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PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION: CONCEPTS AND
              PRACTICE


III. NEW PARADIGMS OF PUBLIC
     ADMINISTRATION




        Graduate School of Asia and Pacific Studies
           University of Waseda, Tokyo-JAPAN
                          2008
CONTENTS

THE NEW PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
1. REINVENTING GOVERNMENT
2. THE NEW PUBLIC MANAGEMENT (NPM)
3 NEW PUBLIC SERVICE
3.
4. POSTMODERN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
5 GOVERNANCE
5.




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PUBLIC ADMINISTRATIVE CULTURE IS
CHANGING TO BE MORE FLEXIBLE INNOVATIVE
                     FLEXIBLE, INNOVATIVE,
PROBLEM SOLVING, ENTREPRENEURIAL, AND
ENTERPRISING AS OPPOSED TO RULE-BOUND
                            RULE BOUND,
PROCESS-ORIENTED, AND FOCUSED ON INPUTS
RATHER THAN RESULTS.




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THE CURRENT PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION DEBATE
PLACES A NEW EMPHASIS ON ‘WHAT MATTERS IS
   C S              SSO ‘              S S
NOT WHAT WE DO, BUT HOW PEOPLE FEEL ABOUT
WHAT WE DO AND THAT ‘PROCESSES MATTER OR
         DO’           PROCESSES MATTER’
PUT DIFFERENTLY, ‘THE ENDS DO NOT JUSTIFY
THE MEANS’.
HERE ARE SOME OF THE NEW PARADIGMS IN
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION.



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THE NEW PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION


  IN 1968, DWIGHT WALDO, SPONSORED A
  CO
  CONFERENCE OF YOUNG PUBLIC
            C O OU G U C
  ADMINISTRATIONISTS ON THE NEW PUBLIC
  ADMINISTRATION.
  THE PROCEEDINGS WERE PUBLISHED AS A BOOK IN
  1971, TITLED TOWARD A NEW PUBLIC
   9 ,          O            U C
  ADMINISTRATION: THE MINNOWBROOK
  PERSPECTIVE.



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THE FOCUS OF THE NEW PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION WAS
DISINCLINED TO EXAMINE SUCH TRADITIONAL
PHENOMENA AS EFFICIENCY, EFFECTIVENESS,
BUDGETING, AND ADMINISTRATIVE TECHNIQUES.
THE QUESTIONS IT RAISED DEALT WITH VALUES,
ETHICS, THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDIVIDUAL
MEMBER IN THE ORGANIZATION, THE RELATION OF THE
               ORGANIZATION
CLIENT WITH THE BUREAUCRACY, AND THE BROAD
PROBLEMS OF URBANISM, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIAL
CONFLICTS.


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FOR EXAMPLE, GEORGE FREDERICKSON (1980), IN HIS
NEW PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION, ARGUED IN BEHALF
OF SOCIAL EQUITY AS A GUIDING CONCEPT IN
ADMINISTRATIVE AND POLITICAL DECISION MAKING.
HE WROTE THAT quot;IT IS INCUMBENT ON THE PUBLIC
SERVANT TO BE ABLE TO DEVELOP AND DEFEND
CRITERIA AND MEASURES OF EQUITY AND TO
UNDERSTAND THE IMPACT OF PUBLIC SERVICES ON
THE DIGNITY AND WELL BEING OF CITIZENSquot;.
                WELL-BEING     CITIZENS


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SCHOLARS DURING THAT PERIOD EMPHASIZED THE
NEED TO EXPLORE ALTERNATIVES TO THE TRADITIONAL
TOP-DOWN HIERARCHICAL MODEL OF BUREAUCRATIC
ORGANIZATION. INDICTING THE OLD MODEL FOR ITS
OBJECTIFICATION AND DEPERSONALIZATION OF
ORGANIZATIONAL MEMBERS AND CALLING FOR MODELS
BUILT AROUND OPENNESS TRUST AND HONEST
              OPENNESS, TRUST,
COMMUNICATIONS.




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MAIN AGREEMENTS OF THE NEW PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION:
ADMINISTRATION
  1)   PUBLIC ADMINISTRATORS AND PUBLIC AGENCIES ARE
       NOT AND CANNOT BE EITHER NEUTRAL OR
       OBJECTIVE.
  2)
   )   TECHNOLOGY IS OFTEN DEHUMANIZING.
  3)   BUREAUCRATIC HIERARCHY IS OFTEN INEFFECTIVE
       AS AN ORGANIZATIONAL STRATEGY.
  4)   BUREAUCRACIES TEND TOWARD GOAL DISPLACEMENT
       AND SURVIVAL.

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5)   COOPERATION, CONSENSUS, AND DEMOCRATIC
     ADMINISTRATION ARE MORE LIKELY THAN THE SIMPLE
     EXERCISE OF ADMINISTRATIVE AUTHORITY TO RESULT IN
     ORGANIZATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS.
6)   MODERN CONCEPTS OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION MUST BE
     BUILT ON POSTBEHAV-IORAL AND POSTPOSITIVIST LOGIC-
     MORE DEMOCRATIC, MORE ADAPTABLE, MORE
     RESPONSIVE TO CHANGING SOCIAL ECONOMIC, AND
                             SOCIAL, ECONOMIC
     POLITICAL CIRCUMSTANCES. (MARINI 1971)




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THE OVERRIDING SPIRIT OF THE NEW PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION WAS A MORAL TONE.
                              TONE
THE NEW PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION CAN BE VIEWED AS A
CALL FOR INDEPENDENCE FROM BOTH POLITICAL SCIENCE
(IT WAS NOT, AFTER ALL, EVER CALLED THE NEW
POLITICS OF BUREAUCRACY) AND MANAGEMENT (SINCE
MAN-AGEMENT
MAN AGEMENT ALWAYS HAD BEEN EMPHATICALLY
TECHNICAL RATHER THAN NORMATIVE IN APPROACH).

        (H. GEORGE FREDERICKSON, TOWARD A NEW PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION, 1977).




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THE NEW PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION NEVER LIVED UP TO
ITS AMBITIONS OF REVOLUTIONIZING THE DISCIPLINE.
NEVERTHELESS,
NEVERTHELESS THE MOVEMENT HAD A LASTING IMPACT
ON PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN THAT THEY NUDGED
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATIONISTS INTO RECONSIDERING THEIR
TRADITIONAL INTELLECTUAL TIES WITH BOTH POLITICAL
SCIENCE AND MANAGEMENT, AND INTO CONTEMPLATING
THE PROSPECTS OF ACADEMIC AUTONOMY.
                           AUTONOMY
HOWEVER, THEY LATER INSPIRE THE DEVELOPMENT OF A
NEW APPROACHES IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION SUCH AS
THE NEW PUBLIC SERVICE AND THE POSTMODERN PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION.

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REINVENTING GOVERNMENT

BUREAUCRATIC MODEL DEVELOPED IN CONDITIONS VERY
DIFFERENT FROM THOSE EXISTING TODAY.
IT DEVELOPED IN A SLOWER PACED SOCIETY, WHEN
                  SLOWER-PACED SOCIETY
CHANGE PROCEEDED AT A LEISURELY GAIT.
IT DEVELOPED IN AN AGE OF HIERARCHY, WHEN ONLY
                          HIERARCHY
THOSE AT THE TOP OF THE PYRAMID HAD ENOUGH
INFORMATION TO MAKE INFORMED DECISIONS.
IT DEVELOPED IN A SOCIETY OF PEOPLE WHO WORKED
WITH THEIR HANDS, NOT THEIR MINDS.
IT DEVELOPED IN A TIME OF MASS MARKETS, WHEN MOST
PEOPLE HAD SIMILAR WANTS AND NEEDS.

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AND IT DEVELOPED WITH STRONG GEOGRAPHIC
COMMUNITIES –TIGHTLY KNIT NEIGHBORHOODS AND
TOWNS.
TODAY S
TODAY’S ENVIRONMENT DEMANDS INSTITUTIONS THAT ARE
EXTREMELY FLEXIBLE AND ADAPTABLE.
IT DEMANDS INSTITUTIONS THAT DELIVER HIGH QUALITY
GOODS AND SERVICES
           SERVICES,
IT DEMANDS INSTITUTIONS THAT ARE RESPONSIVE TO
THEIR COSTUMERS, OFFERING CHOICES OF
NONSTANDARDIZED SERVICES THAT LEAD BY PERSUASION
                  SERVICES;
AND INCENTIVES RATHER THAN COMMANDS; THAT GIVE
THEIR EMPLOYEES A SENSE OF MEANING AND CONTROL,
EVEN OWNERSHIP.
     OWNERSHIP
IT DEMANDS INSTITUTIONS THAT EMPOWER CITIZENS
RATHER THAN SIMPLY SERVING THEM.
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MOST GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS PERFORM
INCREASINGLY COMPLEX TASKS, IN COMPETITIVE,
RAPIDLY CHANGING ENVIRONMENTS, WITH
“CUSTOMERS” WHO WANT QUALITY AND CHOICE.




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BY THE FINAL TWO DECADES OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY, A
                O  C    SO                 C   U ,
NUMBER OF FORCES—INTELLECTUAL, POLITICAL, AND
FISCAL—WERE MAKING THEMSELVES FELT WITHIN
GOVERNMENTS.
GOVERNMENTS THESE FORCES INCLUDED THE EMERGENCE
OF LARGE, HIGH PERFORMANCE CORPORATIONS,
INNOVATIONS UNDERTAKEN TO REDUCE NATIONAL DEFICITS, ,
RAPID TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGES, THE END OF THE COLD
WAR, WITH ITS ATTENDANT REFOCUSING BY CITIZENS IN
MANY NATIONS ON DOMESTIC ISSUES, A DECLINING FAITH
                           ISSUES            FAITH—
A “TRUST DEFICIT“—IN THE GOVERNMENTS, AND NEW
RESTRICTIONS ON PUBLIC ADMINISTRATORS THAT LED TO
THEIR SEEKING NEW WAYS OF MANAGING.


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THESE KINDS OF SOCIAL TRENDS RESULTED IN AN
EXPLOSION OF PUBLICATIONS IN THE EARLY 1990s THAT
CALLED FOR A NEW KIND OF GOVERNMENT REFORM. THE
                                     REFORM
MOST FAMOUS OF THESE CRITIQUES WAS THE NATIONAL
BEST SELLER REINVENTING GOVERNMENT: HOW THE
ENTREPRENEURIAL SPIRIT IS TRANSFORMING THE PUBLIC
SECTOR.

                                (DAVID OSBORN AND TED GAEBLER, 1992)




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1.   CATALYTIC GOVERNMENT:
       STEERING RATHER THAN ROWING.
2.   COMMUNITY OWNED GOVERNMENT:
       EMPOWERING RATHER THAN SERVING.
3.
3    COMPETITIVE GOVERNMENT:
       INJECTING COMPETITION INTO SERVICE DELIVERY.
4.
4    MISSION-DRIVEN GOVERNMENT:
       TRANSFORMING RULE-DRIVEN ORGANIZATIONS
5.
5    RESULTS ORIENTED
     RESULTS-ORIENTED GOVERNMENT:
       FUNDING OUTCOMES, NO INPUTS.


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6.
6     CUSTOMER-DRIVEN GOVERNMENT:
      CUSTOMER DRIVEN
        MEETING THE NEEDS OF THE CUSTOMER, NOT THE
        BUREAUCRACY.
7.    ENTERPRISING GOVERNMENT:
        ERANING RATHER THAN SPENDING.
8.    ANTICIPATORY GOVERNMENT:
        PREVENTION RATHER THAN CURE.
9.    DECENTRELAIZED GOVERNMENT:
        FROM HIERARCHY TO PARTICIPATION AND TEAMWORK.
10.   MARKET-ORIENTED GOVERNMENT:
        LEVERAGING CHANGE THROUGH THE MARKET.

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THE NEW PUBLIC MANAGEMENT (NPM)

  IN THE EARLY 1990's, A NEW MANAGERIAL APPROACH TO
  PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION BEGAN TO TAKE HOLD. LIKE THE
  TRADITIONAL MANAGERIAL APPROACH AT ITS INCEPTION, THE
  NEW APPROACH IS REFORM-ORIENTED AND SEEKS TO IMPROVE
  PUBLIC SECTOR PERFORMANCE
  IT STARTS FROM THE PREMISE THAT TRADITIONAL,
  BUREAUCRATICALLY ORGANIZED PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IS
  quot;BROKEquot; AND quot;BROKEN“, AND CONSEQUENTLY THE PUBLIC HAS
  LOST FAITH IN GOVERNMENT.
  MANAGERIALISM REFERS TO AN ENTREPRENEURIAL APPROACH
  TO PUBLIC MANAGEMENT, ONE THAT EMPHASIZES THE RIGHTS
  OF MANAGERS TO RUN THE ORGANIZATION AND THE
  APPLICATION OF REINVIGORATED SCIENTIFIC-MANAGEMENT
  TECHNIQUES.
                                              (LEMAY, 2002)


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A BRIEF CHRONOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT THOUGHT


APPROACH       DATE SELECTED FEATURES
CLASSICAL      1900   ORGANIZATIONS PERCEIVED AS CLOSED SYSTEMS;
                                                         SYSTEMS
                      STRESS ON EFFICIENCY, CONTROL AND THE
                      BUREAUCRATIC FORM
BEHAVIORAL/    1930   EMPHASIS ON PEOPLE RATHER THAN MACHINES;
HUMAN                 CLOSE ATTENTION TO FACTORS SUCH AS GROUP
RELATIONS             DYNAMICS, COMMUNICATION, MOTIVATION
                      LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION
QUANTITATIVE   1940   PROVISION OF QUANTITATIVE TOOLS TO SUPPORT
                      MANAGERIAL DECISION-MAKING; FOUND IN
                                                 ;
                      MANAGEMENT SCIENCE, OPERATIONAL
                      MANAGEMENT AND MANAGEMENT INFORMATION
                      SYSTEMS

