1. Philosophical Review
Aesthetic Imitation and Imitators in Aristotle
Author(s): Katherine E. Gilbert
Reviewed work(s):
Source: The Philosophical Review, Vol. 45, No. 6 (Nov., 1936), pp. 558-573
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2. AESTHETIC IMITATION AND IMITATORS IN
ARISTOTLE
J Aristotlehad leftus a listof classes of humanbeingsin order
F
of excellence,as Plato did in the Phcedrusl he would appar-
ently have placed poetsand imitators or near thefirst
in class along
with philosophers, musicians, and lovers,and not as Plato did, in
the sixth class, below tradesmenand gymnasts.But if he had
done thisit would have been because the Plato of the Symposium
had suggestedto him how he mightrefutetheapparentargument
and pessimisticmood of Republic X. Aristotlehas left no ex-
plicitanalysisof thetermimitation applied to fine
as art,but there
is abundantmaterialin his works for the construction an hy-
of
pothesis as to its meaning.And when that conceptionhas been
builtup, it is striking note thatthe imitative
to artistshares with
thephilosopher love of learning and concernwithuniversalforms,
with the lover a tendency toward divine madness,and with the
musicianfondness harmony
for and rhythm, powerto depictchar-
acter,and moral efficacy. Clearlythe strainof aestheticreflection
which Aristotlecarried forwardfromPlato was not the one in
which paintingsand dramas are describedas pale and inertre-
plicas of substantialrealities, but ratherthe one-much modified,
secularized,and broughtdown to earth-in which the love of
True Essence increasingly inspires makers of fair forms who
more and morein theirupward progresscreatemovingimagesof
eternity.
The mostdamagingassociationattaching theword 'imitation'
to
is that of its parasitic status. Plato was often troubledby this
weakness of imitative it
art.2An imitation, seemedto him,is no-
thingin and by itself; taken apart fromits original,it collapses.
And beingnothing, can do nothing. lacks substance,function,
it It
utility.Rational esteem obviouslybelongs to such being as can
initiateprocesses,and needs nothingfor its existenceand activity
beyondwhat it can furnish fromitself.If drama mustbe defined
as second or third-hand process,blindmimickry, if paintings
and
are littleelse thaninertmirrorings somemoreauthentic
of reality,
1248 2'Typical passagesare Ion 533; Rep. 596; Sophist234.
558

3. AESTHETIC IMITATION IN ARISTOTLE 559
thenclearlydrama and paintingdeserve to be stigmatized sla- as
vish whilethe originalpattern may be honoredas royaland excel-
lent.This damagingassociationdoes not attach to the word 'imi-
tation' for Aristotle.For him the individuality an imitative
of
art-form could be distinguished analysisintoits variousaspects
by
as any otherkind of naturecould. He proceededwithas littlein-
hibitionto the statement the functions poetryas of virtue,
of of
and a soul was ascribedto tragicsubstanceas to the livingperson.
Indeed, Aristotleso construedimitativeart that an example of
it could containmore essence than its apparent original-men's
actions and passions in real life.
The first reason that imitative ranks high for Aristotleis
art
that it participatesin the productivepower of art as such. The
energy involvedin theveryconceptof the genus qualifiesforhim
those arts devised to give pleasure and ornamentleisure as well
as the utilitarian arts. Plato had alreadydefined as production
art
accordingto rightreason,and had even classed a certaintypeof
artist withthephilosophers thefirst
in group.But whenPlato used
the term'art' in this complimentary sense he meant the employ-
mentof order for the understanding controlof nature,as in
and
the arts of the physician,statesman,and pilot. The absence of
'art' in this sense is often assigned by him as the most obvious
characteristic the pleasure-producing
of activities-fluteand lyre-
playing,tragedyand comedy, and persuasivespeech. By the true
'art' of building, says, we construct house,but by thedream-
he a
likegraphicartswe sketch a replicaof it.3Aristotle, theother
in on
hand, was disposed to assign to the pleasure-producing speciesof
art all the wisdom and potencycharacteristic the genus. The
of
logical way to begin understanding Aristotle'sgolden opinion of
his
'poets and imitators' thento examinefurther generalconcept
is
of art.
Nature and art, Aristotlesays, are the two initiating forcesin
the world. The difference thatnaturehas her principle mo-
is of
tion withinherself,while "fromart proceed the thingsof which
the formis in the soul of the artist". But if the dynamicprin-
ciple inheresin natureand not in art,at least art is in this respect
of bringing thingsintobeing nature's closest analogue. Although
' Sophist266. 4 Met. io32a.

