects are therefore of great interest to petro- be carried beyond the continental shelf to be ognize similarities among various settings.
leum geologists and engineers in their endeavors deposited in basinal marine settings. Conversely, Several schemes have been developed for classi-
to optimize production. Indeed, drilling and during rises in sea level, or highstands, most fying diagenetic regimes. One method, proposed
16 Oilfield Review
4. by Machel, is applicable to all rock types.12 This
classification integrates mineralogic, geochemi-
cal and hydrogeologic criteria from clastic and
carbonate rocks. It is divided into processes that
occur in near-surface, shallow and intermediate-
to deep-burial diagenetic settings, along with
fractures and hydrocarbon-contaminated plumes.13 Eogenetic zone
A different diagenetic model was outlined by Telogenetic zone
Ne
wl
Fresh water yd Sea level
Fairbridge in 1966. It emphasizes the geochemi- epo
Fresh water site
cal aspect of diagenesis and recognizes three dis- Salt water d sed
ime
nts
tinct phases: syndiagenesis, anadiagenesis and
epidiagenesis. Each of these phases tends toward Salt water
Water
Burial
equilibrium until upset by subsequent changes in table
environmental parameters.14
Another popular classification scheme relates Older carbonate rocks
carbonate diagenetic regimes to the evolution of Mesogenetic zone
sedimentary basins (right). This schema, origi- Uplift
Up
nally proposed by Choquette and Pray, is now
increasingly being applied to clastic processes as
well.15 It is divided into three stages, some of M ph
ph
Metamorphic zone
which may be bypassed or reactivated repeatedly.
Eogenesis is the earliest stage of diagenesis, > Diagenetic regimes. The earliest phase of diagenesis occurs in the eogenetic zone. Sediments in this
in which postdepositional processes are signifi- zone are altered by near-surface processes, such as meteoric dissolution, which can occur on land as
well as some distance downdip into the subsurface, even extending below sea level. Further burial will
cantly affected by their proximity to the surface. drive those sediments into the mesogenetic zone, where they are no longer dominated by processes
During this stage, the chemistry of the original directly related to the surface. With continued burial, the rock will become metamorphosed. However,
pore water largely dominates the reactions. The with sufficient uplift, the rock will enter the telogenetic zone, where it is once again influenced by
upper limit of the eogenetic zone is normally a meteoric waters. (Adapted from Mazzullo, reference 41.)
depositional interface, but it may be a surface of
temporary nondeposition or erosion. The lower
limit shares a gradational boundary with the next
stage and is not clearly defined because the effec- boundary is gradational and is placed at the Water is but one of many agents of diagenesis;
tiveness of surface-related processes diminishes depth at which erosional processes become insig- organic-rich sediments in various states of decom-
gradually with depth, and many such processes nificant. When a water table is present, the lower position introduce a host of chemical reactions
are active down to different depths. However, the limit of the telogenetic zone extends to that and bacteriological activities that consume all
maximum limit for eogenesis is estimated at 1 to point, which commonly serves as an effective available oxygen. This, in turn, leads to a chemi-
2 km [0.6 to 1.2 mi], or 20°C to 30°C [68°F to lower limit of many weathering processes. cally reducing environment. Under pressure, the
86°F].16 The greatest change in the eogenetic Dissolution by meteoric water is the major poros- gases of decomposition enrich the water with car-
zone is probably the reduction of porosity from ity-forming process of the telogenetic zone. bon dioxide and lesser amounts of methane,
cementation by carbonate or evaporite minerals. As with the above schema, most diagenetic nitrites and other dissolved organic products.
Mesogenesis is the stage during which sedi- classifications are broadly based; some overlap
8. Krumbein, reference 3.
ments or rocks are buried to such depths that with others and all contain exceptions to the rule. 9. Krumbein, reference 3.
they are no longer dominated by processes 10. Kupecz JA, Gluyas J and Bloch S: “Reservoir Quality
directly related to the surface. This phase, some- Agents of Change Prediction in Sandstones and Carbonates: An
Overview,” in Kupecz JA, Gluyas J and Bloch S (eds):
times referred to as burial diagenesis, spans the Freshly deposited sediments—mixtures of chem- Reservoir Quality Prediction in Sandstones and
time between the early stage of burial and the ically unstable minerals and detrital materials— Carbonates. Tulsa: American Association of Petroleum
Geologists, AAPG Memoir 69 (1997): vii–xxiv.
onset of telogenesis. Cementation is thought to Matt—Figure 03
act as building blocks of diagenesis, while water 11. Kupecz et al, reference 10.
be the major process affecting porosity in the and organic matter fuel the process. 12. Machel HG: “Effects of Groundwater Flow on Mineral
mesogenetic zone, whereas dissolution is proba- Within a depositional system, changes in tem- Diagenesis, with Emphasis on Carbonate Aquifers,”
Hydrogeology Journal 7, no. 1 (February 1999): 94–107.
bly minor. perature and pressure can lead to the separation 13. Machel HG: “Investigations of Burial Diagenesis in
Telogenesis refers to changes during the of different chemical compounds in unstable Carbonate Hydrocarbon Reservoir Rocks,” Geoscience
Canada 32, no. 3 (September 2005): 103–128.
interval in which long-buried rocks are affected mixtures. The liberation of unstable materials
14. Fairbridge RW: “Diagenetic Phases: Abstract,”
by processes associated with uplift and erosion. from one area is accompanied by their introduc- AAPG Bulletin 50, no. 3 (March 1966): 612–613.