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APPROACH          DATE     SELECTED FEATURES
OPEN SYSTEM/      1965   ORGANIZATIONS SEEN AS SYSTEMS OF INTERRELATED PARTS
CONTIGENCY               WHICH RELATE TO THE ENVIRONMENT; EMPHASIS ON
                         'FITTING' ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE TO THE SPECIFIC
                         ENVIRONMENT OF THE ORGANIZATION
POWER/ POLITICS   1965   ORGANIZATIONAL DECISION-MAKING IS NOT GUIDED BY
                         TECHNICAL RATIONALITY BUT IS DETERMINED BY POLITICAL
                         PROCESSES; A DOMINANT COALITION WILL BE THE MAJOR
                         LOCUS OF ORGANIZATIONAL POWER
QUALITY           1955   STRONGLY PURSUED IN JAPANESE POSTWAR INDUSTRIAL
MOVEMENTS                DEVELOPMENT AND MUCH LATER ADOPTED ELSEWHERE;
                         CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT BY WORKING TOGETHER AND
                         CLIENT FOCUS; TYPIFIED IN TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT,
                         BENCHMARKING, QUALITY CIRCLES AND ISO 9000
MANAGERIALISM     1980   ADOPTION BY THE PUBLIC SECTOR OF PRIVATE SECTOR
                         MANAGEMENT PRACTICES; APPLICATION OF PUBLIC CHOICE
                         THEORY AND NEO-CLASSICAL ECONOMICS TO PUBLIC SECTOR
                         MANAGEMENT
                                                  (TURNER AND HULME, 1997)
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THE TERM quot;NEW PUBLIC MANAGEMENTquot; (NPM) WAS
COINED IN 1989 BY CHRISTOPHER HOOD TO
RETROSPECTIVELY CHARACTERIZE THE “QUITE
                                   Q
SIMILAR ADMINISTRATIVE DOCTRINESquot; OF
AUSTRALIA, CANADA, NEW ZEALAND, THE UNITED
KINGDOM,
KINGDOM AND (WITH A DIFFERENT EMPHASIS) THE
UNITED STATES OF THE 1970s AND 1980s.
IN KÖNIG'S TERMS NPM IS A POPULARISED MIXTURE
OF MANAGEMENT THEORIES, BUSINESS MOTIVATION
PSYCHOLOGY AND NEO-LIBERAL ECONOMY (1997,
219).
219)


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IT CALLED FOR AMONG OTHERS: PUTTING
CUSTOMERS FIRST, MAKING SERVICE ORGANIZATIONS
            FIRST
COMPETE, CREATING MARKET DYNAMICS, USING
MARKET MECHANISMS TO SOLVE PROBLEMS,
EMPOWERING EMPLOYEES TO GET RESULTS,
DECENTRALIZATION DECISION MAKING POWER,
STREAMLINING THE BUDGET PROCESS,
DECENTRALIZATION PERSONNEL POLICY, AND
STREAMLINING PROCUREMENT
               PROCUREMENT.


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TODAY, THE NPM IS BECOMING THE DOMINANT
MANAGERIAL APPROACH.
ITS KEY CONCEPT-SOMEWHAT EVOLUTIONARY A
DECADE AGO- ARE NOW THE STANDARD LANGUAGE
OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION.
          ADMINISTRATION
TERMS SUCH AS quot;RESULTS ORIENTEDquot;, quot;CUSTOMERS
FOCUSEDquot;,
FOCUSEDquot; quot;EMPLOYEE EMPOWERMENTquot;,
                    EMPOWERMENTquot;
quot;ENTREPRENEURSHIPquot;, AND quot;OUTSOURCINGquot;, HAVE
DOMINATED THE MAINSTREAM
               MAINSTREAM.


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CHRISTOPHER HOOD (1991), CHARACTERIZE NPM‘s
PRINCIPAL THEMES TO INCLUDE:
   A SHIFT AWAY FROM AN EMPHASIS ON POLICY TOWARD AN
   EMPHASIS ON MEASURABLE PERFORMANCE;
   A SHIFT AWAY FROM RELIANCE ON TRADITIONAL
   BUREAUCRACIES TOWARD LOOSELY COUPLED, QUASI
                                           QUASI-
   AUTONOMOUS UNITS AND COMPETITIVELY TENDERED
   SERVICES;
   A SHIFT AWAY FROM AN EMPHASIS ON DEVELOPMENT AND
   INVESTMENT TOWARD COST-CUTTING;
   ALLOWING PUBLIC MANAGERS GREATER quot;FREEDOM TO
   MANAGEquot; ACCORDING TO PRIVATE SECTOR CORPORATE
   PRACTICE;
   PRACTICE AND
   A SHIFT AWAY FROM CLASSIC COMMAND-AND-CONTROL
   REGULATION TOWARD SELF-REGULATION.

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MANY SCHOLARS ATTRIBUTE THE ASCENDANCY OF
THE NPM MOVEMENT TO THE RISING AND
ENTREPRENEURIAL SPIRIT OF GOVERNMENT.
ACCORDING TO NICHOLAS HENRY (2004), THE NEW
PUBLIC MANAGEMENT IS AN EXPANDED VIEW OF
REINVENTING ENTREPRENEURIAL GOVERNMENT.




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ACCORDING TO HENRY, THE ROOT THE NEW PUBLIC
                  ,
MANAGEMENT IS COMPOSED OF THE FOLLOWING SIX
IDEAS:
  GOVERNMENT SHOULD BE ENTREPRENEURIAL AND IMPROVE THE
  QUALITY OF ITS SERVICE.
  GOVERNMENT SHOULD COLLABORATE AND WORK WITH OTHER
  GOVERNMENT AND THE NONPROFIT AND PRIVATE SECTORS TO
  ACHIEVE SOCIAL GOALS.
  GOVERNMENT SHOULD JUDGE ITS PERFORMANCE WITH MEASURABLE
  RESULT.
  GOVERNMENT SHOULD IMPROVE ITS ACCOUNTABILITY TO THE PUBLIC
  INTEREST, WHICH SHOULD BE UNDERSTOOD IN TERMS OF LAW,
  COMMUNITY, AND SHARED VALUES.
  GOVERNMENT SHOULD EMPOWER CITIZENS AND PUBLIC EMPLOYEES
  ALIKE.
  GOVERNMENT SHOULD ANTICIPATE AND SOLVE PROBLEMS.

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TOONEN (2001) DEVISED AN ANALYTICAL MODEL OF NPM,
AS:

      A BUSINESS-ORIENTED APPROACH TO GOVERNMENT;
      A QUALITY AND PERFORMANCE ORIENTED APPROACH
      TO PUBLIC MANAGEMENT;
      AN EMPHASIS ON IMPROVED PUBLIC SERVICE
      DELIVERY AND FUNCTIONAL RESPONSIVENESS;
      AN INSTITUTIONAL SEPARATION OF PUBLIC DEMAND
      FUNCTIONS,
      FUNCTIONS PUBLIC PROVISION AND PUBLIC SERVICE
      PRODUCTION FUNCTIONS.

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A LINKAGE OF PUBLIC DEMAND, PROVISION, AND
                    DEMAND PROVISION
SUPPLY UNITS BY TRANSACTIONAL DEVICES
(PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT, INTERNAL CONTRACT
MANAGEMENT, CORPORATIZATION
MANAGEMENT CORPORATIZATION,
INTERGOVERNMENTAL COVENANTING AND
CONTRACTING, CONTRACTING OUT) AND QUALITY
MANAGEMENT;
WHEREVER POSSIBLE, THE RETREAT OF
(BUREAUCRATIC) GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS IN
FAVOR OF AN INTELLIGENT USE OF MARKETS AND
COMMERCIAL MARKET ENTERPRISES (DEREGULATION,
PRIVATIZATION, COMMERCIALIZATION, AND
MARKETIZATION) OR VIRTUAL MARKETS (INTERNAL
COMPETITION, BENCHMARKING, COMPETITIVE
TENDERING).

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NEW PUBLIC SERVICE

 JANET V. DENHANDT AND ROBERT B. DENHANDT
 POSTULATE THAT WHILE THE NEW PUBLIC MANAGEMENT
 HAS BEEN TOUTED AS AN ALTERNATIVE TO THE OLD
 PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION, IT ACTUALLY HAS MUCH IN
 COMMNON WITH THE MAINSTREAM MODEL OF PUBLIC
 ADMINISTRATION,
 ADMINISTRATION SPECIFICALLY A DEPENDENCE ON AND
 COMMITMENT TO MODELS OF RATIONAL CHOICE.
 SO WHILE THERE ARE CLEARLY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
 THE OLD PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND THE NEW PUBLIC
 MANAGEMENT, THE BASIC THEORETICAL FOUNDATION OF
 THESE TWO quot;MAINSTREAMquot; VERSIONS OF PUBLIC
 ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC POLICY ARE IN FACT VERY
 MUCH ALIKE.

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IN CONTRAST TO THESE MAINSTREAM MODELS OF PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION OR PUBLIC MANAGEMENT THAT ARE
ROOTED IN THE IDEA OF RATIONAL CHOICE, THEY SUGGEST
 OO                O      O    C OC ,       SUGG S
AN ALTERNATIVE CALLED THE NEW PUBLIC SERVICE.
THEY BASE THEIR THEORY ON CONTEMPORARY PRECURSORS
INCLUDING (1) THEORIES OF DEMOCRATIC CITIZENSHIP. (2)
MODELS OF COMMUNITY AND CIVIL SOCIETY, (3)
ORGANIZATIONAL HUMANISM AND THE NEW PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION, AND (4) POST MODERN PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION.



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DEMOCRATIC CITIZENSHIP

 CITIZENS LOOK BEYOND THEIR SELF-INTEREST TO THE
 LARGER PUBLIC INTEREST ADOPTING A BROADER AND LONG
                INTEREST.                        LONG-
 TERM PERSPECTIVE THAT REQUIRES A KNOWLEDGE OF
 PUBLIC AFFAIRS AND ALSO A SENSE OF BELONGING, A
 CONCERN FOR THE WHOLE, AND A MORAL BOND WITH THE
                   WHOLE
 COMMUNITY WHOSE FATE IS AT STAKE.
 PUBLIC SPIRIT NEEDS TO BE NOURISHED AND MAINTAINED,
 AND THAT CAN BE AIDED BY CONSTANT ATTENTION TO
 PRINCIPLES OF JUSTICE, PUBLIC PARTICIPATION AND
 DELIBERATION.



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CONSISTENTLY WITH THIS PERSPECTIVE, KING AND STIVERS
(1998) ASSERT THAT ADMINISTRATORS SHOULD SEE
CITIZENS AS CITIZENS (RATHER THAN MERELY VOTERS,
                                         VOTERS
CLIENTS, OR quot;CUSTOMERSquot;), SHOULD SHARE AUTHORITY AND
REDUCE CONTROL, AND SHOULD TRUST IN THE EFFICACY OF
COLLABORATION
COLLABORATION.
MOREOVER, IN CONTRAST TO MANAGERIALIST CALLS FOR
GREATER EFFICIENCY, KING AND STIVERS SUGGEST THAT
PUBLIC MANAGERS SHOULD SEEK GREATER RESPONSIVE-NESS
AND A CORRESPONDING INCREASE IN CITIZEN TRUST.




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MODELS OF COMMUNITY AND CIVIL SOCIETY

 CITIZENS FELT GREAT FRUSTRATION AND ANGER THAT THEY
 HAD BEEN PUSHED OUT OF THE POLITICAL SYSTEM BY A
 PROFESSIONAL POLITICAL CLASS OF POWERFULL LOBBYISTS,
 INCUMBENT POLITICIANS, CAMPAIGN MANAGERS AND A MEDIA
             POLITICIANS
 ELITE. THEY SAW THE SYSTEM AS ONE IN WHICH VOTES NO
 LONGER MADE ANY DIFFERENCE. THEY SAW A SYSTEM WITH
 ITS DOORS CLOSED TO THE AVERAGED CITIZEN (MATHEWS,
                                            (MATHEWS
 1994). AS A CONSEQUENCE, CITIZENS FELT ALIENATED AND
 DETACHED.
 HOW ARE PUBLIC ADMINISTRATORS AFFECTED BY AND HOW
 DO THEY AFFECT COMMUNITY AND CIVIL SOCIETY?


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FIRST, WHERE STRONG NETWORKS OF CITIZEN INTERACTION
AND HIGH LEVELS OF SOCIAL TRUST AND COHESION AMONG
CITIZENS EXIST, PUBLIC ADMINISTRATORS CAN COUNT ON THESE
         EXIST
EXISTING STOCK OF SOCIAL CAPITAL TO BUILD EVEN STRONGER
NETWORKS, TO OPEN NEW AVENUES FOR DIALOGUE AND DEBATE,
AND TO FURTHER EDUCATE CITIZENS WITH RESPECT TO MATTERS
OF DEMOCRATIC GOVERNANCE (WOOLUM, 2000).
SECOND, PUBLIC ADMINISTRATORS CAN CONTRIBUTE TO
BUILDING COMMUNITY AND SOCIAL CAPITAL. SOME ARE ARGUING
                                CAPITAL
TODAY THAT THE PRIMARY ROLE OF THE PUBLIC ADMINISTRATOR
IS THAT OF BUILDING COMMUNITY (NALBANDIAN, 1999). OTHERS
ARGUE THAT PUBLIC ADMINISTRATORS CAN PLAY AN ACTIVE ROLE
IN PROMOTING SOCIAL CAPITAL BY ENCOURAGING CITIZEN
INVOLVEMENT IN PUBLIC DECISION MAKING.


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BASED ON THEIR EXPERIENCE IN CONDUCTING BROAD-SCALE
EFFORTS IN CIVIC ENGAGEMENT, JOSEPH GRAY AND LINDA
CHAPIN (1998) COMMENT, quot;CITIZENS DON T ALWAYS GET
                        CITIZENS DON'T
WHAT THEY WANT, BUT INCLUDING THEM PERSONALIZES THE
WORK WE DO-CONNECTS PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION TO THE
PUBLIC.
PUBLIC AND THIS CONNECTION LEADS TO UNDERSTANDING
FOR BOTH CITIZENS AND ADMINISTRATORSquot;. SUCH AN
UNDERSTANDING ENRICHES BOTH GOVERNMENT AND THE
COMMUNITY.




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ORGANIZATIONAL HUMANISM AND THE NEW PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION

     OVER THE PAST TWENTY-FIVE YEARS PUBLIC
                                YEARS,
     ADMINISTRATION THEORISTS HAVE JOINED OTHER
     DISCIPLINES IN SUGGESTING THAT TRADITIONAL
     HIERARCHICAL APPROACHES TO SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
     ARE RESTRICTIVE IN THEIR VIEW OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR,
     AND THEY HAVE JOINED IN A CRITIQUE OF BUREAUCRACY
     AND A SEARCH FOR ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES TO
     MANAGEMENT AND ORGANIZATION
                       ORGANIZATION.
     COLLECTIVELY, THESE APPROACHES HAVE SOUGHT TO
     FASHION PUBLIC ORGANIZATIONS LESS DOMINATED BY
     ISSUES OF AUTHORITY AND CONTROL AND MORE
     ATTENTIVE TO THE NEEDS AND CONCERNS OF INTERNAL
     AND EXTERNAL CONSTITUENTS .