4. 560 THE PHILOSOPHICAL REVIEW [VOL. XLV.
-as will be more fullydevelopedlater-the relationship between
art and reason is close, the firstidea suggestedby the term'art'
to Aristotleis productiveforce.And this applies to all typesof
art from the doctor's curing of bodies throughthe architect's
building houses to thepoet's and musician'sproduction pleas-
of of
ure. "All art is concernedwith coming-into-being, with con-
i.e.,
trivingand considering how something may come into being."'
Art has to do with the making of thingsmade.6 The arts are
among the principlesor sources of motionand change.7As na-
ture was primarilyfor Aristotlenot a sum of entities,such as
stones,plants,and animals,but Natura Naturans,the vital proc-
ess workingits way out into and up through these entities,the
developingand reproducing, coming-to-be and passing-awayof
things,so art was for him a doing and shaping,a movement set
up in some mediumby the soul and hand of the artist.This being
Aristotle'sview of art in general,it is not surprising find'fine
to
art' forhim,not a sum of art-objects lyinginertin a museum, but
patternedenergy.His approachto art was, if possible,even more
the physiologist's than the anatomist's,for, although he draws
in detailthe bonyframework a tragedy
of and always emphasizes
the importance the schemaof beautifulthings, is stillmore
of he
concernedwiththe functions beautifulbodies. In the first
of sen-
tence of the Poetics he serves notice that he is stickingto the
etymological meaningof his subject (poetry-making)by stating
that he is concernedwith the specificdynamicsof each kind of
poetry.Concerning music we are told that it is made out of mo-
tion, has an affinity activity,8 performsfour functions.9
for and
He tellsus how forceentersintopoems,plays through them,and
issues out of them. Charged fromwithoutat the beginningby
the potencyof genius,poems and melodies and harmonieswork
out theirmission,so to speak,by purging, relaxing,elevating, and
straightening human souls.
Art, then, is human making in the image of divine making,
forart emulatesthe energetic processesof nature,and God is the
Prime Mover of nature.Though less in degree,Phidias's wisdom
is parallel to the wisdom of the philosopherwhose concern is
5Eth. Nic. II4oa. 6Met. I025b.
Ibid. IOI3a. Prob. 920a.
9Pol. I339a; 4oab; 4ia.

5. No. 6.] AESTHETIC IMITATION IN ARISTOTLE 56i
withthe divineultimate principle theuniverse,
of and whoseways
are themselves godlike.'0Nature furnishes law by whicha man
the
begetshis child,but an architect draws houses out of stoneson an
analogous plan." How thendoes God make? Accordingto a con-
stantlyrepeated patterntaken finallyfrom biological process-
the development formout of matter, the maturation the
of or of
completeindividualout of the shapelessgerm.Aristotlecompares
'form'or 'fulfilment' being awake, and 'matter'or 'potentiality'
to
to beingasleep. Or actuallyperforming act is 'form'and merely
an
being able to perform act is 'matter'.12
the Nature works thenby
urgingall thingsto realize theircapacitiesto the full,and the soul
of the artistplantsthatsame drive toward self-completion within
some 'matter'.A bronze bowl issues fromthe metal on the same
essentialplan as the oak grows fromthe acorn.
The productive energythatanimatesall art will thus save even
art
imitative frombeingmere lifelesscopying.The second reason
why imitativeart ranks high for Aristotleis that the relation-
ship of resemblance involvedin imitation does not for him imply
the monotony bare repetition.
of Althoughhe teaches that it is
the business of fineart to imitatethe passions and actions and
charactersof men, the resemblance not to be limp and blood-
is
less. Artisticimitationis for him invention.The poet's power
of imitating what entitles
is him to be called a 'maker',Aristotle
says.13Surely in some sense when imitation occurs, 'like meets
like'. But Aristotleis carefulto explain thatwhen like meetslike
in any significant fashionin the universeof nature or art we do
not have the phenomenon identicaltwins. After noticingthat
of
the most striking characterof a civic community the creation
is
of concordthrough cohabitation oppositeclasses of people,
the of
richand poor,youngand old, theAristotelian authorof De Mundo
proceedsto generalize.
It may perhapsbe thatnaturehas a likingfor contrariesand evolves
harmony of themand notout of similarities.... The artsapparent-
out
ly imitatenaturein thisrespect.
The art of painting mingling the
by in
picture the elementsof white and black, yellow and red, achieves
representationswhich correspondto the originalobject. Music too,
mingling togethernotes,highand low, shortand prolonged,attainsto
?EtIid. o48 I, a. " Met. I034a.
"Ibid. I 048a, b. " Poet. I45ib.

