If we accept the idea that motivation is neither a natural gift nor the result of fortuitous circumstances, then we can start seeing this important aspect of (language) learning as a competence to be developed through systematic intervention. In order to do this, we need to view motivation as a multi-dimensional factor which encompasses psychological, social and contextual issues. This paper will examine some of these dimensions, starting from the network of interpersonal and sociocultural relationships which include the classroom culture, the school and family backgrounds, and the larger community and societal identities. The features of the learning tasks, which teachers set in the classroom, and their impact on the “will and skill” to learn will then be discussed. Finally, I will consider the influence that personal values, perceptions, beliefs and attitudes have in shaping an individual’s identity as a language learner, with particular reference to the causal attributions that are used to explain positive or negative outcomes. Theoretical perspectives on language learning motivation will be backed up by “voices from the classroom”, i.e. students’ statements - the results of surveys carried out in Italian upper secondary schools in the past few years.

1. Language learning motivation:
a multi-dimensional competence
Luciano Mariani TESOL Rome 2011
© Luciano Mariani – www.learningpaths.org

2. What about Yes, but
motivation? motivation…
It’s all very well, but if you
lack motivation…

3. The elements which define the
learning/teaching process are
the following:
• exposure … to the target
language;
• opportunity for language use …;
• motivation to respond to the
previous two conditions.
(C. Brumfit)

4. Transfer of proficiency between
languages will occur provided
there is adequate exposure to the
language (either in
school or environment) and
adequate motivation to learn.
(J. Cummins)

5. Given motivation, it is
inevitable that a human
being will learn a second
language if he is exposed to
the language data.
(P. Corder)

6. Motivation …
3. as the interplay
between task
value and
expectancy of
success
2. as part of
a language
1. as a
learner’s
multidimensional,
identity
dynamic competence

7. Voices from the classroom …
from surveys carried out in Italian
upper-secondary schools
www.learningpaths.org/motivazione

8. Motivation …
1. as a
multidimensional,
dynamic competence

9. A multi-dimensional competence
I can say I’m living a positive
experience in this class thanks to my
friends and my school results… but
especially my friends … thanks to them
every morning I find the motivation to
get up and come to school, where every
day with them is a treat.
(Barbara, 17)

10. A multi-dimensional competence
The wish to be happy. You can’t be
happy if you never do well at school,
first because you become the
teachers’ target, and then because
you get scolded at home …
(Enrica, 15)

11. A multi-dimensional competence
You need to work in a good
environment, have a good
relationship with teachers and
be supported and encouraged
by your family.
(Mario, 17)

12. A multi-dimensional competence
What prompts me to study is …
above all the fact that if I look at
the world of work today I see it
hard and tiring and far off from me.
That’s why I try to study as best as
I can so that I can get good results
and, who knows, a good job.
(Francesco, 17)

13. families – communities - society
school
class
“a social arena”
tasks

14. A situated, contextual competence

15. A dynamic process
Yes, I didn’t like this subject at the
start, but then, by doing my homework
regularly, I started to like it.
(Gisella, 16)

16. A dynamic process …
complex
unpredictable
non-linear

17. A dynamic process
The thing that strikes me
most is the fact that, despite
all the maths that I learned
at school, I’ve somehow
managed to go on loving
maths.
(… Albert Einstein!)

18. Motivation …
2. as part of
a language
learner’s
identity

19. Motivation and identity
L1 L2
Ln …

20. The “classic” opposition in language
learning motivation
instrumental integrative

21. Identity: instrumental motivation
Learning a foreign language is like …
making doing something useful,
an because you can use a
effort foreign language, you can
to pass speak it, not like, for
my instance, maths, which is
exams of no use to me in my free
time
(Aldo, 15) (Gabriella, 17)

22. Identity: instrumental motivation
Learning a foreign language is like …
something new which making a
you can use at any long-term
time, the imaginary investment
passport to travel
(Giuliana, 15)
(Pino, 15)

23. Identity: a range of instrumental
motivations
external regulation ------- interiorization


24. people are motivated by a
wide range of different,
even conflicting, reasons,
which make up their
individual
motivational profiles

25. How much In how many
motivation
different
have I got?
ways am I
motivated?

26. Identity: integrative motivation
Learning a foreign language is like …
being able to feeling at home
become “a wherever you go …
foreigner” feeling like a real
and being Englishman,
considered German,
as such Frenchman, etc.
(Daniele, 15) (Simone, 17)