Telogenetic porosity is strongly associated with tion elsewhere. Water plays a large role in diage- 15. Choquette and Pray, reference 5.
unconformities. The upper limit of the teloge- netic processes, dissolving one grain, hydrating 16. Worden and Burley, reference 4.
17. Sujkowski, reference 2.
netic zone is the erosional interface. The lower others. The chemical activity may even change the
properties of the water medium itself over time.17
Summer 2010 17
5. whereas mechanical infiltration is the mode for
Dispersed
Floccule matrix continental sandstones. Detrital clay, of whatever
mineral chemistry, occurs as tiny, ragged abraded
grains and naturally accumulates in pore spaces,
Mudstone rock forming tangential grain-coating and pore-
fragment bridging fabrics.
Intercalated
lamina Authigenic clays, unlike allogenic clays,
Biogenically Detrital mica develop within the sand subsequent to burial.
introduced
clay Pore-water chemistry and rock composition
strongly influence the growth of authigenic
Biogenic clays; connate water chemistry is modified over
pellets time by new influxes of water, through dissolu-
(may be Infiltraton
altered to residues tion or precipitation of minerals and by cation
glauconite) exchange.21 Various components of rock, such as
> Allogenic clays. Sandstones may be infiltrated by a variety of detrital clays. lithic fragments, feldspars, volcanic glass and
[Adapted from Wilson and Pittman, reference 19; reprinted with permission of ferromagnesian minerals—minerals containing
SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology).] iron and magnesium—react with the pore water
to produce clay minerals that may in turn
This fortified water becomes a strong solvent, sandstone or may accumulate to form thin lami- undergo subsequent transformation to other,
increasing solubility of carbonates and in some nae. Clays can also flocculate into sand-sized more stable forms of clay. Authigenic clays can
cases acting against silica in sandstones.18 aggregates.20 Another type of aggregate is clay or be recognized by their delicate morphology,
Clays are also important to the diagenetic mud “rip-up” clasts eroded from previously which precludes sedimentary transport (below
equation. They are responsible for forming easily deposited layers. A similar mechanism is at work left). Authigenic clays in sandstone are typically
compressible grains, cements and pore-clogging in reworked fragments of older shales or mud- found in four forms:22
crystals. Some clays form prior to deposition and stone that are deposited as sand-sized or larger • Clay coatings can be deposited on the surfaces
become mixed with the sand-sized mineral grains aggregates. Allogenic clays can also be intro- of framework grains, except at points of grain-
during or immediately following deposition; duced into sands as biogenic mud pellets that are to-grain contact. In the interstices between
others develop within the sand following burial. produced through ingestion and excretion by grains, the coatings act as pore-lining clays.
These clays are classified as allogenic and authi- organisms. These pellets may be retained in These clays may be enveloped during subse-
genic clays, respectively. burrows or transported as detrital particles. The quent cementation by feldspar and quartz
Allogenic, or detrital, clays originate as dis- biologic activity tends to homogenize the mud overgrowths. Chlorite, illite, smectite and
persed matrix or sand- to cobble-sized mud or and sand (above). mixed-layer clays typically occur as pore linings.
shale clasts.19 These particles may be carried by All types of clay can occur as detrital compo- Pore linings grow outward from the grain sur-
downward or laterally migrating pore waters to nents. Bioturbation, mass flow and soft-sediment faces and often merge with the linings on
infiltrate previously deposited sands. Individual deformation are other modes for introducing opposing grains in a process known as pore
clay particles may be dispersed throughout a clays into the fabric of marine sandstones, bridging (below).23
Matt—Figure 01
20 µm
> Pore-bridging clay. A grain contact is bridged
10 µm
by mixed-layer illite-smectite clay (circled )
in this scanning electron microscope image.
> Authigenic clays. Chlorite (left) grows in a finely foliated form, in contrast to Blocky quartz overgrowths cover adjacent grain
surfaces. (Photograph courtesy of S.A. Ali.)
the blocky form of kaolinite (right). (Photograph courtesy of W.J. Clark).
18 Oilfield Review
6. Kaolinite
Quartz
Quartz
20 µm
40 µm
> Kaolinite booklets. Well-formed stacks of kaolinite are seen as pore-filling
> Partial grain dissolution. This thin-section
material, along with lesser amounts of quartz overgrowth cement. Kaolinite
booklets are known for their propensity to migrate and plug pore throats. photograph highlights reservoir porosity (blue)
(Photograph courtesy of S.A. Ali.) in this poorly sorted, very fine- to medium-
grained sandstone. A feldspar grain (blue crystal,
circled ) shows signs of partial grain dissolution.