6. 562 THE PHILOSOPHICAL REVIEW [VOL. XLV.
harmony different
a single amid voices;while writing,mingling vowels
and consonants, composes them its art.The saying
of all foundin
Heracleitus obscure tothesameeffect:
the was "Junctions wholes
are:
and notwholes, which
that agreesand that which differs, which
that
produces harmony that
and which produces from youget
discord; all
oneandfrom yougetall".
one
Thusthen single
a harmony orders composition thewhole-
the of
heaven earth thewhole
and and Universe-by mingling themost
the of
contrary principles. . forcing
. them live in agreement one
to with
another the universe, thuscontriving permanence the
in and the of
The
whole. causeof this permanencetheagreement theelements,
is of
andthereason this
of agreementtheir
is equalproportion."
In a similarvein Aristotleargues thatthe coming-to-be things
of
involvesthe interaction differents much as the assimilation
of as
of like to like. "It is a law of naturethatbody is affected body,
by
flavorby flavor, color by color." Yet if the termswere absolute-
a
ly alike no affecting could occur; nothingwould happen. The
agent and patientin the process of growth mustbe alike in genus
and unlikein species. Withinthe commonsubstratum drivingthe
force for change comes fromthe tensionof opposite principles,
one operating,the other undergoingan operation.',
A second damagingassociationof the term'imitation'is thus
seen to be absent in Aristotle'susage. The conditionfavorable
to creativeactivity throughout cosmosis notbare like to like-
the
futilerepetition-butthemutualadaptation contrary
of principles.
New livingcreaturescan only be born when male meets female
and not whenmale meetsmale, and a similarcondition required
is
for artisticprocreation. rightratio must adapt the two terms
A
to each other, but foractual birthin beautytheremustbe opposite
functioning the two members the coalition.Tragedians have
in of
themselvesan affinity the noble charactersthey depict,and
for
comediansare in some sense like the inferior men of theirplays.
A good portrait imitates man's character
a the
through delineating
of his face. Phrygianmusic is like a Phrygianmood, and Dorian
melodysober like the characterit expresses. But the poems and
melodies and portraitscome into being by the marriageof the
artist'ssoul,whichcarriesin itselfthe formof what is to be, with
some bodily mediumin real life. Thus the makingof beautiful
formsthrough imitation involvespolaritywithinthe resemblance,
14
396b. 1"De Gen. et Cor. 323b,324a.

7. No. 6.] AESTHETIC IMITATION IN ARISTOTLE 563
and is finally varianton the themeof the development form
a of
out of matter."Imitationin the sense in which Aristotleapplies
the word to poetry, . .. seen to be equivalentto producingor
is
'creatingaccordingto a trueidea' whichformspart of the defini-
tionof art in general."'6
In the third place we mightexpect Aristotleto put poetical
imitatorsinto the same high class with philosophersbecause of
his various allusions to the intellectual elementin imitation. He
likens the imitative the intellectual
to process both in its instinc-
tiveoriginand in its fullflowering, one is justified believing
and in
that progressin universality the sign of excellence in fineart
is
as it is explicitly statedto be in intellection.
Aristotlepicturesthat
progressin the development knowledge,
of and we may construct
the parallel forfineart,thus exhibiting kinshipof the two. In
the
the case of knowledgethe simplesense-experience comes first. If
the sensationcan persistor "make a stand", and not be carried
away in a meaninglessflux of animal responses,we have what
Aristotlecalls the presence of the earliest universalin the soul.
But if the sensationdies as soon as it is born,and thereappears
no nisus toward memorynor the accumulationof skill,thenthe
indispensable germof humanknowledgeis lacking.The sensation
must be remembered;the memorymust become meaningfulfor
commonexperience; commonexperiencemustbe rationalizedby
the arts and sciences; the arts and sciencesmustbe integrated by
the all-embracing wisdomof philosophy.17
Althoughthe materialon the development the functionof
of
imitation not massed in one place as is thisdiscussionof growth
is
in knowledge, maybe assembledfromvarious places and is like
it
and in part coincident with the other.Justas human intelligence
does not begin to function untilan elementary power to univer-
salize, to transcend particular
the event,arrivesin the soul, so in
fineart a first is
condition some sort of combination the parts
of
intoa whole."The beautifuldiffer fromthosewho are notbeauti-
ful and works of art fromrealitiesin that in themthe scattered
elementsare combined."'18 to
However, corresponding the sensa-
tionsas pre-logical in
elements knowledge, thereare pre-technical
8 S. H. Butcher,Aristotle's
Theory Poetryand Fine Art I53.
of
7 An. Post. g9b,iooa. 1 Pol. I28ib.

