Ten Key Factors that Influence Successful Bilingualism and Multilingualism

1. Ten Key Factors that Influence Successful Bilingualism and Multilingualism: Policy implications Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa, Ph.D. Rottedam, The Netherlands November 18, 2009

3. Director of the Instittue for Research and Educational Development, Universidad San Francisco de Quito, Ecuador.

4. Author of Raising Multilingual Children (2001), The Multilingual Mind (2003), and Living Languages (2008).

5. Teacher (pre-kindergarten through university) with 20+ years of comparative research based on family case studies (Japan, Ecuador, USA, Canada, France, Switzerland, Germany).

7. Part I

9. Why?(Origins: These are statements made by teachers, doctors and parents I met while doing my research.)

10. True or False? By learning more than one language a child can suffer brain overload. Nitsch, C., Franceschini, R., Lüdi, G., Radü, E.-W., 2006; Hirsch, 1997.

11. True or False? 2. Some languages are easier to learn than others. Baker, 2004; Pinker, 2000.

12. True or False? 3.Bilinguals are more creative than monolinguals. Ricardelli, 1992

13. True or False? 4. Bilingualism can cause problems such as stuttering and dyslexia. Harley 1989; McLaughlin 1992.

14. True or False? 5. It is impossible for an adult to learn a new language as fast as a child. Harley 1989; McLaughlin 1992.

15. True or False? 6. It is impossible for an adult to learn a new language without an accent. Harley 1989; McLaughlin 1992.

16. True or False? 7. When a child learns his languages from birth he is effectively learning them as two first languages.

17. Two languages in one brain: Brain scans show that people brought up bilingual from birth have languages in the same area of the brain as monolinguals, whereas people who learn languages after the first seven months or so actually use different areas for processing sounds, or simply do not perceive sounds which are not representative in their native language at all. Kovelman, Baker, and Petitto, 2008; Fennell, Byers-Heinlein & Werker , 2006.

18. True or False? 8. All people have the same area of their brain to speak different languages.

19. True or False? 9. It is not recommended that children learn literacy skills in two languages simultaneously.

20. True or False? 10. The general research findings examining trilinguals brains to date point to no pattern for multilingualism. Nitsch, Franceschini, Lüdi, Radü, n/d

21. True or False? 11. Multilingualsare shown to be faster at working memory tasks than monolinguals. Baddeley, 2001

22. True or False? 12. Bilingual students achieve higher results on English-language proficiency tests than their Anglophone, monolingual peers. Cenoz & Lindsay, 1994

23. True or False? 13. A nine-year-old has the same size brain as an adult; therefore they learn foreign languages in the same way. Suddath, Christison, Torrey, Casanova & Weinberger, 1990.

24. True or False? 14. The more languages you know, the easier it gets to learn an additional one. Government of Canada, 2003; University of Oxford, 2003

25. True and False? 15. The quality of the first language impacts the quality of the second language, and the quality of the third language depends on the quality of the second language. Cenoz & Lindsay, 1994

26. True or False? 16. Most of the world is monolingual. Nitsch, 2004

28. A child who learns two languages simultaneously will be confused and have lower intelligence.

29. A child with two languages will never feel completely secure in either.

30. A bilingual child will always have identity problems and feel a lack of belonging to his cultures because he will never fully be a part of either.

31. Bilinguals tend to translate from the weaker language tothe stronger.

32. True bilinguals never mix their languages. More myths… Gutierrez, s.f.; Kandolf, 1998; Narváez, 2009

34. True bilinguals never confuse their languages; if they do, they are actually semi-linguals.

35. There are some language programs which can actually teach foreign languages in a matter of weeks or evn days, which means there is no reason, except for lack of motivation, that many people take years to learn another languaes.

36. The ability to learn a foreign language is directly related to the level of intelligence of an individual.

37. Bilinguals have split personalities.

38. Older people can never become fully bilingual. Gutierrez, s.f.; Kandolf, 1998; Narváez, 2009

39. The Ten Key Factors 1. Timing (Windows of Opportunity) 2. Aptitude 3. Motivation 4. Strategy 5. Consistency 6. Opprotunity and support (home, school, community) 7. Linguistic and historic relationship between languages 8. Silblings 9. Gender 10. Hand-use as a refleciton of cerebral dominance for languages 11.…and…?

40. 1. The Windows ofOpprotunity 1. First: 0 a 9 months (A window-and-a-half: 9 a 24-30 months) 2. Second : 4 a 8 years 3. Tthird: 8 years + (from old-age and back) Language Milestones* 2-3 Normal Mixing Stage 3-4 Labeling of Languages 5+ Cognizant of “translation concept” 4-10 “syntactic conservationism” *Remember that children can vary by as much as a year in either direction related to language development!