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IN MOST ORGANISATION PEOPLE HAVE RELATIVELY LITTLE
        ORGANISATION,
CONTROL OVER THEIR WORK. IN MANY CASES, THEY ARE EXPECTED
TO BE SUBMISSIVE, DEPENDENT, AND LIMITED IN WHAT THEY CAN
DO.
DO SUCH AN ARRANGEMENT ULTIMATELY BACKFIRES, AS IT LIMITS
                                     BACKFIRES
THE CONTRIBUTIONS EMPLOYEES CAN MAKE TO THE
ORGANIZATION (ARGYRIS, 1962).
IN ORDER TO PROMOTE INDIVIDUALS GROWTH AS WELL AS
IMPROVED ORGANIZATIONAL PERFORMANCE, ARGYRIS SOUGHT AN
APPROACH TO MANAGEMENT IN WHICH MANAGERS WOULD
DEVELOP AND EMPLOY “SKILL IN SELF-AWARENESS, IN EFFECTIVE
                      SKILL  SELF-AWARENESS
DIAGNOSING, IN HELPING INDIVIDUALS GROW AND BECOME MORE
CREATIVE, [AND] IN COPING WITH DEPENDENT-ORIENTED …
EMPLOYEES
EMPLOYEES”.



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OTHER IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTIONS TO CONSTRUCTING
MORE HUMANISTIC ORGANIZATIONS IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR
WERE MADE BY THE GROUP OF SCHOLARS COLLECTIVELY
KNOWN AS THE NEW PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION (AS
DISCUSSED EARLIER) , ESSENTIALLY THE PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION’S COUNTERPART TO THE LATE
SIXTIES/EARLY SEVENTIES RADICAL MOVEMENTS IN SOCIETY
GENERALLY AND IN OTHER SOCIAL SCIENCE DISCIPLINES.
THE PROPONENTS OF NEW PUBLIC SERVICE RECALL SOME OF
THE IDEAS ASSOCIATED WITH THE NEW PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION WITH RESPECT TO THE ISSUE OF
ORGANIZATION HUMANISM.
               HUMANISM



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ALL THOSE ARGUMENTS, AND THE CURRENT
DISCOURCES ON POST MODERN ADMINISTRATION
CONTRIBUTE TO THE NEW APPROACH IN PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION: THE NEW PUBLIC SERVICE.




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POSTMODERN PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION



   POSTMODERN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
   THEORY CAN BE MOST EASILY UNDERSTOOD
   AS THE ANTITHESIS OF POSITIVISM AND
   THE LOGIC OF OBJECTIVE SOCIAL SCIENCE.




                www.ginandjar.com           42
MODERNISM IS THE PURSUIT OF KNOWLEDGE THROUGH
REASON, AND KNOWLEDGE THUS DERIVED IS SIMPLY
ASSUMED TO BE FACTUAL AND THEREFORE TRUE.
                                     TRUE
EQUALLY IMPORTANT, THE AGE OF REASON REJECTED
KNOWLEDGE BASED ON SUPERSTITION OR PROPHECY AND
REPLACED IT WITH KNOWLEDGE BASED ON SCIENCE. ALL
MODERN ACADEMIC DISCIPLINES AND FIELDS OF SCIENCE
ARE ROOTED IN THE ENLIGHTENMENT AND IN AN
EPISTEMOLOGY BASED ON THE OBJECTIVE OBSERVATION
OF PHENOMENA AND THE DESCRIPTION, EITHER
                                  ,
QUANTITATIVELY OR QUALITATIVELY, OF PHENOMENA.


                  www.ginandjar.com             43
POSTMODERNISTS DESCRIBE MODERN LIFE AS
HYPERREALITY, A BLURRING OF THE REAL AND THE
UNREAL.
UNREAL POSTMODERNISTS CLAIM THAT A FUNDAMENTAL
BREAK LITH THE MODERN' ERA HAS OCCURRED RECENTLY.
MASS MEDIA, INFORMATION SYSTEMS, AND TECHNOLOGY
ARE NEW FORMS OF CONTROL THAT CHANGE POLITICS
AND LIFE. BOUNDARIES BETWEEN INFORMATION AND
ENTERTAINMENT ARE IMPLODING, AS ARE BOUNDARIES
                   IMPLODING
BETWEEN IMAGES AND POLITICS. INDEED, SOCIETY ITSELF
IS IMPLODING.



                   www.ginandjar.com            44
MODERNITY IS ALSO CHARACTERIZED IN POSTMODERNITY
AS PARTICULARLY AUTHORITARIAN AND UNJUST. MUCH OF
POSTMODERN LANGUAGE HAS TO DO WITH THE ABUSE OF
GOVERNMENTAL POWER, INCLUDING BUREAUCRATIC
POWER.
POWER KEY SUBJECTS IN THE POSTMODERN LEXICON ARE
COLONIALISM, ILLCLUDING CORPORATE COLONIALISM,
SOCIAL INJUSTICE, GENDER INEQUALITY, AND THE
DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH BETWEEN THE DEVELOPED AND
SO-CALLED THIRD WORLD.




                  www.ginandjar.com           45
FINALLY, MODERNITY, IN THE POSTMODERN
PERSPECTIVE, IS PRIMARILY CONCERNED WITH
OBJECTIVE KNOWLEDGE AND ITS DEVELOPMENT;
POSTMODERNITY IS MORE CONCERNED WITH VALUES
AND THE SEARCH FOR TRUTH THAN IN
CHARACTERIZATIONS OF KNOWLEDGE.
                                    (FREDERICKSON & SMITH, 2003)




                www.ginandjar.com                           46
TO POSTMODERNISTS, MODERN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
BASED ON ENLIGHTENMENT LOGIC IS SIMPLY MISGUIDED.
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION THEORISTS EMPLOYING THE
POSTMODERN PERSPECTIVE ARE PARTICULARLY CRITICAL OF
THE FIELD'S APPARENT PREOCCUPATION WITH RATIONALISM
(ESPECIALLY MARKET-BASED RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY) AND
TECHNOCRATIC EXPERTISE.
IN CONTRAST POSTMODERN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
   CONTRAST,
THEORISTS HAVE A CENTRAL COMMITMENT TO THE IDEA “OF
DISCOURSE,“ THE NOTION THAT PUBLIC PROBLEMS ARE MORE
LIKELY RESOLVED THROUGH DISCOURSE THAN THROUGH
quot;OBJECTIVEquot; MEASUREMENTS OR RATIONAL ANALYSIS
(
(McSwite, 1997).
        ,     )
                    www.ginandjar.com             47
THE IDEAL OF AUTHENTIC DISCOURSE SEES ADMINISTRATORS
AND CITIZENS AS ENGAGING FULLY WITH ONE ANOTHER, NOT
MERELY AS RATIONALLY SELF-INTERESTED INDIVIDUALS BEING
BROUGHT TOGETHER TO TALK, BUT AS PARTICIPANTS IN A
                      TALK
RELATIONSHIP IN WHICH THEY ENGAGE WITH ONE ANOTHER AS
HUMAN BEINGS.
THE RESULTING PROCESS OF NEGOTIATION AND CONSENSUS
BUILDING IS ONE IN WHICH INDIVIDUALS ENGAGE WITH ONE
ANOTHER AS THEY ENGAGE WITH THEMSELVES, FULLY
EMBRACING ALL ASPECTS OF THE HUMAN PERSONALITY NOT
MERELY RATIONAL, BUT EXPERIENTIAL, INTUITIVE, AND
EMOTIONAL.
POSTMODERN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION DERIVES ITS CORE
IDEAS FROM SOME CONCEPTS AND ASSUMPTIONS OF THE NEW
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION.
                    www.ginandjar.com              48
THROUGH APPROACHES SUCH AS THESE, SCHOLARS HOPED
                             THESE
TO BUILD ALTERNATIVES APPROACHES TO THE STUDY AND
PRACTICE OF PUBLIC ADIMINISTRATION, ALTERNATIVES
   C C O U C              S     O ,            S
MORE SENSITIVE TO VALUES (NOT JUST FACTS), TO
SUBJECTIVE HUMAN MEANING (NOT JUST OBJECTIVE
BEHAVIOR),
BEHAVIOR) AND THE FULL RANGE OF EMOTIONS AND
FEELINGS INVOLVED IN RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN AND
AMONG REAL PEOPLE.




                   www.ginandjar.com            49
GOVERNANCE


 IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY, HIERARCHICAL
 GOVERNMENT BUREAUCRACY WAS THE PREDOMINANT
 ORGANIZATIONAL MODEL USED TO DELIVER PUBLIC
 SERVICES AND FULFILL PUBLIC POLICY GOALS.
 PUBLIC MANAGERS WON ACCLAIM BY ORDERING THOSE
 UNDER THEM TO ACCOMPLISH HIGHLY ROUTINE, ALBEIT
 PROFESSIONAL, TASKS WITH UNIFORMITY BUT WITHOUT
 DISCRETION.
 TODAY, INCREASINGLY COMPLEX SOCIETIES FORCE
 PUBLIC OFFICIALS TO DEVELOP NEW MODELS OF
 GOVERNANCE.


                  www.ginandjar.com            50
THE TRADITIONAL, HIERARCHICAL MODEL OF
GOVERNMENT SIMPLY DOES NOT MEET THE DEMANDS OF
THIS COMPLEX, RAPIDLY CHANGING AGE.
RIGID BUREAUCRATIC SYSTEMS THAT OPERATE WITH
COMMAND-AND-CONTROL PROCEDURES, NARROW WORK
RESTRICTIONS, AND INWARD-LOOKING CULTURES AND
OPERATIONAL MODELS ARE DEEMED TO BE
PARTICULARLY ILL-SUITED TO ADDRESSING PROBLEMS
THAT OFTEN TRANSCEND ORGANIZATIONAL
BOUNDARIES.


                 www.ginandjar.com           51
IN MANY WAYS, TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY CHALLENGES
AND THE MEANS OF ADDRESSING THEM ARE MORE
NUMEROUS AND COMPLEX THAN EVER BEFORE.
                                  BEFORE
PROBLEMS HAVE BECOME BOTH MORE GLOBAL AND
MORE LOCAL AS POWER DISPERSES AND BOUNDARIES
(WHEN THEY EXIST AT ALL) BECOME MORE FLUID.
ONE-SIZE-FITS-ALL SOLUTIONS HAVE GIVEN WAY TO
CUSTOMIZED APPROACHES AS THE COMPLICATED
PROBLEMS OF DIVERSE AND MOBILE POPULATIONS
INCREASINGLY DEFY SIMPLISTIC SOLUTIONS
                             SOLUTIONS.



                 www.ginandjar.com          52
• PARADIGM SHIFT


 GLOBAL                         POLITICAL
 NATIONAL                       ECONOMIC
 LOCAL                          CULTURE/
                                VALUES)


            www.ginandjar.com               53
GLOBALIZATION               UNDERMINE TRADITIONAL DOMESTIC
                                 POLITICAL AUTHORITY

                     GLOBAL ECONOMY, MARKET, CAPITAL
                              PRIVATIZATION

                         HOLLOWING OUT OF THE STATE

                     OVERIDE THE ABILITY OF NATIONAL
                GOVERNMENTS TO SOLVE THEIR OWN PROBLEMS

                  ACCOUNTABILITY TO THE INTERNATIONAL
                         MARKET AND STANDARD




                                     x
                  TRADITIONAL LINES OF ACCOUNTABILITY


                 www.ginandjar.com                       54
QUESTION: DO GOVERNMENTS KNOW WHAT THEY
ARE DOING? WHY SHOULD WE TRUST THEM?
THE DEMAND FOR GOOD GOVERNMENT HAS A LONG
HISTORY. BUT SELDOM HAVE THE FORMS OF
  S O     U S    O            O SO
GOVERNMENT BEEN UNDER GREATER CHALLENGE.
DISSATISFACTION AND DISILLUSIONMENT ABOUT
POLITICAL SOLUTIONS ARE RIFE.




               www.ginandjar.com        55
POLITICAL
  DEMOCRACY

                                     STRUCTURE AND
   SOCIETAL                            VALUES OF
TRANSFORMATION                           PUBLIC
                                     ADMINISTRATION
TECHNOLOGICAL
   PROGRESS


                 www.ginandjar.com                    56
IN A CLIMATE OF SOCIAL VALUES THAT STRESS
PARTICIPATION AND DEMOCRACY, BUREAUCRACIES
WITH THEIR CENTRALIZED STRUCTURES OF
AUTHORITY AND CONTROL ARE ANACHRONISTIC.
                                    (PFEFFER AND SALANCIK, 1978)



POLITICAL DEMOCRACY, SOCIETAL
TRANSFORMATIONS,
TRANSFORMATIONS AND TECHNOLOGICAL PROGRESS
HAVE MODIFIED THE STRUCTURES AND VALUES OF
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION.



                www.ginandjar.com                          57
CORE VALUES OF
                        ?             VALUES & NEEDS
    PUBLIC                             OF SOCIETY AT
ADMINISTRATION                             LARGE




                  www.ginandjar.com                    58
A COMPLEX PROCESS OF FUNCTIONAL AND SOCIAL
DIFFERENTIATION HAS GRADUALLY ERODED THE
RIGIDITIES OF HIERARCHICAL AUTHORITY STRUCTURES
AND FURTHER MITIGATED THE OLD PERCEIVED
ANTINOMY BETWEEN STRUCTURE AND CHANGE.




                  www.ginandjar.com          59
?
               ABSORB
 SCALE AND
COMPLEXITY     PROCESS                PUBLIC
                                       U C
 OF MODERN   EFFECTIVELY          ADMINISTRATION
GOVERNMENT   ACCOMPLISH




              www.ginandjar.com                60
THE STRAINS ON MODERN GOVERNMENT CAUSED BY
THE GROWING COMPLEXITY AND SCALE OF OPERATION
HAVE BROUGHT INTO SHARP FOCUS THE PROBLEM OF
CAPACITY: HOW MUCH, A HUMAN ORGANIZATION CAN
COMPREHEND, ABSORB, PROCESS AND ACCOMPLISH
EFFECTIVELY.