8. 564 THE PHILOSOPHICAL REVIEW [VOL. XLV.
elementswhich antedate artisticcombination but are necessary
to its existence.Such would be the colorsin painting, separate
the
notes of the scale in music,words with theirproperties clear-
of
ness and meaningfulness poetry
in and rhetoric, incidents suffer-
of
ing,of reversalof fortune, discovery, identity,
of of furnished by
the history individualsand nationsand gristfor the tragedian,
of
and the particularthoughts and feelingsof men used as material
by all literarycomposers.
The raw matterof art begins to be organized when reason
combinesthese elementsin certain proportions. The firststand
of a universalin knowledge matched a first
is by standof combina-
tion in art. Such would be the agreeable complementariness of
colors in painting,and the harmonious relations of tones in
music.Otherexamples would be the ornament metaphor
of which
is "a sign of genius, since a good metaphorimpliesan intuitive
of in
perception the similarity dissimilars" the degree of kin-
;19
ship in the parties to a deed of horror; and the directionof a
movement fromhappinessto miseryor miseryto happinessin a
play. These are all simplethreadsof connection withan affective
quality; and theymarkthe first stage of the weaving of elements
into beautifulwholes.
The next step in the growthof knowledgeafter persistence
in memoryis called "learningby experience".A doctor,for in-
stance,has thisgrade of knowledgewhen he can name the nature
of an illness though he does not possess any general scientific
principles concerningit. It is the perceptionwithout rational
of
grounding the totalsignificance a thing.Though experience
of
is less excellentthansciencein respectto theamountof rationality
embodied in it, it sometimessurpasses the higher types in its
immediate utility. doctorwho through
A empirical knack,through
responsivenessto the characterof the disease immediately be-
forehim,can cure this particularsick man,may be betterfor the
momentthan his superiorsin scientific medicine.20 The aesthetic
analogue to this empiricalfacultywould apparently illustrated
be
by the immediateresponsivenessof the soul to the soul-mood
in music. A simple arc of stimulusand response seems to bind
9 Poet. 14-9a. 20 Afet.
98ia.

9. No. 6.] AESTHETIC IMITATION IN ARISTOTLE 565
togetherthe sensitivehearer and the tune. No inferenceis ne-
cessary. The nature of the tune is felt at once. When Aristotle
declares musical modes to be the most imitative all artforms,
of
he means that the resemblance music to moral states is more
of
directthanthe resemblance a pictureor statueto an emotional
of
content."Rhythm and melody supply imitationsof anger and
gentleness, and also of courage and temperance, and of all the
qualitiescontrary these,and of the otherqualitiesof character.
to
Experienceprovesthis.For we experience effect
the upon our soul
of hearingthem."'21"The Hypophrygian mode has a character of
action (hence in the Geryone march-forth armingare com-
the and
posed in thismode) ; and theHypodorianis magnificent stead-
and
fast. . . . The Phrygian is exciting and orgiastic."22 Music's
rendering characteris not as rich in universalsignificance
of as
tragedy'simitation a completeand serious action, for tragedy
of
presentsthe destiniesof a group of humanbeings; but it is more
effortless.There is, as it were, an underground passage connect-
ing the mobileenergyof the soul and the mobileenergyof music
that gives the one quick access to the other.
Aristotle says thatthe aestheticexperienceof enjoyingthe like-
ness in a portrait also on thislevel of learningor experiencing.
is
"The reason of the delightin seeing the pictureis that one is at
the
thesame timelearning-gathering meaning things, of e.g.,that
the man there is so-and-so."23 But the imitation a portraitis
of
not as immediateas the imitation a tune,and the pleasure of
of
is
detecting resemblance therefore,
the perhaps as keen,but cer-
tainlymore roundabout. takingin the whole sense of a picture,
In
to
we do not respondintuitively a stimulus, but we draw an in-
ference,and feel a semblanceof the scholar's delightwhen new
lightbreaksin on themind.For, says Aristotle, while shapes copy
character,they exhibit rather the symptomsor deposits of a
mentalhabit than the mentalhabit itself.24 is the body of man
It
that the portraitmust render,and bodies are molded by passion
but are not the very stuffof passion. The pleasure of learning
occurs in this case when a patternof line or color has achieved
such unitythat we recognizenot only the class of thingintended
21 Pci. I34oa. 22 Prcb. 922b. 23Poet. i448b. 24Poi. I340a.