41. 1. Cummins (1981); 2. Gibbins (1999); 3. Corson (1993, 1995)

43. Approximately 10% of the population

44. Measuring

45. MFLAT

46. Gardener’s definition of “Intelligence”

49. Do not have to be simple

52. At Home

53. In School

54. Within the Community

56. Language Sub-Families Families

58. Iraní (Persa, Kurdo)

59. Indo-Aryan (Hindú, Urdu, Bengalí, Nepalés)

60. Indo-Europeas

61. Románicas (Francés, Español, Portugués, Italiano, Rumano)

62. Holandés (Alemán, Inglés, Holandés, Danés, Sueco)

63. Checa-Eslovaco (Checa, Eslovaco, Polaco, Serbo-Croata, Ucraniano, Ruso)

64. Celta (Gaélico, Galés)

65. Báltico (Lituano, Letón)

66. Griego

67. Albano

69. Vasco

71. Afro-Asian

72. Semita (Árabe, Hebreo)

73. Chádica

74. Berebere

75. Cushitic

76. Egipcio

77. Nilo-Sahariana (Masai)

78. Niger-Congo

79. Yoruba

80. Bantú (Suahilí, Bantu)

82. Munda (Khmer, Vietnamita)

83. Burushaski

84. Altaico (Mongol, Turco, Tungús)

85. Japonés

86. Coreano

87. Sino-Tibetano (Chino, Tibetano, Birmano)

88. Thaís (Tailandés)

89. Austroneasiano (Malayo, Bahasa, Hawaiano, Tagalos)

90. Papua

92. Esquimal - Aleuta (Inuit, Groenlándico)

93. Na-Deme

94. Athabasken (Navajo)

95. Algonquino (Otras lenguas indias nativas americanas)

96. Iroquoian

97. Siouan

98. Uto-Azteca (Náhuatl , Quechua )

99. Quechua

100. Tupí-Guaraní

101. Jívaro

106. How are these measured?

108. 95% of right-handed people and 70% of left handed people are left hemisphere dominant for languages.

110. The Ten Key Factorsin Raising Multilingual Children 1. Timing and The Windows of Opportunity 2. Aptitude for Foreign Languages 3. Motivation 4. Strategy 5. Consistency 6. Opportunity and Support (Home, School and Community) 7. Language Typology and Similarities 8. Siblings 9. Gender 10. Hand Use 11. ???? Tokuhama-Espinosa, 2000

111. Part II

113. Bilinguals learn to manage language rules at an earlier age than monolinguals. (2)

114. Bilinguals learn to inihibit (ignore information calling for attention) earlier and with faster speed thab monolinguals, which directly relates to executive funtions (3).

115. Bilinguals use more of their brians than monolinguals. (3).

116. Multilingual children are more creative than monolingual ones in 30 of 33 tests of creativity (4).1. Suzanne Flynn professor of linguistics and second-language acquisition at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Ellen Bialystok, professor of psychology at York University in Toronto. 2. Adele Diamond, director of the Center for Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience at the University of Massachusetts Medical School in Waltham. 3. Patricia Kuhl of the University of Washington . 4. Lena Riccardelli (1992).

117. Emotional aspects of learning “When a concept fights with an emotion, the emotion almost always wins.” Sousa, D. (2002). Cómoaprende el cerebro, p.53.

118. The Fink’s Four Teaching Components L. Dee Fink (2003) Creating Significant Learning Experiences, p.22

119. Backward Design Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe (1998/2005). Understanding by design. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

120. Three steps to ensuring understanding (backward design) Adopted from Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe (1998), Understanding by Design.

122. Determine important skills (processes, strategies and methods).

123. Determine important attitudes (e.g., empathy, intellectual honesty, perseverance)

124. Determine what content area will be the focus of evaluation.

125. Whyit is important to do so?

126. What is the enduring understanding that is the object of the teaching?Adopted from Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe (1998), Understanding by Design.

128. How do we know if the students are achieving the results we desire and the standards we need?

129. What will we accept as evidence of learning (the achievement of the competencies)?Adopted from Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe (1998), Understanding by Design.

131. What should be taught and how should I teach it in order to reach my stated goals?

132. What materials are needed to conduct the activities? Adopted from Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe (1998), Understanding by Design.

133. School influences….

134. The Facts and Studies Cenoz and Lindsay (1994) in their study, "Teaching English in Primary School: A Project To Introduce a Third Language to Eight Year Olds” highlight the important role of the teacher³. 1. UNESCO. (July-Sept. 2003). The mother-tongue dilemma. Education Today Newsletter 2. Aarts and Verrhoeven (1999). "Literacy Attained in a Second Language Submersion Context." Applied Psycholinguistics 20(3): 377-394.). 3. Cenoz, J. and D. Lindsay (1994). "Teaching English in Primary School: A Project To Introduce a Third Language to Eight Year Olds." Language and Education 8(4): 201-210.

135. What motivates students? According to Sass (1989), the eight most influential factors that motivate students and that are controlled by the teacher are: Teacher enthusiasm Relevance of the subject Oagnzaition of course course Appropriate difficulty level Active participation by student Variety of activities and methodology Personal link between teacher and student Use of approrpriate, concrete and clear examples. Sass, E. J. "Motivation in the College Classroom: What Students Tell Us." Teaching of Psychology, 1989, 16(2), 86-88.