                 www.ginandjar.com          61
SOCIAL   PARTICIPATION             CHALENGE THE
VALUES   DEMOCRACY                STRUCTURES OF
                                  AUTHORITY AND
                                     CONTROL




                                  BASIC VALUES OF
                                      PUBLIC
                                  ADMINISTRATION


              www.ginandjar.com                     62
THROUGHOUT THE WORLD TODAY, THERE IS A
MOUNTING CHALLENGE TO CENTRALIZED,
HIERARCHICAL, CONTROL-ORIENTED
      C C     CO   O O
STRUCTURES.




               www.ginandjar.com         63
CORE VALUES       ><   SOCIAL VALUES



                                                 ETHICS



 CENTRALIZED,    OPEN                    PARTICIPATION/DEMOCRACY
CLOSED SYSTEM   SYSTEM

                                              TRANSPARANCY



                                             ACCOUNTABILITY




                     www.ginandjar.com                                 64
FROM ANOTHER PERSPECTIVE, JAN KOOIMAN (2006) OFFERS
               PERSPECTIVE
A WORKING DEFINITION OF 'SOCIAL-POLITICAL' OR
'INTERACTIVE' GOVERNING AND GO
       C      GO      G     GOVERNANCE AS FOLLOWS:
                                      C S O O S
GOVERNING CAN BE CONSIDERED AS THE TOTALITY OF
INTERACTIONS, IN WHICH PUBLIC AS WELL AS PRIVATE
ACTORS PARTICIPATE, AIMED AT SOLVING SOCIETAL
PROBLEMS OR CREATING SOCIETAL OPPORTUNITIES;
ATTENDING TO THE INSTITUTIONS AS CONTEXTS FOR THESE
GOVERNING INTERACTIONS; AND ESTABLISHING A
NORMATIVE FOUNDATION FOR ALL THOSE ACTIVITIES.
GOVERNANCE CAN BE SEEN AS THE TOTALITY OF
THEORETICAL CONCEPTIONS ON GOVERNING.

                   www.ginandjar.com             65
GOVERNANCE REFERS TO SELF-ORGANIZING,
INTERORGANIZATIONAL NET-WORKS CHARACTERIZED BY
INTERDEPENDENCE, RESOURCE-EXCHANGE, RULES OF THE
GAME, AND SIGNIFICANT AUTONOMY FROM THE STATE.
'GOVERNANCE' MEANS THERE IS NO ONE CENTRE BUT
'           '
MULTIPLE CENTRES; THERE IS NO SOVEREIGN AUTHORITY
BECAUSE NETWORKS HAVE CONSIDERABLE AUTONOMY.
                   HAVE'

                                           (RHODES, 1997)




                   www.ginandjar.com                66
NETWORK
STRUCTURE
                                STAKEHOLDERS
HIERARCHY                       PARTICIPATION




            www.ginandjar.com                   67
ACCORDING TO H. GEORGE FREDERICKSON (1997)
THERE ARE AT LEAST THREE DISTINCT CONCEPTIONS
OF GOVERNANCE:

 )
1)   GO         C SS         SU OG        O
     GOVERNANCE IS SIMPLY A SURROGATE WORD FOR PUBLIC
                                                O U C
     ADMINISTRATION AND POLICY IMPLEMENTATION. THUS
     GOVERNANCE THEORY IS AN INTELLECTUAL PROJECT
     ATTEMPTING TO UNIFY THE VARIOUS INTELLECTUAL
     THREADS RUNNING THROUGH A MULTIDISCIPLINARY
     LITERATURE INTO A FRAMEWORK THAT COVERS THIS
     BROAD AREA OF GOVERNMENT ACTIVITY THIS,
                                 ACTIVITY. THIS
     ESSENTIALLY, IS THE POSITION STAKED BY LYNN ET AL.
     (2000, 2001).

                      www.ginandjar.com             68
2)   GOVERNANCE EQUATES TO THE MANAGERIALIST OR
     NPM MOVEMENT. THIS IS PARTICULARLY EVIDENT IN
     NATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH THE WESTMINSTER MODEL,
     WHERE NPM FOLLOWED FROM SERIOUS ATTEMPTS TO
     REFORM THE PUBLIC SECTOR BY DEFINING AND
     JUSTIFYING WHAT GOVERNMENT SHOULD AND SHOULD
     NOT DO AND TO RESHAPE PUBLIC SERVICE PROVISION BY
         DO,
     ATTACKING THE PATHOLOGIES OF BUREAUCRACY (KETTL,
     2000).
3)   GOVERNANCE IS A BODY OF THEORY THAT COMPREHENDS
     LATERAL RELATIONS, INTERINSTITUTIONAL RELATIONS,
     THE DECLINE OF SOVEREIGNTY, THE DIMINISHING
                                ,
     IMPORTANCE OF JURISDICTIONAL BORDERS, AND A
     GENERAL INSTITUTIONAL FRAGMENTATION
     (FREDERICKSON, 1997).
                      www.ginandjar.com            69
THE HIERARCHICAL MODEL OF GOVERNMENT PERSISTS,
BUT ITS INFLUENCE IS STEADILY WANING, PUSHED BY
GOVERNMENTS' NEEDS TO SOLVE EVER MORE
COMPLICATED PROBLEMS AND PULLED BY NEW TOOLS
THAT ALLOW INNOVATORS TO FASHION CREATIVE
RESPONSES.
THIS PUSH AND PULL IS GRADUALLY PRODUCING A NEW
MODEL OF GOVERNMENT IN WHICH EXECUTIVES' CORE
RESPONSIBILITIES NO LONGER CENTER ON MANAGING
PEOPLE AND PROGRAMS BUT ON ORGANIZING
RESOURCES, OFTEN BELONGING TO OTHERS, TO
PRODUCE PUBLIC VALUE.

                  www.ginandjar.com               70
GOVERNMENT AGENCIES, BUREAUS, DIVISIONS, AND
OFFICES ARE BECOMING LESS IMPORTANT AS DIRECT
S    C    O     S, U
SERVICE PROVIDERS, BUT MORE IMPORTANT AS
                        O      O       S
GENERATORS OF PUBLIC VALUE WITHIN THE WEB OF
MULTIORGANIZATIONAL, MULTIGOVERNMENTAL, AND
MULTISECTORAL RELATIONSHIPS THAT INCREASINGLY
CHARACTERIZE MODERN GOVERNMENT.
THUS GOVERNMENT BY NETWORK BEARS LESS
RESEMBLANCE TO A TRADITIONAL ORGANIZATIONAL
CHART THAN IT DOES TO A MORE DYNAMIC WEB OF
COMPUTER NETWORKS THAT CAN ORGANIZE OR
REORGANIZE, EXPAND OR CONTRACT, DEPENDING ON
THE PROBLEM AT HAND.

                  www.ginandjar.com             71
NETWORKS CAN SERVE A RANGE OF IMPROMPTU PURPOSES,
SUCH AS CREATING A MARKETPLACE OF NEW IDEAS INSIDE A
BUREAUCRACY OR FOSTERING COOPERATION BETWEEN
COLLEAGUES.
PUBLIC-PRIVATE
PUBLIC PRIVATE NETWORKS COME IN MANY FORMS, FROM AD
                                      FORMS
HOC NETWORKS THAT ARE ACTIVATED ONLY
INTERMITTENTLY—OFTEN IN RESPONSE TO A DISASTER—TO
CHANNEL PARTNERSHIPS IN WHICH GOVERNMENTS USE
PRIVATE FIRMS AND NONPROFITS TO SERVE AS
DISTRIBUTION CHANNELS FOR PUBLIC SERVICES AND
TRANSACTIONS.


                   www.ginandjar.com             72
MODELS OF GOVERNMENTS
Public private collaboration   High

                                            Outsourced                Networking
                                            government                government
               c




                                            Hierarchical              Joined p
                                                                      Joined-up
                                            government                government

                               Low
                               L
                                      Low                                           High
                                             Network management capabilities
                                                                      (GOLDSMITH AND EGGERS, 2004)
                                                                                     EGGERS

                                                  www.ginandjar.com                             73
THE NEW USE OF GOVERNANCE DOES NOT POINT AT
STATE ACTORS AND INSTITUTIONS AS THE ONLY
RELEVANT INSTITUTIONS AND ACTORS IN THE
AUTHORITATIVE ALLOCATION OF VALUES.
THEY ALL, TO SOME EXTENT, FOCUS ON THE ROLE OF
NETWORKS, IN THE PURSUIT OF COMMON GOALS.




                 www.ginandjar.com          74
THE DIFFUSION OF GOVERNANCE IN THE TWENTY FIRST CENTURY
                                   TWENTY-FIRST

            Private sector       Public sector          Third sector

Supranational   Transnational   Intergovernmental     Nongovernmental
                corporations       organization         organization
        level



     National     National      Twentieth century
                                Twentieth-century         National
        level   corporations         model               nonprofits




 Subnational       Local         State and local           Local
       level      business        government              business
                                                    (KAMARACK AND NYE JR., 2002)
                                                                      JR

                                www.ginandjar.com                              75
THE CHALLENGES

 THE ACCOUNTABILITY PROBLEM PRESENTS NETWORKED
 GOVERNMENT WITH ITS MOST DIFFICULT CHALLENGE.
 WHEN AUTHORITY AND RESPONSIBILITY ARE PARCELED OUT
 ACROSS THE NETWORK, WHO IS TO BLAME WHEN
 SOMETHING GOES WRONG? HOW DOES GOVERNMENT
 RELINQUISH SOME CONTROL AND STILL ENSURE RESULTS?




                    www.ginandjar.com            76
HOW DO NETWORK MANAGERS BALANCE THE NEED FOR
ACCOUNTABILITY AGAINST THE BENEFITS OF
FLEXIBILITY?
GOVERNMENTS HAVE TRADITIONALLY TRIED TO
ADDRESS MOST OF THESE ISSUES OF GOVERNANCE AND
ACCOUNTABILITY THROUGH NARROW AUDIT AND
CONTROL MECHANISMS. ALTHOUGH SUCH TOOLS HELP,
        MECHANISMS                       HELP
THEY SHOULD NOT CONSTITUTE THE GREATER PART OF
AN ACCOUNTABILITY REGIME.
                  REGIME



                 www.ginandjar.com          77
NETWORK PARTNERS, FACED WITH INTRUSIVE AND
FREQUENT PERFORMANCE AND PRICE AUDITS, TEND TO
BECOME RIGID AND RISK AVERSE. INNOVATION
                       AVERSE
COLLAPSES AND TRUST SUFFERS, REDUCING THE
ESSENTIAL VALUE OF THE RELATIONSHIP
                        RELATIONSHIP.
ADDITIONALLY, TRADITIONAL ACCOUNTABILITY
MECHANISMS, WHICH RELY ON PROCESS
STANDARDIZATION, CLASH WITH THE VERY PURPOSE OF
THE NETWORK: TO PROVIDE A DECENTRALIZED,
FLEXIBLE, INDIVIDUALIZED, AND CREATIVE RESPONSE
TO A PUBLIC PROBLEM.

                 www.ginandjar.com          78
CORPORATE GOVERNANCE


 WHEREAS THE GOVERNANCE DISCUSSIONS IN THE
 PUBLIC SECTORS IS RELATIVELY RECENT, THE TERM
 GOVERNANCE IS MUCH MORE COMMON IN THE
 PRIVATE SECTOR WHERE A DEBATE ABOUT
 CORPORATE GOVERNANCE HAS BEEN GOING ON FOR
 QUITE SOME TIME.
 COORPORATE GOVERNANCE REFERS TO ISSUES OF
 CONTROL AND DECISION-MAKING POWERS WITHIN
 THE PRIVATE (CORPORATE) ORGANIZATIONS.
                          ORGANIZATIONS


                  www.ginandjar.com          79
'CORPORATE GOVERNANCE’ IS THE WATCHWORD OF
THOSE WHO WISH TO IMPROVE THE ACCOUNTABILITY
AND TRANSPARENCY OF THE ACTIONS OF
MANAGEMENT, BUT WITHOUT FUNDAMENTALLY
ALTERING THE BASIC STRUCTURE OF FIRMS.
                                      (ROE, 1994)




                www.ginandjar.com           80
GLOBAL GOVERNANCE


 ANOTHER DEVELOPMENT IS THE GLOBALIZATION OF THE
 ECONOMY AND THE GROWING IMPORTANCE OF
 TRANSNATIONAL POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS LIKE THE
 EUROPEAN UNION (EU), WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION
 (WTO), ASSOCIATION OF SOUTH EAST ASIAN NATIONS
 (ASEAN), AND NORTH AMERICAN FREE TRADE
 AGREEMENT (NAFTA).
            (NAFTA)




                  www.ginandjar.com          81
THE DEREGULATIONS OF CAPITAL IN THE 1980 SET IN
                                    1980s
TRAIN A MASSIVE RESTRUCTURING OF BOTH DOMESTIC
ECONOMIES AND THE INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC
SYSTEM.
WHAT SEEMS TO BE THE MAIN CONSEQUENCE OF
      S    S O            CO S QU C O
GLOBALIZATION IN THE PRESENT CONTEX IS THE
EROSION OF TRADITIONAL, DOMESTIC POLITICAL
AUTHORITY.
INTERNATIONAL FORCES APPEAR TO OVERRIDE THE
ABILITY OF NATIONAL GOVERNMENTS TO SOLVE THEIR
OWN PROBLEM.

                  www.ginandjar.com          82
NEW DEMANDS OF ACCOUNTABILITY TO
INTERNATIONAL MARKETS AND STANDARDS MAY CLASH
WITH THE TRADITIONAL LINES OF ACCOUNTABILITY.
                               ACCOUNTABILITY
SOME COMMENTATORS (RHODES 1994, 1997; DAVIS
1997) HAVE CHARACTERISED THESE TRENDS AS A
'HOLLOWING OUT OF THE STATE', IN WHICH THE
COMBINED EFFECTS OF GLOBALISATION,
INTERNATIONAL OBLIGATIONS, PRIVATISATION AND
REDUCED REGULATION DEPLETE THE CAPACITY OF
GOVERNMENT TO SHAPE AND ORGANISE SOCIETY.