10. 566 THE PHILOSOPHICAL REVIEW [VOL. XLV.
(man) but the member the class (So-and-so). We enjoy palpa-
of
tingthe essentialsoul beneaththe outwardshow of bodilyfigure.
We have "gatheredthe meaning"in that we have discoveredan
identityof character connectinga flesh-and-blood person and
well-composed pigment.Right use of complementary color helps
representation, Aristotle says. But representation arrives when
the significant object shinesthrough paintor line,and thelogi-
the
cal label of a name can be attachedto the whole. "The mostbeau-
tiful colors laid on withoutorder [that is, withoutcooperation
toward a single end] will not give one the same pleasure as a
singleblack-and-white sketchof a portrait."25
The function imitation
of reaches its goal when it produces a
good tragedy.For while music and painting and sculpture imitate
character, and are meaningful wholes,the "true idea" according
to whichtheyare producedis not as richand strongas the unity
of plot. Degree of universality measureshonorableness Aris-
for
totleboth in knowledgeand in art. Order and symmetry, dis- the
posingof partstoward a singleend, are presentin all imitations;
but the tragicplot,withits greatercompass,shows aesthetic order
at its maximum. Withinits combining forceit holdstogether more
parts and more varied media of representation than other art-
forms.Aristotlecompares the organic unityof a musical mode
to a political community with its ruling and subject part.26 He
mighthave compareda tragedyto an empirewith politicalcom-
munities its members;for melodiesare but parts of plays. Or,
as
since charactersare also but parts of plays,he mighthave com-
pared tragedyto an organismof organisms.
The unityof action in a well-contrived tragedycorresponds to
the full-blown rationality science in the world of intellect.
of In-
deed, Aristotle goes farther, and in one place calls tragedy"philo-
sophical".27 The superiority science (and theart whichis equiv-
of
alent to the scientific controlof nature) over experienceis not
only its generality, stretch
its and compass,but its explanationof
why thingscome to pass. "Knowledge and understanding belong
to art ratherthan experience,and we suppose artiststo be wiser
than men of experience . . .; and this because the former know
the cause, but the latterdo not. For men of experienceknow that
2 Poet. I45oa, b. ' Pol. 1254a. ' Poet. I45ib.

11. No. 6.] AESTHETIC IMITATION IN ARISTOTLE 567
the thingis so, while the othersknow the 'why' and the cause."2 8
Now it is the function a plotto exhibitthe 'why' of humandes-
of
tiny.And the more convincingly causal sequence is given,the
the
betterthe plot. "The only eventsof which absolutenecessitycan
be predicatedare those which formpart of a recurrent series",29
Aristotlesays, and the virtueof a tragedyis for him the exhibi-
tionof miseryor happinessas necessary, something
as thatunder
the circumstances to be, as part of a series whichmight
had recur
because illustrative law. "The poet's functionis to describe,
of
not the thingthat has happened,but a kind of thingthat might
happen,i.e., whatis possibleas beingprobableor necessary. The"30
mostambitious poet will imitate "action" whichis a continuous
an
curve of destinyabsorbingand sweepingforwardby the law of
its movement particular
all eventsand individualpersons, a line
as
resolves points. He will sketch in a systemof men and things
as thepattern theirinteraction
of bringsweal or woe; the diagram
of a king's rise and fall; the bonds that tie men to tragicdeaths.
In thedevelopment the characters
of and speechesof a tragedy the
logic of the necessaryrules over all; marvels,discoveries, rever-
sals, choruses,mustall seem links in the fatefulchain.
Art is always less than philosophyfor Aristotle, but the kind
and amountof unityrequiredby him for a good tragedy (with
its several incidentsso closely connectedthat the transposalor
withdrawal of any one of them will disjoin or dislocate the
whole31) makes it a second and close parallel. All works of art
which have plots or stories for theirsoul are 'livingorganisms',
but the tragedyis more concentrated than the epic, and so is a
superiortype of imitation. The improvisations that were the an-
cestorsof tragedyand comedy, hymns, panegyrics,and lampoons,
of
were imitations characterand passion, and had, so to speak,
amoebic souls, but they grew ratherthan were contrived.The
spiritof reverence of revelryconveyedby themwas scarcely
or
the result of fullyself-conscious art. They were more properly
on the stage of 'experience'.
By thus comparing the artisticfunction imitation the in-
of to
tellectual function-as indeed Aristotle himself justifies us in
M
Met. 98ia. ' W. D. Ross, Aristotle 8i.
soPoet. 145ia. "1Poet. I45ia.

