Fm1 booklet1

AS Film Studies FM1 EXPLORING FILM FORM
1 | Blackpool Sixth Form
1
AS Film
Studies
FM: Exploring Film Form
Understanding Film
Language

What is film language?
In his 1948 essay, ‘The birth of a new avant-garde: le camera-stylo’, the
French film critic Alexandre Astruc wrote:
The cinema is quite simply becoming a means of expression, just
as all the arts have been before it, and in particular painting and the
novel. After having been successfully a fairground attraction, an
amusement analogous to boulevard theatre, or a means of
preserving the images of an era, it is gradually becoming a
language. By language, I mean a form in which and by which an
artist can express his thoughts, however abstract they may be, or
translate his obsessions exactly as he does in the contemporary
essay or novel. That is why I would like to call this new age of
cinema the age of camera-stylo.
Whereas he defines it as ‘a means of expression’, we would add to this
definition the following:
• Film language refers to the means by which meaning is created in a
film-to tell a story, create a character and so on.
• This includes dialogue and voiceover, but really focuses on cinematic
aspects such as cinematography, mise-en-scene, editing, sound and
special effects, as well as genre, narrative, representation and the start
system.
• Film language is a system of signs. Audiences use these signs to
construct meaning and this is often in relation to other texts. When we
see a star on screen, we are probably aware of other texts s/he has
been in and this may influence our response to the character.
The study of film requires two approaches:
1. Macro analysis. This focuses primarily on the way film language
works within the film as a whole (narrative/story) or in relation to a
group of films (genre), but also includes such aspects as
representation, country of origin and the star system.
2. Micro analysis. This refers to analysis of the production techniques
used to create meaning in an individual scene-for example,
cinematography, mise-en-scene, editing, sound and SFX
Bear in mind though that a macro analysis cannot function without making
reference to the micro elements. How could we consider a character without
considering the way in which that character is lit and photographed?

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The production processes of filmmaking
Pre-production
This is the first stage in the creation of a film. It all starts with an idea and a
script. This may be a fully developed screenplay or just a basic pitch in which
the writer describes the pitch. The script will influence many of the macro
aspects of film language, such as character, theme, tension etc. However it is
common for scripts to be rewritten, sometimes beyond recognition during pre-
production.
Casting is a critical element of pre-production. The director is one of the first
to be appointed and will have a significant influence over all elements of the
film from then onwards.
Star power is very strong in Hollywood, and this means that the leading actor
is sometimes involved in production. Casting is not just looks or style, but
what audiences may expect from a certain actors. For example, casting
Renee Zellweger as a romantic lead will create a very different meaning from
casting Julia Roberts in the same role.
At this stage, production, set and costume designers will work on the overall
look of the film. Location scouts are employed to find suitable places to shoot
and storyboards are prepared.Special effects work begins including computer
generated images, animatronics, prosthetics etc.
Production
Under the guidance of the director the actors perform their roles for the
camera. The director of photography (DP), or cinematographer, is one of the
most important people at this stage. In consultation with the director, s/he sets
up camera movement, instructs the lighting crew and composes the shots we
eventually see.
Some special effects are constructed and performed at this stage.
Pyrotechnics and stunts are filmed on set. Chroma key sequences
(green/blue screen) are shot in special studios.
Post production
At this point, editing and sound become the main focus. The editor cuts the
filmed footage into a meaningful sequence. The language of film is composed
of many elements and editing is one of the most important. Think of
cinematography as making the visual equivalent of words; film editing
arranges these words into sentences, paragraphs and chapters.

Sound is also managed at this stage. The key players are sound designers,
Foley artists (who create sounds using objects and items to mimic a sound
effect) and composers to create the soundtrack or score. Apart from dialogue,
almost all sounds are created and added during post-production. Remember
that every sound in a film is a decision, a message to the audience.
This is also the time when the final elements of special effects are created.
Animated sequences are mixed with live action.
The following are all credits you might see at the end of a film. Decide
whether they are jobs in pre-production, production and/or post-
production. Then try to explain what the job is.
Job Pre-
produ
ction
Produ
ction
Post-
produ
ction
Role
Producer Finding money to make the film
Director
Writer
Art director
Composer
Gaffer
Grip
Editor
Foley artist
Continuity
Storyboard artist
Casting
Location scout
Assistant director
Second unit
Hairdresser
Makeup artist
Technical advisor
Cinematographer
Sound
Sound editor