27. Identity: integrative motivation
Learning a foreign language is like …
changing my enter the logic and
nationality, frame of mind, first
therefore I of the people who
should know a speak the language,
language and then of the
perfectly language itself
(Paola, 16) (Elena, 18)

28. Identity: integrative motivation
ideal native
speaker
competence
unrealistic
expectations?

29. Motivation and identity
Learning a foreign language is like …
becoming being playing various roles,
another two interpreting a
person, people character, changing
almost at the one’s voice and way
changing of thinking (I think
same
your like a German, a
time
personality Frenchman, an
and way of Englishman)
being
(Grazia, 17) (Cesare, 19) (Silvana, 16)

30. Motivation and identity
Learning a foreign language is like …
belonging to opening up to adjusting to
a group of the world, other people’s
people who being free to ways of
communicate express communicating
through the oneself to the
same world and belonging
language integrate at a more to
global level ... the world
(Emilio, 18)
(Giovanni, 15) (Liliana, 18) (Annalisa, 18)

31. Beyond the “classic” opposition …
to the “Ideal L2 Self”
“If the person we would like
to become speaks an L2, the
ideal L2 self is a powerful
motivator to learn the L2”
Z. Dörnyei

32. Motivation and identity
“the pressure for most people is to develop a
bicultural identity, in which part of their
identity is rooted in their local culture while another
part is associated with a global identity that links
them to the international mainstream”
J.J.Arnett 2002

33. Identity: intrinsic motivation
Learning a foreign language is like …
playing picking a rose.
football – You have to be
absolutely careful with
listening thorns, but this
necessary
to a song is no problem
compared with
its beauty and
scent
(Maurizio, 17)
(Giuliana, 15) (Emma, 19)

34. Identity: intrinsic motivation
Learning a foreign language is like …
eating a
solving a sandwich
riddle with
nutella ☺
(Luisa, 18)
(Ivan, 18)

35. Identity: de-motivation?
Learning a foreign language is like …
learning learning to
running
something play chess
barefoot
which is with your
on stones
physically, eyes
mentally, … and closed –
“chemically” nearly
impossible impossible
(Andrea, 18)
(Leonardo, 15) (Christian, 18)

36. Identity: de-motivation?
Learning a foreign language is like …
being under a going on a
terrible hail having to
long trip
storm with 2 learn
with no
square something
destination
centimetres which has
hail stones nothing to
which won’t do with me
allow you to see
where you are (Veronica, 16)
(Walter, 15 (Roberto, 16)

37. Identity: de-motivation?
learned
helplessness

38. Motivation …
3. as the interplay
between task
value and
expectancy of
success

39. The “value + expectancy” formula
perception of
task value
+
expectancy of
success
motivation to learn

40. Expectancy of success
What should happen for you to be successful?
If you’re lucky to Once the
A miracle.
have a good teacher was in
teacher, that’s the a good mood
most important and she didn’t
(Luca, 14) thing! Either your notice a few
teachers are mistakes in my
incompetent or presentation
they’re tyrants!
Everything depends
(Massimo, 16)
on the teacher, my
school results are
(Patrizia, 17) there to prove it!

41. Expectancy of success
What should happen for you to be successful?
Luck is a Some tests Intelligence and
deceptive illusion, are based personal ability
although it has an mainly on affect your study
impact on personal method and your
outcomes; you ability and interest because
need to optimize studying if you try hard
your preparation, hard doesn’t but are not
results crop well, count much intelligent, you
like mushrooms can’t get good
results
(Giancarlo, 16) (Marta, 17)
(Tiziano, 16)

42. Expectancy of success
and causal attributions
unstable
effort luck
internal external
ability context
stable

43. Causal attributions to
develop self-efficacy
(perception of competence)
ability and strategies effort and commitment

44. Am I bright Can I
enough? meet this
challenge?
Do I have
a flair for
languages?

45. Causal attributions to
develop self-efficacy
(perception of competence)
ability and strategies effort and commitment

46. “Genius is ten per
cent inspiration and
ninety per cent
perspiration”
Victor Hugo
“When inspiration
does not come, I
meet it halfway”
Sigmund Freud