                www.ginandjar.com         83
PESSIMIST SUGGEST THAT GLOBALIZATION MEANS THAT
GOVERNMENT EVERYWHERE HAVE BECOME POWERLESS AND
THAT MANAGING GLOBALIZATION IS IMPOSSIBLE, SINCE
GLOBALIZATION IS SHAPED BY MARKETS NOT BY GOVERNMENT
                           MARKETS,
SOME HAVE SUGGESTED THAT THIS POWERLESSNESS IS
REINFORCED BY THE COMING OF THE INTERNET AGE –THAT
THERE IS NO GOVERNANCE AGAINST THE ELECTRONIC HERD
(FRIEDMAN, 2000).
GLOBAL GOVERNANCE HAS THEN BECOME VERY TOPICAL.
IN A NUTSHEEL, GLOBAL GOVERNANCE IS ABOUT HOW TO COPE
WITH PROBLEMS WHICH TRANSCEND THE BORDERS (SUCH AS
AIR POLLUTION, NARCOTICS, TERRORISM OR THE
EXPLOITATION OF CHILDS WORKERS) GIVEN THE LACK OF A
WORLD GOVERNMENT.

                    www.ginandjar.com               84

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NEW PARADIGMS OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

  • 1. PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION: CONCEPTS AND PRACTICE III. NEW PARADIGMS OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION Graduate School of Asia and Pacific Studies University of Waseda, Tokyo-JAPAN 2008
  • 2. CONTENTS THE NEW PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION 1. REINVENTING GOVERNMENT 2. THE NEW PUBLIC MANAGEMENT (NPM) 3 NEW PUBLIC SERVICE 3. 4. POSTMODERN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION 5 GOVERNANCE 5. www.ginandjar.com 2
  • 3. PUBLIC ADMINISTRATIVE CULTURE IS CHANGING TO BE MORE FLEXIBLE INNOVATIVE FLEXIBLE, INNOVATIVE, PROBLEM SOLVING, ENTREPRENEURIAL, AND ENTERPRISING AS OPPOSED TO RULE-BOUND RULE BOUND, PROCESS-ORIENTED, AND FOCUSED ON INPUTS RATHER THAN RESULTS. www.ginandjar.com 3
  • 4. THE CURRENT PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION DEBATE PLACES A NEW EMPHASIS ON ‘WHAT MATTERS IS C S SSO ‘ S S NOT WHAT WE DO, BUT HOW PEOPLE FEEL ABOUT WHAT WE DO AND THAT ‘PROCESSES MATTER OR DO’ PROCESSES MATTER’ PUT DIFFERENTLY, ‘THE ENDS DO NOT JUSTIFY THE MEANS’. HERE ARE SOME OF THE NEW PARADIGMS IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION. www.ginandjar.com 4
  • 5. THE NEW PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN 1968, DWIGHT WALDO, SPONSORED A CO CONFERENCE OF YOUNG PUBLIC C O OU G U C ADMINISTRATIONISTS ON THE NEW PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION. THE PROCEEDINGS WERE PUBLISHED AS A BOOK IN 1971, TITLED TOWARD A NEW PUBLIC 9 , O U C ADMINISTRATION: THE MINNOWBROOK PERSPECTIVE. www.ginandjar.com 5
  • 6. THE FOCUS OF THE NEW PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION WAS DISINCLINED TO EXAMINE SUCH TRADITIONAL PHENOMENA AS EFFICIENCY, EFFECTIVENESS, BUDGETING, AND ADMINISTRATIVE TECHNIQUES. THE QUESTIONS IT RAISED DEALT WITH VALUES, ETHICS, THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDIVIDUAL MEMBER IN THE ORGANIZATION, THE RELATION OF THE ORGANIZATION CLIENT WITH THE BUREAUCRACY, AND THE BROAD PROBLEMS OF URBANISM, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIAL CONFLICTS. www.ginandjar.com 6
  • 7. FOR EXAMPLE, GEORGE FREDERICKSON (1980), IN HIS NEW PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION, ARGUED IN BEHALF OF SOCIAL EQUITY AS A GUIDING CONCEPT IN ADMINISTRATIVE AND POLITICAL DECISION MAKING. HE WROTE THAT quot;IT IS INCUMBENT ON THE PUBLIC SERVANT TO BE ABLE TO DEVELOP AND DEFEND CRITERIA AND MEASURES OF EQUITY AND TO UNDERSTAND THE IMPACT OF PUBLIC SERVICES ON THE DIGNITY AND WELL BEING OF CITIZENSquot;. WELL-BEING CITIZENS www.ginandjar.com 7
  • 8. SCHOLARS DURING THAT PERIOD EMPHASIZED THE NEED TO EXPLORE ALTERNATIVES TO THE TRADITIONAL TOP-DOWN HIERARCHICAL MODEL OF BUREAUCRATIC ORGANIZATION. INDICTING THE OLD MODEL FOR ITS OBJECTIFICATION AND DEPERSONALIZATION OF ORGANIZATIONAL MEMBERS AND CALLING FOR MODELS BUILT AROUND OPENNESS TRUST AND HONEST OPENNESS, TRUST, COMMUNICATIONS. www.ginandjar.com 8
  • 9. MAIN AGREEMENTS OF THE NEW PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION: ADMINISTRATION 1) PUBLIC ADMINISTRATORS AND PUBLIC AGENCIES ARE NOT AND CANNOT BE EITHER NEUTRAL OR OBJECTIVE. 2) ) TECHNOLOGY IS OFTEN DEHUMANIZING. 3) BUREAUCRATIC HIERARCHY IS OFTEN INEFFECTIVE AS AN ORGANIZATIONAL STRATEGY. 4) BUREAUCRACIES TEND TOWARD GOAL DISPLACEMENT AND SURVIVAL. www.ginandjar.com 9
  • 10. 5) COOPERATION, CONSENSUS, AND DEMOCRATIC ADMINISTRATION ARE MORE LIKELY THAN THE SIMPLE EXERCISE OF ADMINISTRATIVE AUTHORITY TO RESULT IN ORGANIZATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS. 6) MODERN CONCEPTS OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION MUST BE BUILT ON POSTBEHAV-IORAL AND POSTPOSITIVIST LOGIC- MORE DEMOCRATIC, MORE ADAPTABLE, MORE RESPONSIVE TO CHANGING SOCIAL ECONOMIC, AND SOCIAL, ECONOMIC POLITICAL CIRCUMSTANCES. (MARINI 1971) www.ginandjar.com 10
  • 11. THE OVERRIDING SPIRIT OF THE NEW PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION WAS A MORAL TONE. TONE THE NEW PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION CAN BE VIEWED AS A CALL FOR INDEPENDENCE FROM BOTH POLITICAL SCIENCE (IT WAS NOT, AFTER ALL, EVER CALLED THE NEW POLITICS OF BUREAUCRACY) AND MANAGEMENT (SINCE MAN-AGEMENT MAN AGEMENT ALWAYS HAD BEEN EMPHATICALLY TECHNICAL RATHER THAN NORMATIVE IN APPROACH). (H. GEORGE FREDERICKSON, TOWARD A NEW PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION, 1977). www.ginandjar.com 11
  • 12. THE NEW PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION NEVER LIVED UP TO ITS AMBITIONS OF REVOLUTIONIZING THE DISCIPLINE. NEVERTHELESS, NEVERTHELESS THE MOVEMENT HAD A LASTING IMPACT ON PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN THAT THEY NUDGED PUBLIC ADMINISTRATIONISTS INTO RECONSIDERING THEIR TRADITIONAL INTELLECTUAL TIES WITH BOTH POLITICAL SCIENCE AND MANAGEMENT, AND INTO CONTEMPLATING THE PROSPECTS OF ACADEMIC AUTONOMY. AUTONOMY HOWEVER, THEY LATER INSPIRE THE DEVELOPMENT OF A NEW APPROACHES IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION SUCH AS THE NEW PUBLIC SERVICE AND THE POSTMODERN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION. www.ginandjar.com 12
  • 13. REINVENTING GOVERNMENT BUREAUCRATIC MODEL DEVELOPED IN CONDITIONS VERY DIFFERENT FROM THOSE EXISTING TODAY. IT DEVELOPED IN A SLOWER PACED SOCIETY, WHEN SLOWER-PACED SOCIETY CHANGE PROCEEDED AT A LEISURELY GAIT. IT DEVELOPED IN AN AGE OF HIERARCHY, WHEN ONLY HIERARCHY THOSE AT THE TOP OF THE PYRAMID HAD ENOUGH INFORMATION TO MAKE INFORMED DECISIONS. IT DEVELOPED IN A SOCIETY OF PEOPLE WHO WORKED WITH THEIR HANDS, NOT THEIR MINDS. IT DEVELOPED IN A TIME OF MASS MARKETS, WHEN MOST PEOPLE HAD SIMILAR WANTS AND NEEDS. www.ginandjar.com 13
  • 14. AND IT DEVELOPED WITH STRONG GEOGRAPHIC COMMUNITIES –TIGHTLY KNIT NEIGHBORHOODS AND TOWNS. TODAY S TODAY’S ENVIRONMENT DEMANDS INSTITUTIONS THAT ARE EXTREMELY FLEXIBLE AND ADAPTABLE. IT DEMANDS INSTITUTIONS THAT DELIVER HIGH QUALITY GOODS AND SERVICES SERVICES, IT DEMANDS INSTITUTIONS THAT ARE RESPONSIVE TO THEIR COSTUMERS, OFFERING CHOICES OF NONSTANDARDIZED SERVICES THAT LEAD BY PERSUASION SERVICES; AND INCENTIVES RATHER THAN COMMANDS; THAT GIVE THEIR EMPLOYEES A SENSE OF MEANING AND CONTROL, EVEN OWNERSHIP. OWNERSHIP IT DEMANDS INSTITUTIONS THAT EMPOWER CITIZENS RATHER THAN SIMPLY SERVING THEM. www.ginandjar.com 14
  • 15. MOST GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS PERFORM INCREASINGLY COMPLEX TASKS, IN COMPETITIVE, RAPIDLY CHANGING ENVIRONMENTS, WITH “CUSTOMERS” WHO WANT QUALITY AND CHOICE. www.ginandjar.com 15
  • 16. BY THE FINAL TWO DECADES OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY, A O C SO C U , NUMBER OF FORCES—INTELLECTUAL, POLITICAL, AND FISCAL—WERE MAKING THEMSELVES FELT WITHIN GOVERNMENTS. GOVERNMENTS THESE FORCES INCLUDED THE EMERGENCE OF LARGE, HIGH PERFORMANCE CORPORATIONS, INNOVATIONS UNDERTAKEN TO REDUCE NATIONAL DEFICITS, , RAPID TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGES, THE END OF THE COLD WAR, WITH ITS ATTENDANT REFOCUSING BY CITIZENS IN MANY NATIONS ON DOMESTIC ISSUES, A DECLINING FAITH ISSUES FAITH— A “TRUST DEFICIT“—IN THE GOVERNMENTS, AND NEW RESTRICTIONS ON PUBLIC ADMINISTRATORS THAT LED TO THEIR SEEKING NEW WAYS OF MANAGING. www.ginandjar.com 16
  • 17. THESE KINDS OF SOCIAL TRENDS RESULTED IN AN EXPLOSION OF PUBLICATIONS IN THE EARLY 1990s THAT CALLED FOR A NEW KIND OF GOVERNMENT REFORM. THE REFORM MOST FAMOUS OF THESE CRITIQUES WAS THE NATIONAL BEST SELLER REINVENTING GOVERNMENT: HOW THE ENTREPRENEURIAL SPIRIT IS TRANSFORMING THE PUBLIC SECTOR. (DAVID OSBORN AND TED GAEBLER, 1992) www.ginandjar.com 17
  • 18. 1. CATALYTIC GOVERNMENT: STEERING RATHER THAN ROWING. 2. COMMUNITY OWNED GOVERNMENT: EMPOWERING RATHER THAN SERVING. 3. 3 COMPETITIVE GOVERNMENT: INJECTING COMPETITION INTO SERVICE DELIVERY. 4. 4 MISSION-DRIVEN GOVERNMENT: TRANSFORMING RULE-DRIVEN ORGANIZATIONS 5. 5 RESULTS ORIENTED RESULTS-ORIENTED GOVERNMENT: FUNDING OUTCOMES, NO INPUTS. www.ginandjar.com 18
  • 19. 6. 6 CUSTOMER-DRIVEN GOVERNMENT: CUSTOMER DRIVEN MEETING THE NEEDS OF THE CUSTOMER, NOT THE BUREAUCRACY. 7. ENTERPRISING GOVERNMENT: ERANING RATHER THAN SPENDING. 8. ANTICIPATORY GOVERNMENT: PREVENTION RATHER THAN CURE. 9. DECENTRELAIZED GOVERNMENT: FROM HIERARCHY TO PARTICIPATION AND TEAMWORK. 10. MARKET-ORIENTED GOVERNMENT: LEVERAGING CHANGE THROUGH THE MARKET. www.ginandjar.com 19
  • 20. THE NEW PUBLIC MANAGEMENT (NPM) IN THE EARLY 1990's, A NEW MANAGERIAL APPROACH TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION BEGAN TO TAKE HOLD. LIKE THE TRADITIONAL MANAGERIAL APPROACH AT ITS INCEPTION, THE NEW APPROACH IS REFORM-ORIENTED AND SEEKS TO IMPROVE PUBLIC SECTOR PERFORMANCE IT STARTS FROM THE PREMISE THAT TRADITIONAL, BUREAUCRATICALLY ORGANIZED PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IS quot;BROKEquot; AND quot;BROKEN“, AND CONSEQUENTLY THE PUBLIC HAS LOST FAITH IN GOVERNMENT. MANAGERIALISM REFERS TO AN ENTREPRENEURIAL APPROACH TO PUBLIC MANAGEMENT, ONE THAT EMPHASIZES THE RIGHTS OF MANAGERS TO RUN THE ORGANIZATION AND THE APPLICATION OF REINVIGORATED SCIENTIFIC-MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES. (LEMAY, 2002) www.ginandjar.com 20