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MACRO ANALYSIS
Film genre
A genre is a type of film (eg horror, war, romantic comedy and, arguably film
noir), but is also a system of signs used by producers, filmmakers, and
audiences to make meaning. A specific genre can be defined by typical plots,
characters, themes and cinematic techniques. The plot of a romantic comedy,
for example, usually involves a man and a woman overcoming a series of
obstacles before they get together at the end. More often than not, a horror
film is characterised by low lighting, dramatic music and a monster.
Genres exist in the film industry for a number of reasons:
• In the past, producers have capitalised on successful formulas by
repeating them in a slightly different format.
• Producers are able to identify and target specific audiences
• Genre films are economically efficient. Sets, costumes and props can
be used again; camera crews get used to filming certain set sequences
(eg car chases in action movies); some stars stay within a particular
genre and fit certain characteristics of, say heroes and villains.
• Audiences are more likely to pay money to see a film if they know what
to expect. Consequently, marketing films will often emphasise generic
elements.
• Genre provides a framework which a director or writer can express
his/her individual style and themes.
• It is also a way for audiences to differentiate between films.
Repetition and difference in film genres
As you will be aware, film producers re-use successful formulas, but with
variations so the audience don’t get bored. On the one hand, audiences enjoy
familiarity of genre films. On the other, much of the pleasure of watching a
genre film is in its variation from what is considered by the audience as the
norm. Indeed a director with a distinct visual style (an auteur) might use the
genre as a vehicle for self expression.
As a result, the conventions of genre are not fixed, but evolve over time,
usually in line with changing audience expectations and attitudes.

Write down the last film you saw and its genre. In the first column, make
a list of the conventions of the genre. What conventions were repeated
from other films in the genre? What was different?
Film: Genre:
Conventions of the genre Repetition Differences
1. In your opinion, was it a good film? Explain your answer. Was
your response to the film (positive or negative) related to its
genre?
2. Will your experience of the film affect your decision to go and see
another like it?
3. What led you to see the film in the first place?

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Iconography in film genre
It is through repetition that a genre develops its iconography. Iconography
refers to recurring symbolic images that carry meaning. The term normally
refers to objects and settings (eg in Westerns, the six-shooter, the horse, the
saloon bar etc.) but can also be the physical attributes of an actor or star (eg
Arnold Schwarzenegger’s muscles in the action genre). All genres depend on
the audience making certain associations with images.
Through iconography then, information is passed on quickly to the audience in
order to communicate aspects of character or setting. If an icon is overused,
however, it will become a cliché and lose its power.
Working in pairs, make a list of the iconography typically found in
science-fiction cinema as well as what it may mean to an audience.
Icon Meaning
Character types in film genre
A genre film also uses stock characters or types that fit into plot formulas. The
action-adventure film, for example, will probably include a hero, a sidekick and
a villain. The male female romantic leads in rom-coms usually have less
attractive best friends. Within genres, character types have become an
accepted part of film language, and these types can be used by a filmmaker
to establish a role quickly within the short amount of screen time available.
However, when this character becomes a fixed mental picture of a particular
social group, it becomes a stereotype.
Stereotypes have the potential to reinforce negative messages about a social
group or minority to a mass audience. The romance in romantic comedies is
nearly always heterosexual, and the representation of black people in early

Hollywood was wither servile (eg a maid) or comic.
Film has the power to challenge stereotypes by presenting a particular social
group in a more positive or complex way.
Stars
Star images are another convention associated with character that can be
used by filmmakers. Audiences can also use stars as a way of establishing
roles within a film. Eddie Murphy for example is often characterised as the
street-wise, wise-cracking comedic-hero. The star will also feature heavily in
marketing a film.
Themes
As well as plot or character, a genre might also be defined by its themes. The
gangster genre for example, explores themes such as crime and loyalty.
Science-fiction is often concerned with the relationship between human
beings and technology.
Hybrid genres
Finally, whereas genres evolved as a way of targeting particular audiences,
hybrid genres evolved as way of capturing a wider audience. A film that brings
together more than one genre will widen its appeal, for example, Bad Boys as
an action-comedy which will attract audiences from both genres.
Genre hybridisation has become an important element in trying to ensure that
Hollywood movies reach the largest possible audience.
Film narrative
Theorist Tzvetan Todorov’ idea of narrative has been attractive to film
academics. He suggests that there are three fundamental stages in every
narrative:
1. The story begins with equilibrium (the world in a state of balance and
harmony)
2. It then progresses through a period of disequilibrium (the world is
temporarily disrupted and chaotic)…
3. …before reaching the third and final stage of a new equilibrium
The classic narrative
A more useful narrative is one linked more explicitly to Hollywood film-the
classic narrative. Although it is largely a convention developed during the
Hollywood studio system (1930’s-1950’s), Todorov’s three stages are a key
feature. It should be emphasised however that it is still a term used by
academics and not people working in the industry.
The key features are as follows:
• The world portrayed is similar to our own in some way.
• The story begins in a state of equilibrium; a state of disequilibrium is
created, until a final new equilibrium is established. These are
sometimes referred to as ‘the three acts’.
• Events are organised into a cause and effect relationship.
• Events are caused by characters.
• There is a strong sense of narrative closure at the end.