47. The motivational value of tasks
I remember with delight a very nice
project we did in the first grade, it was
called ‘Progetto Cartabianca’. A group of
students had to write articles on various
topics for a daily paper, adding pictures
and ads. Being part of the group was
exciting and instructive, we were in
perfect harmony and we were able to
produce some very good work and even
entered a competition.
relevance
(Rosanna, 17 anni)

48. The motivational value of tasks
I feel motivated in those subjects or
projects where studying is not enough,
where you have to use your head and
be creative, maybe cooperating with
other people – in a word, activities
which combine different subjects and
personal experience.
attention
personal involvement
(Mara, 17 anni)

49. The motivational value of tasks
Surely one of the best experiences
was the guided tour in Aosta because,
besides missing some class time, each
student had to present a monument
to the other students.
attention
(Massimo, 14 anni) personal involvement

50. The motivational value of tasks
I liked an English project on an American
author because, starting from a book we had
read in class, we had to give a sort of a lesson
to explain to those who hadn’t read the book
why the book in question was so important. I
liked that because I was able to prove that I
can explain myself in a simple but thorough way
without help from the teacher or a classmate.
challenge
support
(Lorenzo, 18 anni)

51. The motivational value of tasks
I feel motivated when you put the
theory you’ve studied into practice,
and when you do exercises in class,
under the teacher’s guide, so that you
can then realize if you you could have
done that exercise just as well by
yourself.
challenge
(Roberta, 17 anni) support

52. The motivational value of tasks
For instance, at the moment, working
in groups, we have to present and
explain to our classmates some topics
we have to study and understand at
home. I think this is useful and is
evidence of great maturity (for
those who can make it).
challenge
support
(Andrea, 14 anni)

53. The motivational value of tasks
challenge: task student support
difficulty
autonomy scaffolding

54. The motivational value of tasks
Lessons should involve the student,
teachers shouldn’t rush them. The
results of tests should be clear and
there should be time after the test to
discuss mistakes and how to do better
(something which is always missing).
feedback
(Franco, 18)

55. The motivational value of tasks
This was gratifying because the
teacher collected the reports and
then they were compared in class
and for every student there was
some constructive criticism in
addition to compliments and a “small
bonus on marks”.
feedback
(Ada, 16)

56. The motivational value of tasks
What has (not) What needs
been done? to be done?
from the recent past … … to the near future

57. The motivational value of tasks
Students’ keywords:
- personal involvement
- clear performance criteria
- space and time for discussion
- shared class work
- constructive criticism

58. The motivational value of tasks
… I think this is useful and is
evidence of great maturity
(for those who can make it).
(Andrea, 14)

59. The motivational value of tasks
What should you do to do better at school?
Pay more Cheat as Cheat,
attention when much as I cheat and
we have a can. cheat again.
literature lesson
instead of falling
asleep on my (Martino, 15)
desk.
(Antonio, 15)
(Domenico, 14)

60. The motivational value of tasks
Have you found a way to study difficult topics
or carry out boring tasks?
Reading to my If I don’t like the
puppets, pretending topic, I study by
to speak to my heart and can’t
pupils. For boring understand anything.
tasks, doing them If a subject is
immediately so that boring, sometimes,
I can go out although I try to
without thinking study it, I can’t
about my understand anything.
homework.
(Ines, 12) (Marisa, 16)

61. The motivational value of tasks
Have you found a way to study difficult topics
or carry out boring tasks?
Yes, I’ve found a way to study which is
easier and fun: studying with friends
- because if we study like that it’s fun
and often, afterwards, during the
class test we remember something
funny we said and thanks to that we
remember things.
(Simone, 16)

62. The motivational value of tasks
Have you found a way to study difficult topics
or carry out boring tasks?
I read a text several times and
then make a summary at the side
for almost every point. It’s a hell
of a job and doesn’t lead me
anywhere. But I have to do it …
(Giuseppe, 14)

63. “Knowing what to do when
you don’t know what to do”

64. Self-regulation to
sustain motivation
plan
monitor
evaluate

65. task promotes strategies are
the use of monitored and
strategies evaluated
strategic
self-regulation
experience of success success is
creates positive attributed to
expectations towards effort,
oneself (self-esteem) commitment and
and future tasks appropriate
(self-efficacy) strategies

66. Now I know the rules
of the game. I can
try hard, play better
and maybe win.

67. Learning Paths
Tante Vie Per Imparare
www.learningpaths.org/motivazione
luciano.mariani@iol.it