  • 21. A BRIEF CHRONOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT THOUGHT APPROACH DATE SELECTED FEATURES CLASSICAL 1900 ORGANIZATIONS PERCEIVED AS CLOSED SYSTEMS; SYSTEMS STRESS ON EFFICIENCY, CONTROL AND THE BUREAUCRATIC FORM BEHAVIORAL/ 1930 EMPHASIS ON PEOPLE RATHER THAN MACHINES; HUMAN CLOSE ATTENTION TO FACTORS SUCH AS GROUP RELATIONS DYNAMICS, COMMUNICATION, MOTIVATION LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION QUANTITATIVE 1940 PROVISION OF QUANTITATIVE TOOLS TO SUPPORT MANAGERIAL DECISION-MAKING; FOUND IN ; MANAGEMENT SCIENCE, OPERATIONAL MANAGEMENT AND MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEMS www.ginandjar.com 21
  • 22. APPROACH DATE SELECTED FEATURES OPEN SYSTEM/ 1965 ORGANIZATIONS SEEN AS SYSTEMS OF INTERRELATED PARTS CONTIGENCY WHICH RELATE TO THE ENVIRONMENT; EMPHASIS ON 'FITTING' ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE TO THE SPECIFIC ENVIRONMENT OF THE ORGANIZATION POWER/ POLITICS 1965 ORGANIZATIONAL DECISION-MAKING IS NOT GUIDED BY TECHNICAL RATIONALITY BUT IS DETERMINED BY POLITICAL PROCESSES; A DOMINANT COALITION WILL BE THE MAJOR LOCUS OF ORGANIZATIONAL POWER QUALITY 1955 STRONGLY PURSUED IN JAPANESE POSTWAR INDUSTRIAL MOVEMENTS DEVELOPMENT AND MUCH LATER ADOPTED ELSEWHERE; CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT BY WORKING TOGETHER AND CLIENT FOCUS; TYPIFIED IN TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT, BENCHMARKING, QUALITY CIRCLES AND ISO 9000 MANAGERIALISM 1980 ADOPTION BY THE PUBLIC SECTOR OF PRIVATE SECTOR MANAGEMENT PRACTICES; APPLICATION OF PUBLIC CHOICE THEORY AND NEO-CLASSICAL ECONOMICS TO PUBLIC SECTOR MANAGEMENT (TURNER AND HULME, 1997) www.ginandjar.com 22
  • 23. THE TERM quot;NEW PUBLIC MANAGEMENTquot; (NPM) WAS COINED IN 1989 BY CHRISTOPHER HOOD TO RETROSPECTIVELY CHARACTERIZE THE “QUITE Q SIMILAR ADMINISTRATIVE DOCTRINESquot; OF AUSTRALIA, CANADA, NEW ZEALAND, THE UNITED KINGDOM, KINGDOM AND (WITH A DIFFERENT EMPHASIS) THE UNITED STATES OF THE 1970s AND 1980s. IN KÖNIG'S TERMS NPM IS A POPULARISED MIXTURE OF MANAGEMENT THEORIES, BUSINESS MOTIVATION PSYCHOLOGY AND NEO-LIBERAL ECONOMY (1997, 219). 219) www.ginandjar.com 23
  • 24. IT CALLED FOR AMONG OTHERS: PUTTING CUSTOMERS FIRST, MAKING SERVICE ORGANIZATIONS FIRST COMPETE, CREATING MARKET DYNAMICS, USING MARKET MECHANISMS TO SOLVE PROBLEMS, EMPOWERING EMPLOYEES TO GET RESULTS, DECENTRALIZATION DECISION MAKING POWER, STREAMLINING THE BUDGET PROCESS, DECENTRALIZATION PERSONNEL POLICY, AND STREAMLINING PROCUREMENT PROCUREMENT. www.ginandjar.com 24
  • 25. TODAY, THE NPM IS BECOMING THE DOMINANT MANAGERIAL APPROACH. ITS KEY CONCEPT-SOMEWHAT EVOLUTIONARY A DECADE AGO- ARE NOW THE STANDARD LANGUAGE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION. ADMINISTRATION TERMS SUCH AS quot;RESULTS ORIENTEDquot;, quot;CUSTOMERS FOCUSEDquot;, FOCUSEDquot; quot;EMPLOYEE EMPOWERMENTquot;, EMPOWERMENTquot; quot;ENTREPRENEURSHIPquot;, AND quot;OUTSOURCINGquot;, HAVE DOMINATED THE MAINSTREAM MAINSTREAM. www.ginandjar.com 25
  • 26. CHRISTOPHER HOOD (1991), CHARACTERIZE NPM‘s PRINCIPAL THEMES TO INCLUDE: A SHIFT AWAY FROM AN EMPHASIS ON POLICY TOWARD AN EMPHASIS ON MEASURABLE PERFORMANCE; A SHIFT AWAY FROM RELIANCE ON TRADITIONAL BUREAUCRACIES TOWARD LOOSELY COUPLED, QUASI QUASI- AUTONOMOUS UNITS AND COMPETITIVELY TENDERED SERVICES; A SHIFT AWAY FROM AN EMPHASIS ON DEVELOPMENT AND INVESTMENT TOWARD COST-CUTTING; ALLOWING PUBLIC MANAGERS GREATER quot;FREEDOM TO MANAGEquot; ACCORDING TO PRIVATE SECTOR CORPORATE PRACTICE; PRACTICE AND A SHIFT AWAY FROM CLASSIC COMMAND-AND-CONTROL REGULATION TOWARD SELF-REGULATION. www.ginandjar.com 26
  • 27. MANY SCHOLARS ATTRIBUTE THE ASCENDANCY OF THE NPM MOVEMENT TO THE RISING AND ENTREPRENEURIAL SPIRIT OF GOVERNMENT. ACCORDING TO NICHOLAS HENRY (2004), THE NEW PUBLIC MANAGEMENT IS AN EXPANDED VIEW OF REINVENTING ENTREPRENEURIAL GOVERNMENT. www.ginandjar.com 27
  • 28. ACCORDING TO HENRY, THE ROOT THE NEW PUBLIC , MANAGEMENT IS COMPOSED OF THE FOLLOWING SIX IDEAS: GOVERNMENT SHOULD BE ENTREPRENEURIAL AND IMPROVE THE QUALITY OF ITS SERVICE. GOVERNMENT SHOULD COLLABORATE AND WORK WITH OTHER GOVERNMENT AND THE NONPROFIT AND PRIVATE SECTORS TO ACHIEVE SOCIAL GOALS. GOVERNMENT SHOULD JUDGE ITS PERFORMANCE WITH MEASURABLE RESULT. GOVERNMENT SHOULD IMPROVE ITS ACCOUNTABILITY TO THE PUBLIC INTEREST, WHICH SHOULD BE UNDERSTOOD IN TERMS OF LAW, COMMUNITY, AND SHARED VALUES. GOVERNMENT SHOULD EMPOWER CITIZENS AND PUBLIC EMPLOYEES ALIKE. GOVERNMENT SHOULD ANTICIPATE AND SOLVE PROBLEMS. www.ginandjar.com 28
  • 29. TOONEN (2001) DEVISED AN ANALYTICAL MODEL OF NPM, AS: A BUSINESS-ORIENTED APPROACH TO GOVERNMENT; A QUALITY AND PERFORMANCE ORIENTED APPROACH TO PUBLIC MANAGEMENT; AN EMPHASIS ON IMPROVED PUBLIC SERVICE DELIVERY AND FUNCTIONAL RESPONSIVENESS; AN INSTITUTIONAL SEPARATION OF PUBLIC DEMAND FUNCTIONS, FUNCTIONS PUBLIC PROVISION AND PUBLIC SERVICE PRODUCTION FUNCTIONS. www.ginandjar.com 29
  • 30. A LINKAGE OF PUBLIC DEMAND, PROVISION, AND DEMAND PROVISION SUPPLY UNITS BY TRANSACTIONAL DEVICES (PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT, INTERNAL CONTRACT MANAGEMENT, CORPORATIZATION MANAGEMENT CORPORATIZATION, INTERGOVERNMENTAL COVENANTING AND CONTRACTING, CONTRACTING OUT) AND QUALITY MANAGEMENT; WHEREVER POSSIBLE, THE RETREAT OF (BUREAUCRATIC) GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS IN FAVOR OF AN INTELLIGENT USE OF MARKETS AND COMMERCIAL MARKET ENTERPRISES (DEREGULATION, PRIVATIZATION, COMMERCIALIZATION, AND MARKETIZATION) OR VIRTUAL MARKETS (INTERNAL COMPETITION, BENCHMARKING, COMPETITIVE TENDERING). www.ginandjar.com 30
  • 31. NEW PUBLIC SERVICE JANET V. DENHANDT AND ROBERT B. DENHANDT POSTULATE THAT WHILE THE NEW PUBLIC MANAGEMENT HAS BEEN TOUTED AS AN ALTERNATIVE TO THE OLD PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION, IT ACTUALLY HAS MUCH IN COMMNON WITH THE MAINSTREAM MODEL OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION, ADMINISTRATION SPECIFICALLY A DEPENDENCE ON AND COMMITMENT TO MODELS OF RATIONAL CHOICE. SO WHILE THERE ARE CLEARLY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE OLD PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND THE NEW PUBLIC MANAGEMENT, THE BASIC THEORETICAL FOUNDATION OF THESE TWO quot;MAINSTREAMquot; VERSIONS OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC POLICY ARE IN FACT VERY MUCH ALIKE. www.ginandjar.com 31
  • 32. IN CONTRAST TO THESE MAINSTREAM MODELS OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION OR PUBLIC MANAGEMENT THAT ARE ROOTED IN THE IDEA OF RATIONAL CHOICE, THEY SUGGEST OO O O C OC , SUGG S AN ALTERNATIVE CALLED THE NEW PUBLIC SERVICE. THEY BASE THEIR THEORY ON CONTEMPORARY PRECURSORS INCLUDING (1) THEORIES OF DEMOCRATIC CITIZENSHIP. (2) MODELS OF COMMUNITY AND CIVIL SOCIETY, (3) ORGANIZATIONAL HUMANISM AND THE NEW PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION, AND (4) POST MODERN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION. www.ginandjar.com 32
  • 33. DEMOCRATIC CITIZENSHIP CITIZENS LOOK BEYOND THEIR SELF-INTEREST TO THE LARGER PUBLIC INTEREST ADOPTING A BROADER AND LONG INTEREST. LONG- TERM PERSPECTIVE THAT REQUIRES A KNOWLEDGE OF PUBLIC AFFAIRS AND ALSO A SENSE OF BELONGING, A CONCERN FOR THE WHOLE, AND A MORAL BOND WITH THE WHOLE COMMUNITY WHOSE FATE IS AT STAKE. PUBLIC SPIRIT NEEDS TO BE NOURISHED AND MAINTAINED, AND THAT CAN BE AIDED BY CONSTANT ATTENTION TO PRINCIPLES OF JUSTICE, PUBLIC PARTICIPATION AND DELIBERATION. www.ginandjar.com 33
  • 34. CONSISTENTLY WITH THIS PERSPECTIVE, KING AND STIVERS (1998) ASSERT THAT ADMINISTRATORS SHOULD SEE CITIZENS AS CITIZENS (RATHER THAN MERELY VOTERS, VOTERS CLIENTS, OR quot;CUSTOMERSquot;), SHOULD SHARE AUTHORITY AND REDUCE CONTROL, AND SHOULD TRUST IN THE EFFICACY OF COLLABORATION COLLABORATION. MOREOVER, IN CONTRAST TO MANAGERIALIST CALLS FOR GREATER EFFICIENCY, KING AND STIVERS SUGGEST THAT PUBLIC MANAGERS SHOULD SEEK GREATER RESPONSIVE-NESS AND A CORRESPONDING INCREASE IN CITIZEN TRUST. www.ginandjar.com 34
  • 35. MODELS OF COMMUNITY AND CIVIL SOCIETY CITIZENS FELT GREAT FRUSTRATION AND ANGER THAT THEY HAD BEEN PUSHED OUT OF THE POLITICAL SYSTEM BY A PROFESSIONAL POLITICAL CLASS OF POWERFULL LOBBYISTS, INCUMBENT POLITICIANS, CAMPAIGN MANAGERS AND A MEDIA POLITICIANS ELITE. THEY SAW THE SYSTEM AS ONE IN WHICH VOTES NO LONGER MADE ANY DIFFERENCE. THEY SAW A SYSTEM WITH ITS DOORS CLOSED TO THE AVERAGED CITIZEN (MATHEWS, (MATHEWS 1994). AS A CONSEQUENCE, CITIZENS FELT ALIENATED AND DETACHED. HOW ARE PUBLIC ADMINISTRATORS AFFECTED BY AND HOW DO THEY AFFECT COMMUNITY AND CIVIL SOCIETY? www.ginandjar.com 35
  • 36. FIRST, WHERE STRONG NETWORKS OF CITIZEN INTERACTION AND HIGH LEVELS OF SOCIAL TRUST AND COHESION AMONG CITIZENS EXIST, PUBLIC ADMINISTRATORS CAN COUNT ON THESE EXIST EXISTING STOCK OF SOCIAL CAPITAL TO BUILD EVEN STRONGER NETWORKS, TO OPEN NEW AVENUES FOR DIALOGUE AND DEBATE, AND TO FURTHER EDUCATE CITIZENS WITH RESPECT TO MATTERS OF DEMOCRATIC GOVERNANCE (WOOLUM, 2000). SECOND, PUBLIC ADMINISTRATORS CAN CONTRIBUTE TO BUILDING COMMUNITY AND SOCIAL CAPITAL. SOME ARE ARGUING CAPITAL TODAY THAT THE PRIMARY ROLE OF THE PUBLIC ADMINISTRATOR IS THAT OF BUILDING COMMUNITY (NALBANDIAN, 1999). OTHERS ARGUE THAT PUBLIC ADMINISTRATORS CAN PLAY AN ACTIVE ROLE IN PROMOTING SOCIAL CAPITAL BY ENCOURAGING CITIZEN INVOLVEMENT IN PUBLIC DECISION MAKING. www.ginandjar.com 36