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Diegesis
Diegesis comes from the Greek word meaning ‘recounted story’. In most film
narratives, the world of the story is presented to us as a self-contained reality.
Characters in this world do not acknowledge the presence of a watching
audience. This world is known as a diegetic reality. As an audience there are
some breaks with diegesis that we have grown accustomed to, and we accept
these without feeling that the realism of the film has been compromised. The
most important of these are non-diegetic sounds, especially soundtrack music
or voiceover.
Time
The two most common aspects to consider are the order of events and
duration. In a classic narrative, the order of event is usually linear or
chronological, but a film might also use flashbacks to piece together the story.
The duration of events in the film itself are also important. The passing of time
can be conveyed to an audience through codes which we have come to
accept such as different light levels (night/day), meals (breakfast, lunch,
dinner) or even costume (pyjamas, work clothes, evening dress etc.).
Alternatively, the passing of longer periods of time might be signalled by
calendars or changes in the seasons; or longer still, the aging of the
characters body.
Watch the opening 10 minutes of: ……………………………
1. What do we learn of the films plot?
2. Can we apply the classic ‘Hollywood narrative’ to this film? Can we
apply Todorov’s? Provide a breakdown for each.
3. What methods are employed by the filmmaker tomake clear the films
plot? Eg. Dialogue, visual references, actions, stereotypes, casting etc.
4. How might the film resolve itself? What does this tell us about the
relationships between audience and genre?

MICRO ANALYSIS
Compared with analysis of genre and narrative, micro analysis requires more
reference to the technical elements of film production. We must still, however,
emphasise the meaning behind each aspect. The aspects we will be studying
are:
• Mise-en-scene
• Performance
• Cinematography
• Editing
• Sound
The language of film produces three types of response in the audience.
1. Film language may point the audience to a specific meaning.
It is useful to think about film techniques as a language used to communicate
meaning. For example, a point of view shot tells us that we are looking
through the eyes of someone in the film. Another example might be a
character screaming in response to a sudden action: we know they are
supposed to be surprised but the meaning here might be amplified by the use
of a sudden edit. This sort of film language can be described as the
denotative.
2. Film language may produce an atmospheric or emotional effect
These are more complex messages, and can be described as connotative.
Usually, the filmmaker is trying to direct us towards a particular interpretation,
or a preferred reading. For example, if a shootout sequence is shown using
flashy music and a fast editing style, it could be exciting for an audience. If,
however, the same sequence was shown but with sad music, slow motion and
gory detail, it could be a distressing, even disturbing experience.
3. Film language may trigger a range of more subjective and
connotative reactions.
Again, the filmmaker will attempt to anchor preferred readings and
connotations. However, there is more likely to be room for individual response
by the spectator. For example, a foreign genre film may be viewed and
enjoyed as just that, but some audiences may recognise ideas and messages
that deal with, say, political or social problems specific to that country.

