This document outlines a framework for understanding digital astroturfing. It begins with defining digital astroturfing as manufactured, deceptive, strategic online activity by political actors meant to mimic grassroots activity. It then presents a typology that categorizes different types of digital astroturfing based on the target, initiating actor, and goal. Next, it describes the tools, venues, and actions used in digital astroturfing. The document discusses both restrictive and incentivizing countermeasures and notes the challenges of researching digital astroturfing given its clandestine nature.

1. Digital Astroturfing: Definition, typology,
and countermeasures
Marko Kovic1; Adrian Rauchfleisch2; Marc Sele3
May 11, 2016
ZIPAR
Zurich Institute of Public Affairs Research
1
ZIPAR / marko.kovic@zipar.org
2
ZIPAR; Institute of Mass Communication and Media Research, University of Zurich
3
ZIPAR

2. ZIPAROutline
What I’m about to talk about

3. ZIPAROutline
What I’m about to talk about
We need to get Digital Astroturfing right, conceptually.

4. ZIPAROutline
What I’m about to talk about
We need to get Digital Astroturfing right, conceptually.
Definition

5. ZIPAROutline
What I’m about to talk about
We need to get Digital Astroturfing right, conceptually.
Definition
Typology

6. ZIPAROutline
What I’m about to talk about
We need to get Digital Astroturfing right, conceptually.
Definition
Typology
Repertoires

7. ZIPAROutline
What I’m about to talk about
We need to get Digital Astroturfing right, conceptually.
Definition
Typology
Repertoires
Countermeasures

8. ZIPAROutline
What I’m about to talk about
We need to get Digital Astroturfing right, conceptually.
Definition
Typology
Repertoires
Countermeasures
Research prospects

9. ZIPARIntroduction
We need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing

10. ZIPARIntroduction
We need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing

11. ZIPARIntroduction
We need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing
During his 2012 presidential campaign, Mitt Romney gained
more than 100,000 Twitter followers in a single weekend,
despite averaging only 4,000 new followers a day previously.
(His campaign denied having bought any fakes.)
The Week, «Inside a counterfeit Facebook farm».

12. ZIPARIntroduction
We need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing

13. ZIPARIntroduction
We need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing
In another governor’s race, in Tabasco, Sepúlveda set up fake
Facebook accounts of gay men claiming to back a
conservative Catholic candidate representing the PAN, a
stunt designed to alienate his base.

14. ZIPARIntroduction
We need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing

15. ZIPARIntroduction
We need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing
I found her through the Anonymous International leak,
which included emails she had sent to her bosses, reporting
on the pro-Putin comments she left on sites like The Blaze
and Politico. One of her assignments had been to write an
essay from the point of view of an average American woman.

16. ZIPARIntroduction
We need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing
Figure: Freedom House, «China’s growing army of paid internet
commentators».

17. ZIPARIntroduction
We need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing
Private citizens are paid by the government to pretend to be
“ordinary” netizens while in fact promoting the CCP line and
seeking, in a nontransparent fashion, to guide public opinion
in a particular direction.

18. ZIPARIntroduction
We need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing
These examples are very different from each other.

19. ZIPARIntroduction
We need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing
These examples are very different from each other.
Yet, they have some things in common:

20. ZIPARIntroduction
We need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing
These examples are very different from each other.
Yet, they have some things in common:
It’s about online activities.

21. ZIPARIntroduction
We need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing
These examples are very different from each other.
Yet, they have some things in common:
It’s about online activities.
They are initiated by political actors.

22. ZIPARIntroduction
We need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing
These examples are very different from each other.
Yet, they have some things in common:
It’s about online activities.
They are initiated by political actors.
They are deceptive.

23. ZIPARIntroduction
We need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing
These examples are very different from each other.
Yet, they have some things in common:
It’s about online activities.
They are initiated by political actors.
They are deceptive.
They’re not jokes, but have real political consequences!

24. ZIPARIntroduction
We need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing
These examples are very different from each other.
Yet, they have some things in common:
It’s about online activities.
They are initiated by political actors.
They are deceptive.
They’re not jokes, but have real political consequences!

25. ZIPARIntroduction
We need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing
These examples are very different from each other.
Yet, they have some things in common:
It’s about online activities.
They are initiated by political actors.
They are deceptive.
They’re not jokes, but have real political consequences!
These are all examples of Digital Astroturfing.

26. ZIPARIntroduction
We need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing

27. ZIPARIntroduction
We need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing

28. ZIPARIntroduction
We need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing
Digital Astroturfing matters:

29. ZIPARIntroduction
We need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing
Digital Astroturfing matters:
Online activities are a big part of modern politics.