  • 37. BASED ON THEIR EXPERIENCE IN CONDUCTING BROAD-SCALE EFFORTS IN CIVIC ENGAGEMENT, JOSEPH GRAY AND LINDA CHAPIN (1998) COMMENT, quot;CITIZENS DON T ALWAYS GET CITIZENS DON'T WHAT THEY WANT, BUT INCLUDING THEM PERSONALIZES THE WORK WE DO-CONNECTS PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION TO THE PUBLIC. PUBLIC AND THIS CONNECTION LEADS TO UNDERSTANDING FOR BOTH CITIZENS AND ADMINISTRATORSquot;. SUCH AN UNDERSTANDING ENRICHES BOTH GOVERNMENT AND THE COMMUNITY. www.ginandjar.com 37
  • 38. ORGANIZATIONAL HUMANISM AND THE NEW PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION OVER THE PAST TWENTY-FIVE YEARS PUBLIC YEARS, ADMINISTRATION THEORISTS HAVE JOINED OTHER DISCIPLINES IN SUGGESTING THAT TRADITIONAL HIERARCHICAL APPROACHES TO SOCIAL ORGANIZATION ARE RESTRICTIVE IN THEIR VIEW OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR, AND THEY HAVE JOINED IN A CRITIQUE OF BUREAUCRACY AND A SEARCH FOR ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES TO MANAGEMENT AND ORGANIZATION ORGANIZATION. COLLECTIVELY, THESE APPROACHES HAVE SOUGHT TO FASHION PUBLIC ORGANIZATIONS LESS DOMINATED BY ISSUES OF AUTHORITY AND CONTROL AND MORE ATTENTIVE TO THE NEEDS AND CONCERNS OF INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL CONSTITUENTS . www.ginandjar.com 38
  • 39. IN MOST ORGANISATION PEOPLE HAVE RELATIVELY LITTLE ORGANISATION, CONTROL OVER THEIR WORK. IN MANY CASES, THEY ARE EXPECTED TO BE SUBMISSIVE, DEPENDENT, AND LIMITED IN WHAT THEY CAN DO. DO SUCH AN ARRANGEMENT ULTIMATELY BACKFIRES, AS IT LIMITS BACKFIRES THE CONTRIBUTIONS EMPLOYEES CAN MAKE TO THE ORGANIZATION (ARGYRIS, 1962). IN ORDER TO PROMOTE INDIVIDUALS GROWTH AS WELL AS IMPROVED ORGANIZATIONAL PERFORMANCE, ARGYRIS SOUGHT AN APPROACH TO MANAGEMENT IN WHICH MANAGERS WOULD DEVELOP AND EMPLOY “SKILL IN SELF-AWARENESS, IN EFFECTIVE SKILL SELF-AWARENESS DIAGNOSING, IN HELPING INDIVIDUALS GROW AND BECOME MORE CREATIVE, [AND] IN COPING WITH DEPENDENT-ORIENTED … EMPLOYEES EMPLOYEES”. www.ginandjar.com 39
  • 40. OTHER IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTIONS TO CONSTRUCTING MORE HUMANISTIC ORGANIZATIONS IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR WERE MADE BY THE GROUP OF SCHOLARS COLLECTIVELY KNOWN AS THE NEW PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION (AS DISCUSSED EARLIER) , ESSENTIALLY THE PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION’S COUNTERPART TO THE LATE SIXTIES/EARLY SEVENTIES RADICAL MOVEMENTS IN SOCIETY GENERALLY AND IN OTHER SOCIAL SCIENCE DISCIPLINES. THE PROPONENTS OF NEW PUBLIC SERVICE RECALL SOME OF THE IDEAS ASSOCIATED WITH THE NEW PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION WITH RESPECT TO THE ISSUE OF ORGANIZATION HUMANISM. HUMANISM www.ginandjar.com 40
  • 41. ALL THOSE ARGUMENTS, AND THE CURRENT DISCOURCES ON POST MODERN ADMINISTRATION CONTRIBUTE TO THE NEW APPROACH IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION: THE NEW PUBLIC SERVICE. www.ginandjar.com 41
  • 42. POSTMODERN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION POSTMODERN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION THEORY CAN BE MOST EASILY UNDERSTOOD AS THE ANTITHESIS OF POSITIVISM AND THE LOGIC OF OBJECTIVE SOCIAL SCIENCE. www.ginandjar.com 42
  • 43. MODERNISM IS THE PURSUIT OF KNOWLEDGE THROUGH REASON, AND KNOWLEDGE THUS DERIVED IS SIMPLY ASSUMED TO BE FACTUAL AND THEREFORE TRUE. TRUE EQUALLY IMPORTANT, THE AGE OF REASON REJECTED KNOWLEDGE BASED ON SUPERSTITION OR PROPHECY AND REPLACED IT WITH KNOWLEDGE BASED ON SCIENCE. ALL MODERN ACADEMIC DISCIPLINES AND FIELDS OF SCIENCE ARE ROOTED IN THE ENLIGHTENMENT AND IN AN EPISTEMOLOGY BASED ON THE OBJECTIVE OBSERVATION OF PHENOMENA AND THE DESCRIPTION, EITHER , QUANTITATIVELY OR QUALITATIVELY, OF PHENOMENA. www.ginandjar.com 43
  • 44. POSTMODERNISTS DESCRIBE MODERN LIFE AS HYPERREALITY, A BLURRING OF THE REAL AND THE UNREAL. UNREAL POSTMODERNISTS CLAIM THAT A FUNDAMENTAL BREAK LITH THE MODERN' ERA HAS OCCURRED RECENTLY. MASS MEDIA, INFORMATION SYSTEMS, AND TECHNOLOGY ARE NEW FORMS OF CONTROL THAT CHANGE POLITICS AND LIFE. BOUNDARIES BETWEEN INFORMATION AND ENTERTAINMENT ARE IMPLODING, AS ARE BOUNDARIES IMPLODING BETWEEN IMAGES AND POLITICS. INDEED, SOCIETY ITSELF IS IMPLODING. www.ginandjar.com 44
  • 45. MODERNITY IS ALSO CHARACTERIZED IN POSTMODERNITY AS PARTICULARLY AUTHORITARIAN AND UNJUST. MUCH OF POSTMODERN LANGUAGE HAS TO DO WITH THE ABUSE OF GOVERNMENTAL POWER, INCLUDING BUREAUCRATIC POWER. POWER KEY SUBJECTS IN THE POSTMODERN LEXICON ARE COLONIALISM, ILLCLUDING CORPORATE COLONIALISM, SOCIAL INJUSTICE, GENDER INEQUALITY, AND THE DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH BETWEEN THE DEVELOPED AND SO-CALLED THIRD WORLD. www.ginandjar.com 45
  • 46. FINALLY, MODERNITY, IN THE POSTMODERN PERSPECTIVE, IS PRIMARILY CONCERNED WITH OBJECTIVE KNOWLEDGE AND ITS DEVELOPMENT; POSTMODERNITY IS MORE CONCERNED WITH VALUES AND THE SEARCH FOR TRUTH THAN IN CHARACTERIZATIONS OF KNOWLEDGE. (FREDERICKSON & SMITH, 2003) www.ginandjar.com 46
  • 47. TO POSTMODERNISTS, MODERN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION BASED ON ENLIGHTENMENT LOGIC IS SIMPLY MISGUIDED. PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION THEORISTS EMPLOYING THE POSTMODERN PERSPECTIVE ARE PARTICULARLY CRITICAL OF THE FIELD'S APPARENT PREOCCUPATION WITH RATIONALISM (ESPECIALLY MARKET-BASED RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY) AND TECHNOCRATIC EXPERTISE. IN CONTRAST POSTMODERN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION CONTRAST, THEORISTS HAVE A CENTRAL COMMITMENT TO THE IDEA “OF DISCOURSE,“ THE NOTION THAT PUBLIC PROBLEMS ARE MORE LIKELY RESOLVED THROUGH DISCOURSE THAN THROUGH quot;OBJECTIVEquot; MEASUREMENTS OR RATIONAL ANALYSIS ( (McSwite, 1997). , ) www.ginandjar.com 47
  • 48. THE IDEAL OF AUTHENTIC DISCOURSE SEES ADMINISTRATORS AND CITIZENS AS ENGAGING FULLY WITH ONE ANOTHER, NOT MERELY AS RATIONALLY SELF-INTERESTED INDIVIDUALS BEING BROUGHT TOGETHER TO TALK, BUT AS PARTICIPANTS IN A TALK RELATIONSHIP IN WHICH THEY ENGAGE WITH ONE ANOTHER AS HUMAN BEINGS. THE RESULTING PROCESS OF NEGOTIATION AND CONSENSUS BUILDING IS ONE IN WHICH INDIVIDUALS ENGAGE WITH ONE ANOTHER AS THEY ENGAGE WITH THEMSELVES, FULLY EMBRACING ALL ASPECTS OF THE HUMAN PERSONALITY NOT MERELY RATIONAL, BUT EXPERIENTIAL, INTUITIVE, AND EMOTIONAL. POSTMODERN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION DERIVES ITS CORE IDEAS FROM SOME CONCEPTS AND ASSUMPTIONS OF THE NEW PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION. www.ginandjar.com 48
  • 49. THROUGH APPROACHES SUCH AS THESE, SCHOLARS HOPED THESE TO BUILD ALTERNATIVES APPROACHES TO THE STUDY AND PRACTICE OF PUBLIC ADIMINISTRATION, ALTERNATIVES C C O U C S O , S MORE SENSITIVE TO VALUES (NOT JUST FACTS), TO SUBJECTIVE HUMAN MEANING (NOT JUST OBJECTIVE BEHAVIOR), BEHAVIOR) AND THE FULL RANGE OF EMOTIONS AND FEELINGS INVOLVED IN RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN AND AMONG REAL PEOPLE. www.ginandjar.com 49
  • 50. GOVERNANCE IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY, HIERARCHICAL GOVERNMENT BUREAUCRACY WAS THE PREDOMINANT ORGANIZATIONAL MODEL USED TO DELIVER PUBLIC SERVICES AND FULFILL PUBLIC POLICY GOALS. PUBLIC MANAGERS WON ACCLAIM BY ORDERING THOSE UNDER THEM TO ACCOMPLISH HIGHLY ROUTINE, ALBEIT PROFESSIONAL, TASKS WITH UNIFORMITY BUT WITHOUT DISCRETION. TODAY, INCREASINGLY COMPLEX SOCIETIES FORCE PUBLIC OFFICIALS TO DEVELOP NEW MODELS OF GOVERNANCE. www.ginandjar.com 50
  • 51. THE TRADITIONAL, HIERARCHICAL MODEL OF GOVERNMENT SIMPLY DOES NOT MEET THE DEMANDS OF THIS COMPLEX, RAPIDLY CHANGING AGE. RIGID BUREAUCRATIC SYSTEMS THAT OPERATE WITH COMMAND-AND-CONTROL PROCEDURES, NARROW WORK RESTRICTIONS, AND INWARD-LOOKING CULTURES AND OPERATIONAL MODELS ARE DEEMED TO BE PARTICULARLY ILL-SUITED TO ADDRESSING PROBLEMS THAT OFTEN TRANSCEND ORGANIZATIONAL BOUNDARIES. www.ginandjar.com 51
  • 52. IN MANY WAYS, TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY CHALLENGES AND THE MEANS OF ADDRESSING THEM ARE MORE NUMEROUS AND COMPLEX THAN EVER BEFORE. BEFORE PROBLEMS HAVE BECOME BOTH MORE GLOBAL AND MORE LOCAL AS POWER DISPERSES AND BOUNDARIES (WHEN THEY EXIST AT ALL) BECOME MORE FLUID. ONE-SIZE-FITS-ALL SOLUTIONS HAVE GIVEN WAY TO CUSTOMIZED APPROACHES AS THE COMPLICATED PROBLEMS OF DIVERSE AND MOBILE POPULATIONS INCREASINGLY DEFY SIMPLISTIC SOLUTIONS SOLUTIONS. www.ginandjar.com 52
  • 53. • PARADIGM SHIFT GLOBAL POLITICAL NATIONAL ECONOMIC LOCAL CULTURE/ VALUES) www.ginandjar.com 53
  • 54. GLOBALIZATION UNDERMINE TRADITIONAL DOMESTIC POLITICAL AUTHORITY GLOBAL ECONOMY, MARKET, CAPITAL PRIVATIZATION HOLLOWING OUT OF THE STATE OVERIDE THE ABILITY OF NATIONAL GOVERNMENTS TO SOLVE THEIR OWN PROBLEMS ACCOUNTABILITY TO THE INTERNATIONAL MARKET AND STANDARD x TRADITIONAL LINES OF ACCOUNTABILITY www.ginandjar.com 54
  • 55. QUESTION: DO GOVERNMENTS KNOW WHAT THEY ARE DOING? WHY SHOULD WE TRUST THEM? THE DEMAND FOR GOOD GOVERNMENT HAS A LONG HISTORY. BUT SELDOM HAVE THE FORMS OF S O U S O O SO GOVERNMENT BEEN UNDER GREATER CHALLENGE. DISSATISFACTION AND DISILLUSIONMENT ABOUT POLITICAL SOLUTIONS ARE RIFE. www.ginandjar.com 55
  • 56. POLITICAL DEMOCRACY STRUCTURE AND SOCIETAL VALUES OF TRANSFORMATION PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION TECHNOLOGICAL PROGRESS www.ginandjar.com 56
  • 57. IN A CLIMATE OF SOCIAL VALUES THAT STRESS PARTICIPATION AND DEMOCRACY, BUREAUCRACIES WITH THEIR CENTRALIZED STRUCTURES OF AUTHORITY AND CONTROL ARE ANACHRONISTIC. (PFEFFER AND SALANCIK, 1978) POLITICAL DEMOCRACY, SOCIETAL TRANSFORMATIONS, TRANSFORMATIONS AND TECHNOLOGICAL PROGRESS HAVE MODIFIED THE STRUCTURES AND VALUES OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION. www.ginandjar.com 57
  • 58. CORE VALUES OF ? VALUES & NEEDS PUBLIC OF SOCIETY AT ADMINISTRATION LARGE www.ginandjar.com 58