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Mise-en-scene
Mise-en-scene roughly translated from the French means ‘put in the scene’.
The most obvious aspects are those elements of visual presentation which
are organised before filming can take place: the pre-production work of art
direction, set design, casting, costume and props.
The most common purpose is to create realism with regard to time and place.
If the audience are to believe that they are looking at San Francisco in the
year 2056, London 1872, or Middle-Earth in the Third Age, the mise-en-scene
should construct this. Genre is also frequently reinforced by mise-en-scene.
This is most obvious in genres like the Western, historical drama or Science
Fiction, where a world is created that is very different from that inhabited by
the audience.
Having established the broad messages, an analysis of mise-en-scene can
then be refined to consider more specific meanings. Casting decisions, the
costuming of actors, surrounding details can all communicate a range of
messages to the spectator.
Cinematography
The word cinematography literally means ‘drawing movement’. This element
of film production is arranged between the director and the cinematographer –
often called the director of cinematography, DP or DoP. Some directors,
notably Tim Burton and Ridley Scott, take more control than others over the
photography, and many directors work repeatedly with the same
cinematographers.
Film stock
The starting point for determining the look of the finished film is the stock it is
shot on. There is a range of film widths, from 8mm through to 70mm, with
35mm being the most common in professional use. Generally, the wider the
filmstrip the higher the quality and the larger it can be projected. However the
width is only one of the many factors affecting the look of the projected image.
Different brands produce different ranges of colours. Lab processing can
modify this further: washing out some colours, intensifying others. Some film
appears grainy and gritty; some appears smoother and softer. Moreover, a
significant proportion of film now is not film at all but digital video, which is
then processed electronically to create the look and feel of a particular film
stock.
To address this analytically, we need to ask ourselves ‘does the quality of the
film itself construct a message? If it grainy and harsh, what does this say
about the story we are being told? Sometime film stock can serve particular
narrative purposes, for example switching in the appearance of film stock

(high/low resolution, colour/black and white) to help the audience distinguish
between past, present and future.
Lighting
Film lighting creates the mood and emphasises the key elements of the mise-
en-scene. It turns cardboard sets and plastic props into a convincing three
dimensional reality, often without drawing attention to itself. Usually, like film
music, lighting creates its effects without the audience noticing; sometimes,
like film music it becomes a dominating presence with visible shafts of light
and dark shadows.
In Hollywood, the three-point lighting system is favoured. This is based on the
idea that the figure should usually be lit from three directions:
• The key light – the main light source, creating the strongest sense of
the direction of lighting
• The fill light – softens the effect of the key light and reduces shadows
• The backlight – helps to make the subject distinct from the
background
The main purpose of Hollywood lighting is to focus our attention on important
figures and to remove distracting shadows. Every new angle requires the
repositioning of studio lights.
Questions to ask about lighting:
1. What does the lighting reveal? What does it hide?
2. What does it emphasise? What does it reduce in importance?
3. Does the lighting create contrasts between particular elements of the
mise-en-scene?
4. Does it create a mood?
Here are some more technical questions:
5. Does the lighting appear to be ambient or artificial?
6. If artificial, does the light appear to be inside or outside the frame?
7. Is there strong use of attached or detached shadow (ie we do not see
the figure, only the shadow)
Framing and composition
Framing suggests the placing of a frame around an image, cropping away
elements that are off-screen and creating compositional relationships between
the objects within the frame. As such, it should be regarded alongside mise-
en-scene.
We should ask: what is big? What is small? What colours dominate?

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Camera shot definitions
o Extreme Wide Shot (EWS) The view is so far from the subject that she isn't
even visible. This is often used as an establishing shot.
o Very Wide Shot (VWS) The subject is visible (barely), but the emphasis is
still on placing her in her environment.
o Wide Shot (WS) The subject takes up the full frame, or at least as much as
possible. The same as a long shot.
o Mid Shot (MS) Shows some part of the subject in more detail whilst still
giving an impression of the whole subject.
o Close Up (CU) A certain feature or part of the subject takes up the whole
frame.
o Extreme Close Up (ECU) The ECU gets right in and shows extreme detail.
o Cutaway (CA) A shot of something other than the current action.
o Cut-In (CI) Shows some part of the subject in detail.
o Two Shot A comfortable shot of two people, framed similarly to a mid shot.
o Over the Shoulder Shot (OSS) Looking from behind a person at the subject,
cutting off the frame just behind the ear. The person facing the subject should
occupy about 1/3 of the frame. This shot helps to establish the positions of
each person, and get the feel of looking at one person from the other's point
of view.
o Noddy Shot Common in interviews, this is a shot of the person listening and
reacting to the subject. In fact, when shooting interviews with one camera,
the usual routine is to shoot the subject (using OSS and one-shots) for the
entire interview, then shoot some noddies of the interviewer once the
interview is finished. The noddies are edited into the interview later.
o Point-of-View Shot (POV) Shows a view from the subject's perspective. This
shot is usually edited in such a way that it is obvious whose POV it is (see the
example below).
Camera movement
o Tracking Shot The camera is mounted on a cart which travels along tracks
for a very smooth movement. Also known as a tracking shot or trucking shot.
o Camera Pan Horizontal panning, left and right. The camera remains on its
axis (e.g tripod)
o Camera Tilt Vertical movement of the camera angle, i.e. pointing the camera
up and down (as opposed to moving the whole camera up and down).
Camera angles
o High Angle A high angle shows the subject from above, i.e. the camera is
angled down towards the subject. This has the effect of diminishing the
subject, making them appear less powerful, less significant or even
submissive.
o Low Angle This shows the subject from below, giving them the impression of
being more powerful or dominant.
o Bird's Eye The scene is shown from directly above. This is a completely
different and somewhat unnatural point of view which can be used for
dramatic effect or for showing a different spatial perspective.