Secondary porosity in this form can marginally
enhance reservoir producibility. (Photograph
• Individual clay flakes or aggregates of flakes Sandstone Diagenesis courtesy of S.A. Ali.)
can plug interstitial pores. These pore-filling Freshly deposited sand—the precursor of sand-
flakes exhibit no apparent alignment relative stone—contains an assemblage of minerals that
to framework grain surfaces (above). vary with local rock source and depositional
• Clay minerals can partially or completely environment (right). Sand-sized grains create a
replace detrital grains or fill voids left by dis- self-supporting framework at the time of deposi-
solution of framework grains, sometimes pre- tion, finer particles form a detrital matrix and
serving the textures of the host grains they the remaining volume is pore space. Framework
replaced (above right). grains are detrital particles, chiefly of sand Grain
• Clays can fill vugular pores and fractures. size—between 0.0625 and 2 mm [0.0025 to
The interactions among clay, organic matter 0.08 in.] in diameter—commonly composed of
and water become even more important in the quartz, feldspars and rock fragments. The detri- Pore
context of sandstone and limestone porosity. tal matrix consists of mechanically transported
fines—particles of less than 0.03 mm
18. Sujkowski, reference 2.
19. Wilson MD and Pittman ED: “Authigenic Clays in
[0.001 in.]—that are predominantly clay miner-
Sandstones: Recognition and Influence on Reservoir als.24 The constituent minerals of this assem-
Properties and Paleoenvironmental Analysis,” Journal
of Sedimentary Petrology 47, no. 1 (March 1977): 3–31.
blage were formed under a specific range of
20. Pryor WA and Van Wie WA: “The ‘Sawdust Sand’— temperature, pressure, pH and oxidation-state
An Eocene Sediment of Floccule Origin,” Journal of conditions unique to each mineral. These condi-
Sedimentary Petrology 41, no. 3 (September 1971): 763–769.
21. Connate water is trapped within the pores of a rock as
tions will have a bearing on the physicochemical
the rock is formed. Formation, or interstitial, water, in stability of the mineral assemblage. Cement Matrix
contrast, is water found in the pores of a rock; it may not
have been present when the rock was formed. Connate
Diagenetic processes are initiated at the > More than just sand. The volumetric
water can be more dense and saline than seawater. interface between the depositional medium and components of sandstone may include
22. Wilson and Pittman, reference 19. the previous layers of sediment. These processes framework grains, intergranular detrital matrix,
23. Neasham JW: “The Morphology of Dispersed Clay in pore-filling cements and pore space.
Sandstone Reservoirs and Its Effect on Sandstone
are modified as the layer is buried beneath sedi-
Shaliness, Pore Space and Fluid Flow Properties,” Matt—Figure 18
mentary overburden. With time, the sand Matt—Figure 15
paper SPE 6858, presented at the SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, Denver, October 9–12, 1977.
responds to changing pressure, temperature and
24. Any discussion of sands and clays is complicated by pore-fluid chemistry—eventually emerging as a
ambiguities between grain size and mineral composition. sandstone, minus some of its original porosity but
Sand grains range in size from 0.0625 to 2 mm. Any sedi-
mentary particle within that range may be called a sand perhaps with gains in secondary porosity.
grain, regardless of its composition. However, because
the overwhelming majority of sand grains are composed
of quartz [SiO2], it is typically implied that the term refers
to quartz grains unless otherwise specified, such as
carbonate sand. Clays are fine-grained particles of less
than 0.0039 mm in diameter. The most common clay
minerals are chlorite, illite, kaolinite and smectite.
Summer 2010 19
7. 1 2 3 4 The activities of flora and fauna, such as plant
roots, worms or bivalves, can disturb the original
fabric of sediment. Root growth and chemical
uptake, along with walking, burrowing or feeding
activities of fauna, redistribute the sediment.
Slower sedimentation rates allow more time for
organisms to rework a sedimentary layer.
Bioturbation tends to have more impact in
Quartz marine environments than in other settings.
Slumping, or mass downslope movement, can
result in a homogenization of sediments. This
newly formed mixture of sand and clay has
C substantially less porosity than the original
sand layer.
Sutured contact Soil creation can be an important diagenetic
Quartz agent in environments such as alluvial fans, point
bars and delta plains. Soil coverings contribute to
the acidity of meteoric waters that percolate
downward to underlying rock. Clay particles gen-
erated through the formation of soil may be car-
Unmodified grain margin
ried in suspension by meteoric water to infiltrate
previously deposited sand layers. There, individ-
ual clay particles may disperse throughout a
sandstone, accumulate to form thin laminae or
Quartz attach as clay coatings on framework sand grains.
Porosity loss during burial—Deeper burial
is accompanied by the primary causes of poros-
ity loss: compaction and cementation.25
Compaction reduces pore space and sand thick-
ness (left). Cementation can reduce pore space
or can hinder sand compaction and dissolution
> Grain contacts. With continued pressure, intergranular contacts (top) at grain contacts.
change from tangential (1) to flattened (2), concavo-convex (3) and sutured (4).
During compaction, sand grains move closer
The uniform size of Panels 1 to 4 highlights the reduction in sediment volume
and porosity caused by compaction. The photomicrograph of a coarse- together under the load of overburden or tectonic
grained sandstone (bottom) shows quartz grains that exhibit both sutured stress, destroying existing voids and expelling pore
contacts and unmodified grain margins. Carbonate cement (C) also contributes fluids in the process. Chemically and mechanically
to lithification of this sandstone. [Adapted from “An Atlas of Pressure
unstable grains, such as clays and volcanic rock
Dissolution Features,” http://www.gly.uga.edu/railsback/PDFintro1.html
(accessed June 16, 2010). Reprinted with permission of L.B. Railsback of the fragments, tend to compact faster than more
Department of Geology, University of Georgia.] stable grains, such as quartz. Compaction mecha-
nisms include grain rotation and slippage, defor-
mation and pressure dissolution.