  • 59. A COMPLEX PROCESS OF FUNCTIONAL AND SOCIAL DIFFERENTIATION HAS GRADUALLY ERODED THE RIGIDITIES OF HIERARCHICAL AUTHORITY STRUCTURES AND FURTHER MITIGATED THE OLD PERCEIVED ANTINOMY BETWEEN STRUCTURE AND CHANGE. www.ginandjar.com 59
  • 60. ? ABSORB SCALE AND COMPLEXITY PROCESS PUBLIC U C OF MODERN EFFECTIVELY ADMINISTRATION GOVERNMENT ACCOMPLISH www.ginandjar.com 60
  • 61. THE STRAINS ON MODERN GOVERNMENT CAUSED BY THE GROWING COMPLEXITY AND SCALE OF OPERATION HAVE BROUGHT INTO SHARP FOCUS THE PROBLEM OF CAPACITY: HOW MUCH, A HUMAN ORGANIZATION CAN COMPREHEND, ABSORB, PROCESS AND ACCOMPLISH EFFECTIVELY. www.ginandjar.com 61
  • 62. SOCIAL PARTICIPATION CHALENGE THE VALUES DEMOCRACY STRUCTURES OF AUTHORITY AND CONTROL BASIC VALUES OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION www.ginandjar.com 62
  • 63. THROUGHOUT THE WORLD TODAY, THERE IS A MOUNTING CHALLENGE TO CENTRALIZED, HIERARCHICAL, CONTROL-ORIENTED C C CO O O STRUCTURES. www.ginandjar.com 63
  • 64. CORE VALUES >< SOCIAL VALUES ETHICS CENTRALIZED, OPEN PARTICIPATION/DEMOCRACY CLOSED SYSTEM SYSTEM TRANSPARANCY ACCOUNTABILITY www.ginandjar.com 64
  • 65. FROM ANOTHER PERSPECTIVE, JAN KOOIMAN (2006) OFFERS PERSPECTIVE A WORKING DEFINITION OF 'SOCIAL-POLITICAL' OR 'INTERACTIVE' GOVERNING AND GO C GO G GOVERNANCE AS FOLLOWS: C S O O S GOVERNING CAN BE CONSIDERED AS THE TOTALITY OF INTERACTIONS, IN WHICH PUBLIC AS WELL AS PRIVATE ACTORS PARTICIPATE, AIMED AT SOLVING SOCIETAL PROBLEMS OR CREATING SOCIETAL OPPORTUNITIES; ATTENDING TO THE INSTITUTIONS AS CONTEXTS FOR THESE GOVERNING INTERACTIONS; AND ESTABLISHING A NORMATIVE FOUNDATION FOR ALL THOSE ACTIVITIES. GOVERNANCE CAN BE SEEN AS THE TOTALITY OF THEORETICAL CONCEPTIONS ON GOVERNING. www.ginandjar.com 65
  • 66. GOVERNANCE REFERS TO SELF-ORGANIZING, INTERORGANIZATIONAL NET-WORKS CHARACTERIZED BY INTERDEPENDENCE, RESOURCE-EXCHANGE, RULES OF THE GAME, AND SIGNIFICANT AUTONOMY FROM THE STATE. 'GOVERNANCE' MEANS THERE IS NO ONE CENTRE BUT ' ' MULTIPLE CENTRES; THERE IS NO SOVEREIGN AUTHORITY BECAUSE NETWORKS HAVE CONSIDERABLE AUTONOMY. HAVE' (RHODES, 1997) www.ginandjar.com 66
  • 67. NETWORK STRUCTURE STAKEHOLDERS HIERARCHY PARTICIPATION www.ginandjar.com 67
  • 68. ACCORDING TO H. GEORGE FREDERICKSON (1997) THERE ARE AT LEAST THREE DISTINCT CONCEPTIONS OF GOVERNANCE: ) 1) GO C SS SU OG O GOVERNANCE IS SIMPLY A SURROGATE WORD FOR PUBLIC O U C ADMINISTRATION AND POLICY IMPLEMENTATION. THUS GOVERNANCE THEORY IS AN INTELLECTUAL PROJECT ATTEMPTING TO UNIFY THE VARIOUS INTELLECTUAL THREADS RUNNING THROUGH A MULTIDISCIPLINARY LITERATURE INTO A FRAMEWORK THAT COVERS THIS BROAD AREA OF GOVERNMENT ACTIVITY THIS, ACTIVITY. THIS ESSENTIALLY, IS THE POSITION STAKED BY LYNN ET AL. (2000, 2001). www.ginandjar.com 68
  • 69. 2) GOVERNANCE EQUATES TO THE MANAGERIALIST OR NPM MOVEMENT. THIS IS PARTICULARLY EVIDENT IN NATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH THE WESTMINSTER MODEL, WHERE NPM FOLLOWED FROM SERIOUS ATTEMPTS TO REFORM THE PUBLIC SECTOR BY DEFINING AND JUSTIFYING WHAT GOVERNMENT SHOULD AND SHOULD NOT DO AND TO RESHAPE PUBLIC SERVICE PROVISION BY DO, ATTACKING THE PATHOLOGIES OF BUREAUCRACY (KETTL, 2000). 3) GOVERNANCE IS A BODY OF THEORY THAT COMPREHENDS LATERAL RELATIONS, INTERINSTITUTIONAL RELATIONS, THE DECLINE OF SOVEREIGNTY, THE DIMINISHING , IMPORTANCE OF JURISDICTIONAL BORDERS, AND A GENERAL INSTITUTIONAL FRAGMENTATION (FREDERICKSON, 1997). www.ginandjar.com 69
  • 70. THE HIERARCHICAL MODEL OF GOVERNMENT PERSISTS, BUT ITS INFLUENCE IS STEADILY WANING, PUSHED BY GOVERNMENTS' NEEDS TO SOLVE EVER MORE COMPLICATED PROBLEMS AND PULLED BY NEW TOOLS THAT ALLOW INNOVATORS TO FASHION CREATIVE RESPONSES. THIS PUSH AND PULL IS GRADUALLY PRODUCING A NEW MODEL OF GOVERNMENT IN WHICH EXECUTIVES' CORE RESPONSIBILITIES NO LONGER CENTER ON MANAGING PEOPLE AND PROGRAMS BUT ON ORGANIZING RESOURCES, OFTEN BELONGING TO OTHERS, TO PRODUCE PUBLIC VALUE. www.ginandjar.com 70
  • 71. GOVERNMENT AGENCIES, BUREAUS, DIVISIONS, AND OFFICES ARE BECOMING LESS IMPORTANT AS DIRECT S C O S, U SERVICE PROVIDERS, BUT MORE IMPORTANT AS O O S GENERATORS OF PUBLIC VALUE WITHIN THE WEB OF MULTIORGANIZATIONAL, MULTIGOVERNMENTAL, AND MULTISECTORAL RELATIONSHIPS THAT INCREASINGLY CHARACTERIZE MODERN GOVERNMENT. THUS GOVERNMENT BY NETWORK BEARS LESS RESEMBLANCE TO A TRADITIONAL ORGANIZATIONAL CHART THAN IT DOES TO A MORE DYNAMIC WEB OF COMPUTER NETWORKS THAT CAN ORGANIZE OR REORGANIZE, EXPAND OR CONTRACT, DEPENDING ON THE PROBLEM AT HAND. www.ginandjar.com 71
  • 72. NETWORKS CAN SERVE A RANGE OF IMPROMPTU PURPOSES, SUCH AS CREATING A MARKETPLACE OF NEW IDEAS INSIDE A BUREAUCRACY OR FOSTERING COOPERATION BETWEEN COLLEAGUES. PUBLIC-PRIVATE PUBLIC PRIVATE NETWORKS COME IN MANY FORMS, FROM AD FORMS HOC NETWORKS THAT ARE ACTIVATED ONLY INTERMITTENTLY—OFTEN IN RESPONSE TO A DISASTER—TO CHANNEL PARTNERSHIPS IN WHICH GOVERNMENTS USE PRIVATE FIRMS AND NONPROFITS TO SERVE AS DISTRIBUTION CHANNELS FOR PUBLIC SERVICES AND TRANSACTIONS. www.ginandjar.com 72
  • 73. MODELS OF GOVERNMENTS Public private collaboration High Outsourced Networking government government c Hierarchical Joined p Joined-up government government Low L Low High Network management capabilities (GOLDSMITH AND EGGERS, 2004) EGGERS www.ginandjar.com 73
  • 74. THE NEW USE OF GOVERNANCE DOES NOT POINT AT STATE ACTORS AND INSTITUTIONS AS THE ONLY RELEVANT INSTITUTIONS AND ACTORS IN THE AUTHORITATIVE ALLOCATION OF VALUES. THEY ALL, TO SOME EXTENT, FOCUS ON THE ROLE OF NETWORKS, IN THE PURSUIT OF COMMON GOALS. www.ginandjar.com 74
  • 75. THE DIFFUSION OF GOVERNANCE IN THE TWENTY FIRST CENTURY TWENTY-FIRST Private sector Public sector Third sector Supranational Transnational Intergovernmental Nongovernmental corporations organization organization level National National Twentieth century Twentieth-century National level corporations model nonprofits Subnational Local State and local Local level business government business (KAMARACK AND NYE JR., 2002) JR www.ginandjar.com 75
  • 76. THE CHALLENGES THE ACCOUNTABILITY PROBLEM PRESENTS NETWORKED GOVERNMENT WITH ITS MOST DIFFICULT CHALLENGE. WHEN AUTHORITY AND RESPONSIBILITY ARE PARCELED OUT ACROSS THE NETWORK, WHO IS TO BLAME WHEN SOMETHING GOES WRONG? HOW DOES GOVERNMENT RELINQUISH SOME CONTROL AND STILL ENSURE RESULTS? www.ginandjar.com 76
  • 77. HOW DO NETWORK MANAGERS BALANCE THE NEED FOR ACCOUNTABILITY AGAINST THE BENEFITS OF FLEXIBILITY? GOVERNMENTS HAVE TRADITIONALLY TRIED TO ADDRESS MOST OF THESE ISSUES OF GOVERNANCE AND ACCOUNTABILITY THROUGH NARROW AUDIT AND CONTROL MECHANISMS. ALTHOUGH SUCH TOOLS HELP, MECHANISMS HELP THEY SHOULD NOT CONSTITUTE THE GREATER PART OF AN ACCOUNTABILITY REGIME. REGIME www.ginandjar.com 77
  • 78. NETWORK PARTNERS, FACED WITH INTRUSIVE AND FREQUENT PERFORMANCE AND PRICE AUDITS, TEND TO BECOME RIGID AND RISK AVERSE. INNOVATION AVERSE COLLAPSES AND TRUST SUFFERS, REDUCING THE ESSENTIAL VALUE OF THE RELATIONSHIP RELATIONSHIP. ADDITIONALLY, TRADITIONAL ACCOUNTABILITY MECHANISMS, WHICH RELY ON PROCESS STANDARDIZATION, CLASH WITH THE VERY PURPOSE OF THE NETWORK: TO PROVIDE A DECENTRALIZED, FLEXIBLE, INDIVIDUALIZED, AND CREATIVE RESPONSE TO A PUBLIC PROBLEM. www.ginandjar.com 78
  • 79. CORPORATE GOVERNANCE WHEREAS THE GOVERNANCE DISCUSSIONS IN THE PUBLIC SECTORS IS RELATIVELY RECENT, THE TERM GOVERNANCE IS MUCH MORE COMMON IN THE PRIVATE SECTOR WHERE A DEBATE ABOUT CORPORATE GOVERNANCE HAS BEEN GOING ON FOR QUITE SOME TIME. COORPORATE GOVERNANCE REFERS TO ISSUES OF CONTROL AND DECISION-MAKING POWERS WITHIN THE PRIVATE (CORPORATE) ORGANIZATIONS. ORGANIZATIONS www.ginandjar.com 79
  • 80. 'CORPORATE GOVERNANCE’ IS THE WATCHWORD OF THOSE WHO WISH TO IMPROVE THE ACCOUNTABILITY AND TRANSPARENCY OF THE ACTIONS OF MANAGEMENT, BUT WITHOUT FUNDAMENTALLY ALTERING THE BASIC STRUCTURE OF FIRMS. (ROE, 1994) www.ginandjar.com 80
  • 81. GLOBAL GOVERNANCE ANOTHER DEVELOPMENT IS THE GLOBALIZATION OF THE ECONOMY AND THE GROWING IMPORTANCE OF TRANSNATIONAL POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS LIKE THE EUROPEAN UNION (EU), WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION (WTO), ASSOCIATION OF SOUTH EAST ASIAN NATIONS (ASEAN), AND NORTH AMERICAN FREE TRADE AGREEMENT (NAFTA). (NAFTA) www.ginandjar.com 81
  • 82. THE DEREGULATIONS OF CAPITAL IN THE 1980 SET IN 1980s TRAIN A MASSIVE RESTRUCTURING OF BOTH DOMESTIC ECONOMIES AND THE INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC SYSTEM. WHAT SEEMS TO BE THE MAIN CONSEQUENCE OF S S O CO S QU C O GLOBALIZATION IN THE PRESENT CONTEX IS THE EROSION OF TRADITIONAL, DOMESTIC POLITICAL AUTHORITY. INTERNATIONAL FORCES APPEAR TO OVERRIDE THE ABILITY OF NATIONAL GOVERNMENTS TO SOLVE THEIR OWN PROBLEM. www.ginandjar.com 82
  • 83. NEW DEMANDS OF ACCOUNTABILITY TO INTERNATIONAL MARKETS AND STANDARDS MAY CLASH WITH THE TRADITIONAL LINES OF ACCOUNTABILITY. ACCOUNTABILITY SOME COMMENTATORS (RHODES 1994, 1997; DAVIS 1997) HAVE CHARACTERISED THESE TRENDS AS A 'HOLLOWING OUT OF THE STATE', IN WHICH THE COMBINED EFFECTS OF GLOBALISATION, INTERNATIONAL OBLIGATIONS, PRIVATISATION AND REDUCED REGULATION DEPLETE THE CAPACITY OF GOVERNMENT TO SHAPE AND ORGANISE SOCIETY. www.ginandjar.com 83
  • 84. PESSIMIST SUGGEST THAT GLOBALIZATION MEANS THAT GOVERNMENT EVERYWHERE HAVE BECOME POWERLESS AND THAT MANAGING GLOBALIZATION IS IMPOSSIBLE, SINCE GLOBALIZATION IS SHAPED BY MARKETS NOT BY GOVERNMENT MARKETS, SOME HAVE SUGGESTED THAT THIS POWERLESSNESS IS REINFORCED BY THE COMING OF THE INTERNET AGE –THAT THERE IS NO GOVERNANCE AGAINST THE ELECTRONIC HERD (FRIEDMAN, 2000). GLOBAL GOVERNANCE HAS THEN BECOME VERY TOPICAL. IN A NUTSHEEL, GLOBAL GOVERNANCE IS ABOUT HOW TO COPE WITH PROBLEMS WHICH TRANSCEND THE BORDERS (SUCH AS AIR POLLUTION, NARCOTICS, TERRORISM OR THE EXPLOITATION OF CHILDS WORKERS) GIVEN THE LACK OF A WORLD GOVERNMENT. www.ginandjar.com 84