30. ZIPARIntroduction
We need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing
Digital Astroturfing matters:
Online activities are a big part of modern politics.
The Internet has greatly reduced transition costs for many
forms of political activity.

31. ZIPARIntroduction
We need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing
Digital Astroturfing matters:
Online activities are a big part of modern politics.
The Internet has greatly reduced transition costs for many
forms of political activity.
The Internet is fertile ground for bottom-up political activity.

32. ZIPARIntroduction
We need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing
Digital Astroturfing matters:
Online activities are a big part of modern politics.
The Internet has greatly reduced transition costs for many
forms of political activity.
The Internet is fertile ground for bottom-up political activity.
Digital Astroturfing is cunning political deception.

33. ZIPARIntroduction
We need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing
Digital Astroturfing matters:
Online activities are a big part of modern politics.
The Internet has greatly reduced transition costs for many
forms of political activity.
The Internet is fertile ground for bottom-up political activity.
Digital Astroturfing is cunning political deception.
It fools us into believing «the people» are expressing themselves.

34. ZIPARIntroduction
We need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing
Digital Astroturfing matters:
Online activities are a big part of modern politics.
The Internet has greatly reduced transition costs for many
forms of political activity.
The Internet is fertile ground for bottom-up political activity.
Digital Astroturfing is cunning political deception.
It fools us into believing «the people» are expressing themselves.
If we want to do something about Digital Astroturfing, we need
to think about digital astroturfing in a systematic way.

35. ZIPARIntroduction
We need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing
Digital Astroturfing matters:
Online activities are a big part of modern politics.
The Internet has greatly reduced transition costs for many
forms of political activity.
The Internet is fertile ground for bottom-up political activity.
Digital Astroturfing is cunning political deception.
It fools us into believing «the people» are expressing themselves.
If we want to do something about Digital Astroturfing, we need
to think about digital astroturfing in a systematic way.
This paper offers a framework that does just that.

36. ZIPARDefinition
What Digital Astroturfing is and isn’t

37. ZIPARDefinition
What Digital Astroturfing is and isn’t
A complete definition of Digital Astroturfing:

38. ZIPARDefinition
What Digital Astroturfing is and isn’t
A complete definition of Digital Astroturfing:
Digital astroturfing is a form of manufactured, deceptive and
strategic top-down activity on the Internet initiated by political
actors that mimics bottom-up activity by autonomous
individuals.

39. ZIPARDefinition
What Digital Astroturfing is and isn’t
Let’s break that down:

40. ZIPARDefinition
What Digital Astroturfing is and isn’t
Let’s break that down:
Manufactured

41. ZIPARDefinition
What Digital Astroturfing is and isn’t
Let’s break that down:
Manufactured
Deceptive

42. ZIPARDefinition
What Digital Astroturfing is and isn’t
Let’s break that down:
Manufactured
Deceptive
Strategic

43. ZIPARDefinition
What Digital Astroturfing is and isn’t
Let’s break that down:
Manufactured
Deceptive
Strategic
Top-down; political actors

44. ZIPARDefinition
What Digital Astroturfing is and isn’t
Let’s break that down:
Manufactured
Deceptive
Strategic
Top-down; political actors
mimicry

45. ZIPARDefinition
What Digital Astroturfing is and isn’t
Let’s break that down:
Manufactured
Deceptive
Strategic
Top-down; political actors
mimicry
autonomous individuals

46. ZIPARDefinition
What Digital Astroturfing is and isn’t
Digital Astroturfing is not the same as:

47. ZIPARDefinition
What Digital Astroturfing is and isn’t
Digital Astroturfing is not the same as:
Trolling

48. ZIPARDefinition
What Digital Astroturfing is and isn’t
Digital Astroturfing is not the same as:
Trolling
Trolls troll for the sake of trolling; they are not agents.

49. ZIPARDefinition
What Digital Astroturfing is and isn’t
Digital Astroturfing is not the same as:
Trolling
Trolls troll for the sake of trolling; they are not agents.
Regular Astroturfing

50. ZIPARDefinition
What Digital Astroturfing is and isn’t
Digital Astroturfing is not the same as:
Trolling
Trolls troll for the sake of trolling; they are not agents.
Regular Astroturfing
Regular astroturfing is less clear-cut.

51. ZIPARTypology
Different flavors of Digital Astroturfing

52. ZIPARTypology
Different flavors of Digital Astroturfing
There are three type-relevant dimensions:

53. ZIPARTypology
Different flavors of Digital Astroturfing
There are three type-relevant dimensions:
The target of the Digital Astroturfing effort.

54. ZIPARTypology
Different flavors of Digital Astroturfing
There are three type-relevant dimensions:
The target of the Digital Astroturfing effort.
The public

55. ZIPARTypology
Different flavors of Digital Astroturfing
There are three type-relevant dimensions:
The target of the Digital Astroturfing effort.
The public
Other political actors

56. ZIPARTypology
Different flavors of Digital Astroturfing
There are three type-relevant dimensions:
The target of the Digital Astroturfing effort.
The public
Other political actors
The initiating actor.