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Aspect ratio
The most basic element of framing is the shape of the screen onto which the
film is projected. With the development of widescreen TVs and home cinema,
aspect ratios are equally as important outside of the cinema. What follows is a
definition of the most common variants:
• Academy (4:3) This is the aspect ration used in almost every film
made before the 1950s. Until relatively recently it was also the shape of
every TV set and computer screen in the world.
• European widescreen (1.66:1) This ratio has been used for a large
number of European movies, as well as much of Stanley Kubrick’s
output.
• American widescreen (16:9 or 1.85:1) This is now the most common
ratio for American films. It is also the shape of ‘widescreen’ TV’s.
• Scope anamorphic (2.35:1 and others) They tend to be used for
large-scale, epic productions such as the Lord of the Rings movies.
Focus and depth of field
Cameras can be equipped with lenses of various focal lengths, and this gives
the filmmaker control over what is or is not in focus at any time.
• Deep focus is used when the detail of an entire scene needs to be
shown. It means that everything that is visible, near to and far from the
camera, is in focus.
• Selective focus simplifies the image. It reduces the importance of
certain elements within the frame by showing them blurred.
• Pulling focus changes the subject of selective focus.
Camera movement
The main purposes for moving a camera while film are:
1. To reframe a scene
2. To reveal new aspects of the mise-en-scene
3. To create kinetic energy
4. To follow a character or object in motion
5. To show the perspective of a character or object in motion
Compare the two sequences Lord of the Rings: the Fellowship of the
Ring and American Beauty Sam Mendes, 1999. They both use 2.35:1
scope anamorphic aspect ratios but to a much different effect. Make
notes on both and record the intended effect on the audience. Were they
successful in achieving this? Were there other elements in the frame
which help audiences understand the intended meaning?
Lord of the Rings American Beauty

Editing
Mise-en-scene and cinematography are concerned with the organisation of
space. Editing is the organisation of time. The editor’s principal job is to make
decisions concerning what we look at, and how long it is before we look at
something else.
In most films, the primary purpose of editing is to create continuity-that is, a
sense that the film makes logical sense in terms of immediate cause and
effect, and is consistent in its presentation of the world. It is through continuity
that the audience can believe in, and make sense of, the narrative.
Transitions: the way in which shots are linked together.
o Cut: an abrupt switch from shot A to shot B
o Dissolve: Shot B begins to appear as Shot A fades away
o Fade: Shot A fades to black (or less usually to white) before shot B
appears
o Wipe: One shot is replaced by another which appears to travel across
the screen.
o Iris: the use of a steadily diminishing circle to end a shot, or a widening
one to open another.
Graphical match: scenes are linked by their visual resemblance, as in the cut
from a tumbling bone to a tumbling spaceship in 2001: A Space Odyssey
Action Match: either an action commenced in shot A is completed in shot B,
or an action in shot A is mirrored by an action in shot B, for example when we
cut from character A in location A reading a letter to character B in location B
reading the same letter.
Eyeline match: shots are matched by the linkage from the gaze of one
character towards another character. If character A looks down to see
character B, character B will look up to see character A.
Sound match: either a sound begun in shot A continues in shot B, or a sound
in shot A is matched by another, similar but different sound in shot B (for
example a scream cuts to a train whistle).
Point of View Shot: shot that represents the point of view of a character.
Reverse Motion: action that appears backwards.
Cross Cutting/parallel action: a way of manipulating time where we cut
between two different storylines running simultaneously.