Grain slippage and rotation are typical
All sands have intergranular porosity that amount of water or other fluids and their rate of responses to loading in which a slight rotation or
changes with diagenesis: Macropores become flow through the pore network govern the translation of grains permits edges of nondeform-
micropores; minerals dissolve and create voids. amounts and types of minerals dissolved and pre- able grains to slip past adjacent grain edges,
Other minerals dissolve, then precipitate as cipitated, which in turn can alter flow paths and
25. Rittenhouse G: “Mechanical Compaction of Sands
cements that can partially or completely occlude rates. Diagenetic processes by which sandstone Containing Different Percentages of Ductile Grains:
pore space. Initial porosity may be as high as 55%. porosity is lost or modified are outlined below. A Theoretical Approach,” The American Association of
Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 55, no. 1 (January 1971):
That pore space is occupied by fluids Matt—Figure Penecontemporaneous porosity loss—Those
such as 04A 92–96.
water, mineral solutions or mixtures thereof; processes that occur after deposition but before 26. Wilson TV and Sibley DF: “Pressure Solution and
Porosity Reduction in Shallow Buried Quartz Arenite,”
some pore fluids are inert, while others react consolidation of the enclosing rock are said to be The American Association of Petroleum Geologists
with previously precipitated cements, framework penecontemporaneous. Certain processes, such Bulletin 62, no. 11 (November 1978): 2329–2334.
grains or rock matrix. as bioturbation, slumping and the formation of 27. Rittenhouse, reference 25.
28. Stylolites are wave-like or serrated interlocking com-
Porosity and permeability are especially soil, fall into this category; although they may not paction surfaces commonly seen in carbonate and
important parameters both for diagenetic devel- be important on a large scale, they can be respon- quartz-rich rocks that contain concentrated insoluble
residues such as clay minerals and iron oxides.
opment and its effects on reservoir rock. The sible for local reductions in sand porosity.
20 Oilfield Review
8. creating a tighter packing arrangement. The
amount of porosity that can be lost depends, in
part, on grain sorting, roundness and overburden
pressure. Porosity loss from compaction has been
estimated to range from 12% to 17% in various
outcrop studies.26
Pisoid
Ductile grain deformation—As ductile grains
deform under load, they change shape or volume.
Originally spherical or ovoid at the time of deposi-
tion, ductile grains are squeezed between more- Stylolite
resistant framework grains and deform into
adjacent pore spaces. This reduces porosity while
decreasing stratal thickness.27 The extent of
compaction and porosity loss depends on the Peloidal packstone 500 µm
abundance of ductile grains and the load applied.
Compaction-induced deformation is also
> Limestone showing the effects of pressure dissolution along a stylolite.
affected by cementation, timing and over
Above the stylolite are large round pisoids—accretionary bodies commonly
pressure. Sandstones containing ductile grains composed of calcium carbonate; below is a finer peloidal packstone. More than
undergo relatively little compaction if they are half of each pisoid has been dissolved, but the exact amount of section missing
cemented before burial of more than a few on either side of the stylolite is unknown. The dark line along the stylolite is
insoluble material. (Photograph courtesy of W.J. Clark.)
meters or are strongly supported by pore fluid
pressure in an overpressured subsurface setting.
Whereas the load from increased overburden This substitution changes the mineral composi- dissolution of carbonate minerals, eventually
pressure is typically carried by grain-to-grain tion of the original sediment by removing unstable resulting in porosity exceeding that of the origi-
contact, in an overpressured condition some of minerals and replacing them with more-stable nal sediment. On the other hand, porosity and
the stress is transferred to fluids within the pore ones. This process of equilibration can occur over permeability can be reduced by replacement of
system. Fluids normally expelled with increased the course of succeeding generations, whereby rigid feldspar minerals with ductile clay miner-
pressure become trapped and carry some of one mineral begets another as environmental con- als, which are easily compacted and squeezed
the load. ditions change. into pore throats between grains.
Brittle fossilized sediments also deform under Replacement opens the way to an assortment Some minerals are particularly susceptible to
a load. Thin skeletal grains from fauna such as of porosity and permeability modifications. For replacement. Others, such as pyrite, siderite and
trilobites, brachiopods and pelecypods are sub- example, replacement of silicate framework ankerite, are on the other end of the spectrum:
jected to bending stress because of their length. grains by carbonate minerals can be followed by They replace other cements or framework grains.
When these grains break, they allow overlying
grains to sag into tighter packing arrangements.
Pressure dissolution—Points of contact
between mineral grains are susceptible to disso-
lution, typically in response to the weight of over- Dolomite
burden. Mineral solubility increases locally under
the higher pressures present at grain contacts.
Stylolites are the most common result of this pro-
cess (above right).28
Pressure dissolution can reduce bulk volume
and hence porosity. Dissolved material may be Calcite
removed from the formation by migrating inter-
Matt—Figure 06
stitial waters; alternatively, it may be precipi-
tated as cement within the same formation.
Grains composed of calcite, quartz, dolomite,
chert and feldspar are commonly subjected to Anhydrite
pressure dissolution.
500 µm
Replacement—This process involves the
simultaneous dissolution of one mineral and > Mineral replacement. Very coarsely crystalline calcite that filled the pore
the precipitation of another (right). In this reac- space in a dolostone (dolomite crystals at top) is being replaced by anhydrite.
tion to interstitial physicochemical conditions, Anhydrite is highly birefringent under the microscope’s crossed polarizers,
the dissolved mineral is no longer in equilibrium which results in the bright light-blue and yellow colors. (Photograph courtesy
with pore fluids, while the precipitated mineral is. of W.J. Clark.)