137. Teachers with greater knowledge of the home language(s) of their students are more successful.

138. Knowledge of evaluation methods that ensure “instructually embedded assessment”.Teacher qualifications

139. High EFL teacher qualifications means: Being versed in appropriate teaching methods Understanding of students’ native language structure (or being able to speak it) Understanding of learning styles Owning a good toolbox of motivational skills Appropriate use of evaluation and feedback mechanisms Respect for other cultures Quality of the Teacher

141. In over half of the interactions that teachers have with students, students do not produce any language as they are only listening or responding with non-verbal gestures or actions.

142. When students do respond, typically they provide only simple information recall statements. Rather than being provided with the opportunity to generate original statements, students are asked to provide simple discrete close-ended or patterned (i.e., expected) responses. Teaching practices-What not to do Ramirez, Yuen, & Ramey, 1991, Executive Summary

144. As students prefer to verbally request help only in small group or one-to-one interactions with the teacher, teachers should call on students individually and approach them personally to offer support.

145. Teachers should not only modify their own speech in response to students' requests (verbal or non-verbal), they should also request modifications of the students' speech.

146. Sustained negotiation - in which teachers and students verbally resolve incomplete or inaccurate messages – should occur frequently. Teaching practices-What to do Musumeci, D. (1996). "Teacher-Learner Negotiation in Content-Based Instruction: Communication at Cross-Purposes." Applied Linguistics 17(3): 286-324.

147. Aspects of a good teacher training program: Train teachers in English language instruction; Have regular meetings for discussing instructional issues and exchanging ideas; Develop an activity-based and thematic syllabus; Program co-ordinators observe classrooms several times a year; Apply a formative evaluation using Portfolios Observation An attitude survey of teachers, parents, and administrators A teacher survey, and English language testing.

149. Inetgrated schooling (all language learners together)

150. High expectations by teachers

151. Equal status of languages

152. Healthy parent involvement

153. Continuous staff development

154. Second language taught through academic content

155. Critical thinking across language program

156. Activation of students' prior knowledge

157. Respect for students' home language and culture

158. Cooperative learning

159. Interactive and discovery learning

160. Intense and meaningful cognitive/academic developmentProgram design should include:

161. Questions?Thank you for coming!

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176. Taboors, P.O. (1997). One child, two languages: A guide for preschool educators of children learning English as a second language. Tokuhama-Espinosa, T. (2000). Raising multilingual children: Foreign language acquisition and children. Westport, CT: Greenwood. Tokuhama-Espinosa, T. (2003). The multilingual mind: Questions by, for, and about people living with many languages. Westport, CT: Praeger Press. Tokuhama-Espinosa, T. (2008). Living languages: Multilingualism across the lifespan. Westport, CT: Greenwood. Toohey K. (2000). Learning English at school: Identity, social relations and classroom practice. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters (background reading) UNESCO. (July-Sept. 2003). The mother-tongue dilemma. Education Today Newsletter. UNESCO. (July-Sept. 2003). UNESCO and multiliongualism. Education Today Newsletter. Valadez, C.. M., MacSwan, J. and Martínez, C. (1997). Toward a new view of low achieving bilinguals: Syntactic competence in designated "semilinguals." Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (AERA). http://www.public.asu.edu/~macswan/aera97.pdf

177. Walsh, J. (2004). Minority voices show strong instinct for survival. The Guardian Weekly. Brighton UK: IATEFL Wei, L. (2000) Dimensions of bilingualism in Wei, L. (ed). (2000). The bilingualism reader. London: Routledge Wei, L., Niklas Miller, & Barbara Dodd. 1997. Distinguishing communicative difference from language disorder in bilingual children. The Bilingual Family Newsletter 14(1), 3-4. Werker, J.F. and Tees R.C. (1984) Cross-language speech perception: Evidence for perceptual reorganization during the first year of life. Infant Behavior and Development 7, 49-63. Williams, S., & Hammarberg, B. (1998). Language switches in L3 production: Implications for a polyglot speaking world. Applied Linguistics, 19(3), 295-333. Wong Fillmore, L. (1991). When learning a second language means losing the first. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 6 (3), 323-347.

178. For more information: Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa, Ph.D. Universidad San Francisco de Quito Edif. Galileo #101 Telf: +593 2 297-1700 x1338 o +593-2-297-18937 ttokuhama@usfq.edu.ec ortracey.tokuhama@gmail.com Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa is a professor of Education and Psychology at the Universidad San Francisco de Quito in Ecuador at the undergraduate and Master’s levels. Tracey received her doctorate (PhD) in the new field of Mind, Brain, and Education Science in July 2008 (Capella University), her Master’s of Education from Harvard University (International Development) and her Bachelor’s of Arts (International Relations) and Bachelor’s of Science (Communications) from Boston University, magna cum laude.