12. 568 THE PHILOSOPHICAL REVIEW [VOL. XLV.
doing-we have watchedthe development theuniversalelement
of
in art froma slighttwo-term relationship its completerealiza-
to
tion in the embodied logic of a tragic plot. For imitation, like
everything in Aristotle, matter
else has and form.32 RepublicX
In
Plato treatsimitation as an expandingbut as a highlydimin-
not
ished function. the 'Idea' passes downwardthroughthe em-
As
ployment the craftsman that of the imitator, progressive-
of to it
ly narrows its compass. A painterof a bed not only copies the
space-and-time bed that some carpenterhas made, but "lightly
touches on a small part even of it", because the paintergives a
special view of the bed, eitheroblique or direct,accordingto the
angleof vision.33 Thus in Plato we have theattenuation a univer-
of
sal in art to the limitof individualvision,while in Aristotlethe
universalis itselfpresentin art, and is called "serious and philo-
sophical".34
If the philosophicalnature of a good tragedy suggests the
rightof imitative to be classifiedwith philosophy
art among the
highesttypesof human product,the connection betweenpleasure
and imitationsuggests an affinity with the true love of beauty
and the music that echoes the orderlymotionsof the stars. For
poets do more than create a perfectwhole accordingto the true
rule that is in theirmind.They make thatrule,that rightreason,
thatphilosophy, attractive.The pleasantness imitative might
of art
be called-adapting a phrase of Aristotle's-the bloom on the
face of reason. Plato had distinguished betweenkindsof pleasure
and had even called the pleasure in abstractmathematical form
"pure".35 But on the whole he placed the pleasuresconnected with
imitations in a relationshipof oppositionto what is excellent.
Doubtlesshis verysensitiveness the charmof poetry
to made him
fear its commonuse as a dangeroussorcery.With Plato, Aris-
totle recognizedthat pleasure is an integralpart of the process
82 It is tempting to thinkthat this schemeof the range of the imitative
function-from potentiality instinct its actuality plot-creation
its in to in
-was at least subconsciously Aristotle's
in mindwhenhe added, afterthe
imitative instinct, secondinstinctive
a cause of poetry "the sense of har-
in
mony and rhythm" (Poet. i448b). For, as we have seen,imitation, properly
nourished, developsintoa prerogative instance harmony.
of And rhythmis
theprinciple order,and the highest
of orderis necessary order.We delight
in rhythm because it regularizes and numbers motion(Prob. 920b). Can it
in
be thatthe two causes of fineart are imitation its mostnaive and in its
perfected phases,its matter and form?
33 Sophist 598. Poet. 145 ib. 3Philebus 5I.