Summer 2010 21
9. High temperatures Least stable minerals Sandstone Cements
Authigenic Clay Cements
First minerals to form Olivine Calcium-rich Chamosite Fe2+3Mg1.5AlFe3+0.5Si3AlO12(OH)6
plagioclase
Chlorite (Fe, Mg, Al)6(Si, Al)4O10(OH)8
Dickite Al2Si2O5(OH)4
Glauconite (K,Na)(Fe3+,Al,Mg)2(Si,Al)4O10(OH)2
Pyroxene
Calcium-sodium Illite (K,H3O)(Al,Mg,Fe)2(Si,Al)4O10[(OH)2•(H2O)]
plagioclase Kaolinite Al2Si2O5(OH)4
Amphibole
Smectite KAl7Si11O30(OH)6
Sodium-calcium
plagioclase Carbonate Cements
Biotite Calcite CaCO3
Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2
Sodium-rich
plagioclase Siderite FeCO3
Potassium feldspar
Muscovite Feldspar Cements
Last minerals to form Quartz
Orthoclase KAlSi3O8
Low temperatures Most stable minerals Plagioclase NaAlSi3O8
> Weathering of minerals. The Bowen reaction series can be used to chart weathering of certain
Iron-Oxide Cements
silicate minerals. High-temperature minerals become less stable as they move farther from the
Goethite FeO(OH)
conditions under which they were formed. Thus, in near-surface conditions, the minerals formed in
high temperatures are more susceptible to weathering than those formed in lower temperatures. Hematite Fe2O3
Limonite Fe2O3•H2O
Silica Cements
The degree of susceptibility to replacement It is common for certain minerals to form Chert (microcrystalline quartz) SiO2
normally follows an ordered mineral stability cements in sandstones. Over 40 minerals have Opal SiO2•n(H2O)
series in which minerals removed from their zone been identified as cementing agents, but the Quartz SiO2
of stability are readily replaced (above). However, most common are calcite, quartz, anhydrite,
even the most stable minerals such as muscovite dolomite, hematite, feldspar, siderite, gypsum, Sulfate Cements
Anhydrite CaSO4
or quartz are not immune to replacement. clay minerals, zeolites and barite (right).
Barite BaSO4
Cementation—Cements consist of mineral Calcite is a common carbonate cement, as are
Gypsum CaSO4•2H2O
materials precipitated chemically from pore dolomite and siderite. Framework grains of
fluids. Cementation affects nearly all sandstones carbonate rock fragments typically act as seed
Sulfide Cements
and is the chief—but not the only—method by crystals that initiate calcite cementation.
Marcasite FeS2
which sands lithify into sandstone. Quartz typically forms cement overgrowths on
Pyrite FeS2
Cementation can bolster porosity if it sup- framework quartz grains and tends to develop
ports the framework before the sandstone is sub- during burial diagenesis at temperatures above
Zeolite Cements
jected to further compaction. In this case, 70°C [158°F].29 Given sufficient space for enlarge-
Analcime NaAlSi2O6•(H2O)
remaining porosity is not lost to compaction, and ment, the overgrowth crystal will continue to
Chabazite CaAl2Si4O12•6(H2O)
excellent reservoir properties can be preserved grow until it completely masks the host grain sur-
Clinoptilolite (Na2,K2,Ca)3 Al6Si30O72•24(H2O)
to considerable depths. However, because cemen- face. Adjacent grains compete for diminishing
Erionite (Na2,K2,Ca)2 Al4Si14O36•15(H2O)
tation reaction rates generally increase with pore space, interfere with each other and gener-
Heulandite (Ca,Na)2-3Al3(Al,Si)2Si13O36•12(H2O)
temperature, subsequent increases in depth ally produce uneven mutual borders forming an
Laumonite Ca(AlSi2O6)2•4(H2O)
can promote cementation and corresponding interlocking mosaic of framework grains and
Matt—Figure 08 Mordenite (Ca,Na2,K2)Al2Si10O24•7(H2O)
decreases in porosity with depth. On the other their overgrowths.
Phillipsite (Ca,K,Na)2(Si,Al)8O16•6(H2O)
hand, cementation can lock fine-grained parti- Authigenic feldspar occurs in all types of
cles in place, preventing their migration during sandstones, mainly as overgrowths around detri- > Common sandstone cements. A number of
flow that might otherwise block pore throats and tal feldspar host grains but occasionally as these cements are also found in carbonate rocks.
reduce permeability. The amount and type of cement or newly formed crystal without a feld-
cement in a sandstone depend largely on the spar host grain. Though common, feldspar
composition of the pore fluids and their rate of cements are less abundant than carbonate,
flow through the pores, as well as the time avail- quartz and clay cements.
able for cementation and the kinetics of cement- Authigenic clay cements are common in
precipitating reactions. reservoir rocks of all depositional environments.
The most common clay mineral cements are
derived from kaolinite, illite and chlorite.