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Watch the extract from Run, Lola, Run Tom Tykwer, 1998, Run and make
notes on which of the above editing techniques are used. Then, justify
there use by noting the intentions of the film maker.
Edit Intended effect

The main functions of editing are as follows:
Present events in the correct order
Usually this is normal chronology – time moves forward from the beginning to
the end. However, there may be disturbances to the flow of time, such as
flashbacks.
Create relationships in action
Within a single scene, it is important to connect actions together for
storytelling purposes. For example, if two characters are walking towards
each other, one must move from left to right in shot A, the other must move
from right to left in shot be.
Identify and maintain spatial relationships
The audience needs a confident sense of where they are and where things
within the mise-en-scene stand in relation to each other. An establishing shot
or master shot would help here so that the shot can be returned to throughout
a scene so that the audience are reminded where characters stand in relation
to each other.
Sustain continuity
Continuity editing is a method used in most feature films. It is designed so that
audience do not notice the cut and therefore can escape easily into the film
‘world’ or diegetic reality of the film. The most simple of these would be an
action match edit which would simply mean that an action started in shot A
(eg a gun firing) would continue into shot B (impact of bullet). This is
sometimes called ‘invisible editing’.
One other important rule in continuity editing is the 180 degree rule. You
should never cut from one side of an imaginary 180 degree line to the other,
as this creates confusion about screen direction. The best explanation of this
rule is that football matches are always filmed from only one side of the pitch
because otherwise it would look to the viewer as if the teams kept switching
ends.
Identify important lapses of time; conceal unimportant ones
When we cut to a new location, we require signals to tell us whether or not we
are seeing continuous or discontinuous events. Editing can point up those
moments in a film when there is a significant shift in time. Usually this would
be achieved through contrasts, such as daylight followed by night, a change
of location, the introduction of a different musical theme, a long take on the
establishing shot at the beginning of a new location, or the closing shot at the
end of the old location.

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Questions for editing
• Rhythm and pace
How do the frequency and timing of cuts fit the mood and purposes of the
scene?
How are editing and sound integrated?
• Juxtaposition (opposing images placed together)
Editing is the placing of one thing next to another in time. Do the images
juxtaposed contrast or complement each other?
Sound and sound editing
It is useful to begin by classifying sound into different types. The following four
categories can be used to describe all the types of sounds we are likely to
encounter during a film:
1. Diegetic sound: This arises directly from the world of the story. Its
source may be on or off screen. A character on screen speaks, we
hear words; a gun is fired in the next room, we hear a bang; horses are
approaching, we hear hooves; a radio is playing, we hear music.
2. Non-diegetic sound: We hear this, but it is not produced by anything in
the world of the story. The two commonest forms of non-diegetic sound
are musical score and voiceover.
3. Synchronous sound: This is diegetic sound produced in the scene we
are currently viewing – ie it is synchronised in time with the visuals. It
may come from an on screen or off screen source, but it is within
realistic hearing range.
4. Asynchronous sound: This is any sound not produced by the scene we
are watching – ie it is not synchronised in time with the visuals. Here
are two common uses for asynchronous sound:
• Bridging a cut: we hear the next scene moments before we
see it in order to prevent the transition from jarring. This is
called a sound bridge.
• Creating a meaningful juxtaposition of images and sound
Sound is manipulated a great deal during post-production. Actors may need to
lip-synch (ie perform their lines again in a dubbing studio, matching their on
screen lip movements) because of problems with the original sound. The
noise made by on screen action, which for various technical reasons often
cannot be recorded live, has to be created using sound effects libraries and
foley artists. Foley is one of the strangest, most important,

jobs in film production. In a room filled with miscellaneous pieces of junk, the
foley artist makes sounds by hitting things, shaking thinks, rubbing things
together and so on. These noises are used when constructing the
soundscape of the film.
Sometimes, sound is essential to the creation of realism or sense of place. A
scene shot in an inland town can be made to seem coastal by the addition of
seagull cries. Some sounds need to be emphasised for atmospheric
purposes: the creak of a floorboard or the engines of a passing aeroplane, for
example.
Frequently, the emotional impact of a sequence is dependent to an enormous
degree on the juxtaposition of image and sound, especially soundtrack music.
Questions for analysing sound
• Does the music include a recognisable tune or song? What message
does this convey in relation to the images?
• Could you describe the music as having a recognisable style (eg
military rhythm)?
• Is the music typical of the films genre?
• Can you recognise elements of the instrumentation (eg electronic
instrument)?
• What tonal range dominates the arrangement (bass, midrange or
treble)?
• Are contrasts between sound and silence used?
• How does diegetic background sound increase the audience’s sense of
realism?
• Is diegetic sound used to increase the effect of any action (emphatic
sound)?
• Are there sound bridges or other uses of asynchronous diegetic
sound?
• Is there any asynchronous non-diegetic sound, other than music (eg
voice over)?
• What are the effects of all of the above?

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