13. No. 6.] AESTHETIC IMITATION IN ARISTOTLE 569
of imitative art. He even called the productionof pleasure the
finalcause or ultimatepurpose of such art.36 But he reexamined
the conceptof pleasure,and on the basis of his findings counted
pleasureableness virtueand not a handicap.Aristotle's
a treatment
of the relationshipbetween fine art and pleasure is, then,the
fourth reason whywe should expecthim to rate poets and imita-
tors in the first class.
ApparentlyAristotle'smost consideredopinion on the nature
of pleasuremade it notan independent class of entities an ac-
but
cent and high lighton the function with which it was associated
and fromwhichit derivedits ethicalrating.37 such,a function
As
couldbe wolfish asinine; thepleasurequalifying performance
or its
could be through legitimate
a metonymy called by the same hard
name.38 But Aristotlethought was a mistaketo judge of pleas-
it
ure in generalby its lowest connections and manifestations. Only
thosewho knowthepleasuresthataccompany purethought theand
listeningto music and the viewing of sculptureknow pleasure
at its best and in its essence.39For pleasureis carriedalong by the
nisus of nature toward the good; just as nature may turn up
"worms and beetles and other ignoble creatures"that belie her
general good intention,40 pleasure, though fundamentally
so the
ally of reason and nobility, may be the gratification accompany-
ing the lowest impulses.In general pleasure is for Aristotlethe
of
symptomof the fulfillment desire, the consciousnessof the
fullnessof life,41 and when these are in accordance with right
reason,thenalso pleasureis in accordancewithright reason.When
he says that the finalcause of tragedyis to produce pleasure he
clearlymeans that a mentalstate is aimed at whichis reasonable
and choiceworthy.
Since pleasures are for Aristotle"peculiar" to the activities
which theyintensify and crown,it is obviouslynecessaryto un-
derstand the actual functionsof imitationsin order to under-
stand theiremotionalcolor. The pleasuresin questionaccompany
processes of repletionand purgation, and also uniform, continu-
ous activity. Art's humblest function to satisfy wantor relieve
is a
a pain, on the analogyof the reliefto hungerfurnished food. by
38Poet.1453b. " Eth.Nic. 1174b.
38 Magna Moralia 12.05b. 3 Eth. Nic. 1176a.
4 Magna Moralia 1205a. 4 Eth. Nic. I I75a.

14. 570 THE PHILOSOPHICAL REVIEW [VOL. XLV.
Sleep, food,drink,and music make "care to cease".42Sicknesses
both of soul and body arise out of excess and defect,and when
a man's energyis depletedby the day's labor,his power may be
restored normalbytheenlivening
to stimulation imitative
of music.
As art may thus fillup the empty places in the soul, and increase
energy, it may clear our souls of unhealthy
so accumulations. The
psycho-physical systemcalls as often for reducingand cathartic
potionsas for nervingtonics.There are certainemotionswhich,
though wholesome properdegree,readilybecomepoisons.There
in
are personswho have smallresistance theseemotions
to and fallill
of themwithgreatease. "Feelings,such as pityand fear,or again,
enthusiasm, exist very strongly some souls, and have more or
in
less influence over all. Some persons fall into a religiousfrenzy,
whomwe see as a resultof the sacred melodies-when theyhave
used the melodiesthat excite the soul to mysticfrenzy-restored
as thoughtheyhad foundhealing and purgation.Those who are
influenced pity and fear-and every emotionalnature-must
by
have a like experience, and othersin so far as each is susceptible
to such emotions, and all are in a mannerpurgedand theirsouls
lightenedand delighted."43 Aristotlecalls the productionof such
a catharsisthe peculiarpleasure of tragedy." It has been argued
that in the missingchapter of the Poetics on comedy the final
purpose of the lightersort of drama may have been given as the
purgation, perhaps of envyand malice,perhaps of impurepleas-
ure."5Not onlymusic,then,but the drama serveshumanity un- by
burdening heavysouls and inducing peculiarpleasureof relief.
the
The pleasure takes the color of the function;but the defini-
tionof the pleasure is not exhaustedby the statement the char-
of
acterof the function. And pleasure'scapacityto exalt the statusof
the imitative arts lies in the something plus thatit carriesbeyond
utility.For if theexcellence of thepleasureof tragedy were noth-
ing more than the virtue of purging,then the tragedianwould
become a physicianof the soul, and we would rank him in the
fourthclass with the otherphysicians.Or, if one thinksof the
relaxingand correcting that music accomplishesas instrumental
to state-education, then the imitatormay be classed with good
4Pci. I339a. 4"Ibid. 1342a. 'Poet. I453b.
4Lane Cooper,An AristotelianTheoryof Comedych. ix.