Matt—Figure 09
22 Oilfield Review
10. Enhanced Porosity in Sandstones • Porosity created by dissolution of sedimentary
All sands initially have intergranular pores. grains and matrix: Frequently, the soluble con-
Primary porosity, present when the sediment is stituents are composed of carbonate minerals.
deposited, is frequently destroyed or substan- Dissolution produces a variety of pore textures,
tially reduced during burial. However, other dia- and pore size may vary from submicroscopic
genetic processes may also be at work, some of voids to vugs larger than adjacent grains.
which may enhance porosity. • Dissolution of authigenic minerals that previ-
Porosity that develops after deposition is ously replaced sedimentary constituents or
known as secondary porosity. It is typically authigenic cements: This process may be
generated through the formation of fractures, responsible for a significant percentage of
removal of cements or leaching of framework secondary porosity. Replacive minerals are
grains and may develop even in the presence of typically calcite, dolomite, siderite, zeolites
primary porosity. Secondary pores can be inter- and mixed-layer clays. 100 µm
connected or isolated; those pores that are inter- • Dissolution of authigenic cement: As with dis-
connected constitute effective porosity, which solved grains, most dissolved cements are com- > Dissolution. This feldspar is partially dissolved
contributes to permeability. In some reservoirs, posed of carbonate minerals: calcite, dolomite under an authigenic chlorite clay rim. Chlorite coats
secondary pores may be the predominant form of and siderite, though others may also be locally all grains. (Photograph courtesy of W.J. Clark.)
effective porosity. important. These cements may have occupied
Secondary porosity can be important from a primary or secondary porosity. This is perhaps
petroleum system perspective. Most hydrocarbon the most common cause of secondary porosity. Porosity is seldom homogeneous within a
generation and primary migration take place The size, shape and distribution of pores in a given reservoir. It is often possible to find varia-
below the depth range of effective primary poros- sandstone reservoir affect the type, volume and tions in porosity type across the vertical extent of
ity. The primary migration path and the accumu- rate of fluid production. Three porosity types dis- a reservoir.
lation of hydrocarbons are commonly controlled tinctly influence sandstone reservoir production:
by the distribution of secondary porosity.30 Intergranular pores are found between detri- Carbonate Diagenesis
Secondary porosity may develop during any of tal sand grains. Some of the most productive Most carbonate sediments are produced in shal-
the three stages of diagenesis—before burial, dur- sandstone reservoirs have predominantly inter- low, warm oceans by marine organisms whose
ing burial above the zone of active metamorphism granular porosity. skeletons or shells are built from the calcium
or following uplift. However, burial diagenesis is Dissolution pores result from removal of carbonate they extract from seawater. Unlike
responsible for most secondary porosity. In sand- carbonates, feldspars, sulfates or other soluble detrital sand deposits, carbonate sediments are
stones, such porosity generally results from materials such as detrital grains, authigenic usually not transported far from their source, so
replacement of carbonate cements and grains or, mineral cements or replacement minerals their size, shape and sorting have little to do with
more commonly, from dissolution followed by (above right). When dissolution pore space is transport system energy. The size and shape of
flushing of pore fluids to remove the dissolution interconnected with intergranular pores, the pores in carbonate sediments are more influ-
products. Lesser amounts of porosity also result effectiveness of the pore system is improved. enced by skeletal materials, which can be as
through leaching of sulfate minerals, such as anhy- Many excellent reservoirs are a product of car- varied as the assemblages of organisms that cre-
drite, gypsum and celestite. In general, secondary bonates that have dissolved to form secondary ated them (see “Resolving Carbonate Complexity,”
porosity is attributed to five processes:31 intergranular porosity. However, if there is no page 40).
• Porosity produced through fracturing— interconnection, there is no effective porosity, Carbonate sediments—composed chiefly of
whether it is caused by tectonic forces or by leaving the pores isolated, with no measurable calcite, aragonite (a less stable crystal varia-
shrinkage of rock constituents: Should these matrix permeability. tion, or polymorph, of calcite), magnesian cal-
fractures subsequently fill with cement, that Microporosity comprises pores and pore cite or dolomite—are made from minerals that
cement may be replaced or dissolved, giving apertures, or throats, with radii less than 0.5 µm. are highly susceptible to chemical alteration.33
rise to second-cycle fracture porosity. In sandstones, very small pore throats are associ- The impact of Matt—Figure 11
biological and physical deposi-
• Voids formed as a result of shrinkage caused by ated with microporosity, although relatively large tional processes, in combination with the diage-
dehydration of mud and recrystallization of pores with very small pore throats are not uncom- netic overprint of metastable chemical deposits,
minerals such as glauconite or hematite: mon. Micropores are found in various clays as
29. Worden and Burley, reference 4.
Shrinking affects grains, matrix, authigenic well, and argillaceous sandstones commonly have 30. Schmidt V and McDonald DA: Secondary Porosity in
cement and authigenic replacement minerals. significant microporosity, regardless of whether the Course of Sandstone Diagenesis. Tulsa: American
Association of Petroleum Geologists, AAPG Course Note
Pores generated through shrinkage vary in size the clay is authigenic or detrital in origin.32 Series no. 12 (1979).
from a few microns across to the size of adja- Unless the sandstones have measurable matrix 31. Schmidt and McDonald, reference 30.
cent sand grains. permeability, small pore apertures and high sur- 32. The term “argillaceous’’ is used to describe rocks or
sediments that contain silt- or clay-sized particles
face area result in high irreducible water satura- that are smaller than 0.625 mm. Most are high in clay-
tion, as is often seen in tight gas sandstones. mineral content.
33. Kupecz et al, reference 10.
Summer 2010 23
11. Aspect Sandstones Carbonates Shallow-burial regime—Near-surface pro-
Amount of primary porosity Commonly 25% to 40% Commonly 40% to 70% cesses can extend into the shallow-burial setting,
Amount of ultimate, Commonly half or more of initial Commonly none or only a small fraction but the dominant process is compaction. Burial
postdiagenetic porosity porosity: typically 15% to 30% of initial porosity: 5% to 15% leads to compaction, which in turn squeezes out
Types of primary porosity Almost exclusively interparticle Interparticle commonly predominates; water and decreases porosity. Compaction forces
intraparticle and other types important
sediment grains to rearrange into a self-support-
Pore diameter and Closely related to particle size Commonly bear little relation to particle
throat size and sorting size or sorting ing framework. Further burial causes grain
Uniformity of pore size, Fairly uniform Variable, ranging from fairly uniform to deformation, followed by incipient chemical
shape and distribution extremely heterogeneous, even within a compaction in which mineral solubility increases
single rock type
with pressure. In this way, loading applied to
Influence of diagenesis May be minor: reduction of primary Major: can create, obliterate or completely
porosity by compaction, cementation modify porosity; cementation and solution grain contacts causes pressure dissolution.
and clay precipitation important Expelled fluids will react with surrounding rock.
Influence of fracturing Generally not of major importance Of major importance, when present Intermediate- to deep-burial regime—With
Permeability-porosity Relatively consistent: commonly Greatly varied: commonly independent of depth, several diagenetic processes become
interrelations dependent on particle size and sorting particle size and sorting
active. Chemical compaction becomes more
> Porosity comparison. In both sandstones and carbonates, porosity is greatly affected by diagenesis— prevalent with additional loading. Depending on
perhaps more so in carbonates. (Adapted from Choquette and Pray, reference 5.) composition, clay minerals in the carbonate
matrix may either enhance or reduce carbonate
solubility. Pressure dissolution is further influ-
enced by pore-water composition, mineralogy
and the presence of organic matter. If the mate-
can make the distribution of porosity and Updip from the marine setting, coastal areas rial dissolved at the contacts between grains is
permeability in carbonates much more hetero- provide an environment in which seawater and not removed from the system by flushing of pore
geneous than in sandstones (above). In fact, fresh water can mix. In these groundwater mix- fluids, it will precipitate as cement in adjacent
calcium carbonate dissolves hundreds of times ing and dispersion zones, carbonate dissolution areas of lower stress.37
faster than quartz in fresh water under normal creates voids that enhance porosity and permea- Dissolution is not just a pressure-driven pro-
surface conditions. The dissolution and precipi- bility—sometimes to the extent that caves are cess; it can also result from mineral reactions
tation of calcium carbonate are influenced by a formed. Other processes are also active to a much that create acidic conditions. In burial settings
variety of factors, including fluid chemistry, rate lesser degree, such as dolomitization and the for- near the oil window, dissolution is active where
of fluid movement, crystal size, mineralogy and mation of aragonite, calcite or dolomite cements. decarboxylation leads to the generation of car-
partial pressure of CO2.34 Further inland, near-surface diagenesis is bon dioxide, which produces carbonic acid in the
The effects of mineral instability on porosity fueled by meteoric waters, which are usually presence of water. Acidic waters then react with
may be intensified by the shallow-water deposi- undersaturated with respect to carbonates. Rain the carbonates. If the dissolution products are
tional setting, particularly when highstand car- water is slightly acidic because of dissolved atmo- flushed from the system, this process can create
bonate systems are uncovered during fluctuations spheric CO2. Where the ground has a significant additional voids and secondary porosity.
in sea level. Most diagenesis takes place near the soil cover, plant and microbial activity can With burial comes increasing temperature
interface between the sediment and the air, fresh increase the partial pressure of CO2 in down- and pressure, and changes in groundwater com-
water or seawater. The repeated flushing by sea- ward-percolating rainwater. This increases disso- position. Cementation is a response to elevated
water and meteoric water is a recipe for diage- lution in the upper few meters of burial, thus temperatures, fluid mixing and chemical com-
netic change in almost every rock, particularly as boosting porosity and permeability through rocks paction; it is a precipitation product of dissolu-
solutions of different temperature, salinity or CO2 of the vadose zone. tion common to this setting. Burial cements in
content mix within its pores. In evaporitic settings, hypersaline diagenesis carbonates consist mainly of calcite, dolomite
Porosity in near-surface marine diagenetic is driven by fresh groundwater or storm-driven and anhydrite. The matrix, grains and cements
Matt—Figure 12
regimes is largely controlled by the flow of water seawater that has been stranded upon the land’s formed at shallow depths become thermodynami-
through the sediment. Shallow-burial diagenesis is surface. These waters seep into the ground and cally metastable under these changing condi-
dominated by compaction and cementation with are subjected to evaporation as they flow seaward tions, leading to recrystallization or replacement
losses of porosity and permeability. The intermedi- through near-surface layers of carbonate sedi- of unstable minerals. In carbonates, common
ate- to deep-burial regime is characterized by fur- ment. As they evaporate beyond the gypsum- replacement minerals are dolomite, anhydrite
ther compaction and other processes, such as saturation point, they form finely crystalline and chert.