15. No. 6.] AESTHETIC IMITATION IN ARISTOTLE 571
servantsof the commonweal, perhapsin the thirdclass withthe
politicians,economists, tradesmen.
and But thepleasureis a super-
veningperfection, gives to as muchas it takes fromthe func-
and
tion which it accompanies."For an activityis intensified its by
properpleasure; e.g., it is those who enjoy geometrical thinking
that become geometers and grasp the various propositions better,
and, similarly, those who are fondof music and building, and so
on, make progress in their proper functionby enjoying it."146
The pleasure which is in a sense only the feeling-tone a vital
of
process, in anothersense is beyond-superior to-vital process,
and has the power to turn back upon it and transfigure The it.
great playwright who cures souls throughhis magic is not so-
cially useful; he is glorious.And that is why he belongs in the
highestclass that can be named. And the musicianwho enables
us to spend our leisurein rationalenjoyment not a merebene-
is
factor; he is a genius. For Aristotle,himself, among his various
statementsof the nature of pleasure, declares it to be at its
best,no longerthe handmaidenof function, selfsufficient
but and
completeenergizing. the pleasuresof intellectual
Of and aesthetic
contemplation can be affirmed theylack nothing,
it that thatthey
are fittedto give a godlike contentto that life of leisure for
whichthe life of toil exists.
The fifthand final ground upon which Aristotlewould pre-
in
sumablyhave placed imitators the first class is his interpreta-
tion of their temperament. Poetry, Aristotle says, "demands a
man with a special gift for it", and this gift proves to be the
plasticity typicalof the melancholic. The dramatist must be able
to feelhimselfintothe experiences is portraying. mustnot
he He
onlybe able to see the scenes he is describing if theywere be-
as
fore his very eyes. His body must go throughthe very motions
that the humandrama shapingitselfin his fancyrequires.47 This
is thetypeof personwhose storywill be convincing. mustlive
He
the life of his brainchildren he works.The man withan innate
as
facility takingon shape readilyis theborngenius.
for
It is this euplasticitycharacteristic the "tribe of imitators"
of
which has much to do with Plato's poor opinionof them.These
clever multiform gentlemen could do everything, were noth-
and
'Eth. Nic. II75a. 4"Poet. 1455a, b.

16. 572 THE PHILOSOPHICAL REVIEW [VOL.XLV.
ing. Their magicalassumptions any part,theirfacile apings of
of
gesture, look,and manner, were carriedthrough the expense of
at
unityand consistency character.Plato admired steadfastness
of
of purpose and singleness function;in his ideal state one man
of
played one part only. Thereforethisbewildering chameleon, who
could assimilatehimselfeasily to alien moulds,and neverseemed
to settle himselfto any definableemployment form,hardly
or
the
fitted programof the rightsort of city.He was two removes
fromthe philosopher.
But Aristotle'sphilosopher, thoughdevotedto truth, was none
the less euplastic.To be whollyrationalis to adopt oneselfwith
infinitelygraduated responsiveness the peculiar nature of the
to
members the objectiveworld.As the hand is thetool of tools,48
of
so in the end is the mindthe formof forms.49 The soul in know-
ing mustsomehowbe in essenceall the things knows,just as the
it
in
dramatist engendering play mustbe his dramatispersonae.
his
The giftand greatness bothphilosopher poet is thisimpres-
of and
sionability-one might even say, this actual lack of any inde-
pendentunassimilablesubstance.Aristotlethen interpreted a as
virtuethatwhich struckPlato as the dissipationand prostitution
of power.
Aristotle pressesback thehighgiftsof boththeseclasses of men
to a source in theirbodilymake-up:themelancholic temperament.
The predominanceof the nimble, winelike black bile in their
systemsmakes themexcitable,moody,restlessin sleep, and-with
a tendency towardmentalderangement. who has black bile in
He
proper proportionsin his body is the genius; in extremepro-
portionsis mad. AristotlementionsEmpedocles,Plato, and Soc-
rates, among philosophers,as atrabilious, and "most of the
poets".50
Althoughwithrespectto the statusof imitative artistsAristotle
seems in general to be takingthe opposite position from Plato,
in most cases Aristotle'sthesis is an elaborationof an aspect of
Platonism. In the very Phadrus, in which Plato classes poets
and imitators so humiliating way,he may be said to have an-
in a
ticipatedAristotle'sgrouping theseartistswithphilosophers
of as
4
De. Part. An. 687. 4 De An. 429a. ' Prob. 953a.

17. No. 6.] AESTHETIC IMITATION IN ARISTOTLE 573
melancholics. For the doctrineof divine madness,which "enters
intoa delicateand virginsoul, and thereinspiringfrenzy,awakens
lyricand all othernumbers", muchin common
has withthetheory
of the melancholictemperament set forthby the physician's
as
son. Althoughblack bile is eroticand unbalancingin tendency, it
is for Aristotlethe firethatwarms the genius of all giftedsouls.
Again one part of Platonism seems to have helped Aristotleto
replyto anotherpart.
KATHERINE E. GILBERT
DUKE UNIVERSITY