dissolution, recrystallization and cementation. dolomite cements or replacive minerals. In some Dolomite replacement has a marked effect on
Near-surface regime—Most carbonate rocks petroleum systems, these reflux dolomites form reservoir quality, though in some reservoirs it can
have primary porosities of as much as 40% to 45%, thin layers that act as barriers to migration and be detrimental to production. While some geolo-
and seawater is the first fluid to fill those pore seals to trap hydrocarbons.36 gists maintain that dolostone porosity is inher-
spaces. Filling of primary pores by internal sedi- ited from limestone precursors, others reason
ments and marine carbonate cements is the first that the chemical conversion of limestone to
form of diagenesis to take place in this setting, dolostone results in a 12% porosity increase
and it leads to significant reductions in porosity.35
24 Oilfield Review
12. because the molar volume of dolomite is smaller Destruction of pores Formation of pores
than that of calcite.38 The permeability, solubility
Depositional environment
and original depositional fabric of a carbonate
Synsedimentary cement High energy
rock or sediment, as well as the chemistry, tem-
Micrite Internal sediment Framework
perature and volume of dolomitizing fluids, all 1. Initial Intraparticle
Lime mud porosity Interparticle
influence dolomite reservoir quality.
Microdebris s
Boring organisms esi
In chemically reducing conditions, burial dia- Peloids iagen Burrowing Low energy
ly d
genesis can generate dolomite by precipitating it
Marine waters Ear organisms Fenestral
as cement or by replacing previously formed Cement 2. Early Intramicrite
Aragonite diagenetic
metastable minerals in permeable intervals Magnesium- porosity
calcite
flushed by warm to hot magnesium-enriched
nt
me
basinal and hydrothermal waters.39 Temperatures Dissolution
Ce
Fresh water Vugs
of 60°C to 70°C [140°F to 158°F] are sufficient
ics
Calcite Channels
cton
for generating burial dolomites, and these condi-
Recrystallization
d te
tions can usually be met within just a few kilome-
n an
Intercrystalline
Geologic time
ters of the surface. In the deep subsurface,
urde
dolomitization is not thought to be extensive
Overb
because pore fluids and ions are progressively
lost with continued compaction.
Few, if any, carbonate rocks currently exist as
they were originally deposited (right). Most are 3. Pressure- and Tectonic activity
temperature- Fracture
the result of one or more episodes of diagenesis.40 related porosity
Pressure
tallization
Secondary Porosity in Carbonates solution
As it does in sandstones, diagenesis in carbon- Compaction
ates can enhance reservoir properties through
Recrys
development of secondary porosity. Porosity in
limestones and dolomites may be gained through
postdepositional dissolution. In eogenetic or telo- Infillings Fracture
4. Erosional
genetic settings, dissolution is initiated by fresh porosity Breccla
Calcite spar Joints
water. In mesogenetic settings, dissolution is
s
Dissolution
esi
caused by subsurface fluids generated through
en
maturation of organic matter in the deep- Fissures
ia g
ld Vugs
ria
burial environment.41
e bu Caverns
During eogenesis, development of secondary Lat
porosity is aided by a number of processes.
Dissolution is dominated by meteoric fresh
waters, which are undersaturated with respect to Porosity
calcium carbonate. However, the extent of disso- > Carbonate porosity. During creation, deposition and diagenesis, carbonates undergo changes that
lution is determined by other factors, such as the can enhance or diminish reservoir porosity. Over the span of geologic time, these processes may be
mineralogy of sediments or rocks, the extent of repeated many times and may be interrupted on occasion by periods of uplift (not shown), which can
preexisting carbonate porosity and fracturing, sometimes enhance porosity. [Adapted from Akbar M, Petricola M, Watfa M, Badri M, Charara M,
Boyd A, Cassell B, Nurmi R, Delhomme J-P, Grace M, Kenyon B and Roestenburg J: “Classic
the acidity of the water and its rate of movement Interpretation Problems: Evaluating Carbonates,” Oilfield Review 7, no. 1 (January 1994): 38–57.]
in the diagenetic system.42
During telogenesis, uplift exposes older, for-
merly deep-buried carbonate rocks to meteoric
waters, but with less effect than during the eoge-
34. Longman MW: “Carbonate Diagenetic Textures 39. Land LS: Dolomitization. Tulsa: American Association
netic phase. By this time, what were once carbon- from Near Surface Diagenetic Environments,” of Petroleum Geologists, AAPG Course Note Series
ate sediments have matured, consolidated and The American Association of Petroleum Geologists no. 24 (1982).
Bulletin 64, no. 4 (April 1980): 461–487. 40. Land, reference 39.
lithified to become limestones or dolostones. 35. Machel, reference 13. 41. Mazzullo SJ: “Overview of Porosity Evolution in
These older rocks have, for the most part, become 36. Machel HG and Mountjoy EW: “Chemistry and Carbonate Reservoirs,” Search and Discovery
mineralogically stabilized. Soluble components Environments of Dolomitization—A Reappraisal,” Article #40134 (2004), http://www.searchanddiscovery.
Matt—Figurenet/documents/2004/mazzullo/index.htm (accessed
Earth-Science Reviews 23, no. 3 (May 1986): 175–222. 12A
of the eogenetic sediment—such as ooids or 37. Machel, reference 13. May 28, 2010).
coral and shell fragments composed of arago- 38. For more on dolomites: Al-Awadi M, Clark WJ, 42. Longman, reference 34.
nite—have probably dissolved during earlier Moore WR, Herron M, Zhang T, Zhao W, Hurley N,
Kho D, Montaron B and Sadooni F: “Dolomite:
phases. Having mineralogically evolved toward a Perspectives on a Perplexing Mineral,”
Oilfield Review 21, no. 3 (Autumn 2009): 32–45.
Summer 2010 25