57. ZIPARTypology
Different flavors of Digital Astroturfing
There are three type-relevant dimensions:
The target of the Digital Astroturfing effort.
The public
Other political actors
The initiating actor.
Government

58. ZIPARTypology
Different flavors of Digital Astroturfing
There are three type-relevant dimensions:
The target of the Digital Astroturfing effort.
The public
Other political actors
The initiating actor.
Government
Political party

59. ZIPARTypology
Different flavors of Digital Astroturfing
There are three type-relevant dimensions:
The target of the Digital Astroturfing effort.
The public
Other political actors
The initiating actor.
Government
Political party
Individual politician

60. ZIPARTypology
Different flavors of Digital Astroturfing
There are three type-relevant dimensions:
The target of the Digital Astroturfing effort.
The public
Other political actors
The initiating actor.
Government
Political party
Individual politician
Interest group

61. ZIPARTypology
Different flavors of Digital Astroturfing
There are three type-relevant dimensions:
The target of the Digital Astroturfing effort.
The public
Other political actors
The initiating actor.
Government
Political party
Individual politician
Interest group
The goal of the Digital Astroturfing effort.

62. ZIPARTypology
Different flavors of Digital Astroturfing
There are three type-relevant dimensions:
The target of the Digital Astroturfing effort.
The public
Other political actors
The initiating actor.
Government
Political party
Individual politician
Interest group
The goal of the Digital Astroturfing effort.
Support for / opposition to policy

63. ZIPARTypology
Different flavors of Digital Astroturfing
There are three type-relevant dimensions:
The target of the Digital Astroturfing effort.
The public
Other political actors
The initiating actor.
Government
Political party
Individual politician
Interest group
The goal of the Digital Astroturfing effort.
Support for / opposition to policy
Support for / opposition to political actors

64. ZIPARTypology
Different flavors of Digital Astroturfing
Target Initiating political actor
Goal: Support for or opposition to:
policy political actors
The public
Government 1 2
Political party 3 4
Individual politician 5 6
Interest group 7 8
Political actors
Government 9 10
Political party 11 12
Individual politician 13 14
Interest group 15 16

65. ZIPARRepertoires
The toolset of Digital Astroturfing

66. ZIPARRepertoires
The toolset of Digital Astroturfing
The ways in which Digital Astroturfing manifests can be described
in terms of three dimensions:

67. ZIPARRepertoires
The toolset of Digital Astroturfing
The ways in which Digital Astroturfing manifests can be described
in terms of three dimensions:
Tools

68. ZIPARRepertoires
The toolset of Digital Astroturfing
The ways in which Digital Astroturfing manifests can be described
in terms of three dimensions:
Tools
Venues

69. ZIPARRepertoires
The toolset of Digital Astroturfing
The ways in which Digital Astroturfing manifests can be described
in terms of three dimensions:
Tools
Venues
Actions

70. ZIPARRepertoires
The toolset of Digital Astroturfing
Tools Venues Actions
sock puppets social media creating content
click farms websites signaling (dis-)approval
sympathizers comment sections
paid supporters direct messages

71. ZIPARCountermeasures
How to curb Digital Astroturfing

72. ZIPARCountermeasures
How to curb Digital Astroturfing
Normatively, Digital Astroturfing is problematic.

73. ZIPARCountermeasures
How to curb Digital Astroturfing
Normatively, Digital Astroturfing is problematic.
There are two general strategies for fighting Digital Astroturfing:

74. ZIPARCountermeasures
How to curb Digital Astroturfing
Normatively, Digital Astroturfing is problematic.
There are two general strategies for fighting Digital Astroturfing:
Restrictive countermeasures

75. ZIPARCountermeasures
How to curb Digital Astroturfing
Normatively, Digital Astroturfing is problematic.
There are two general strategies for fighting Digital Astroturfing:
Restrictive countermeasures
Incentivizing countermeasures

76. ZIPARCountermeasures
How to curb Digital Astroturfing
Restrictive vs. incentivizing countermeasures:

77. ZIPARCountermeasures
How to curb Digital Astroturfing
Restrictive vs. incentivizing countermeasures:
Restrictive: Limit activities.

78. ZIPARCountermeasures
How to curb Digital Astroturfing
Restrictive vs. incentivizing countermeasures:
Restrictive: Limit activities.
Incentivizing: Promote honesty.

79. ZIPARCountermeasures
How to curb Digital Astroturfing
Restrictive vs. incentivizing countermeasures:
Restrictive: Limit activities.
Incentivizing: Promote honesty.
E.g., through nudging.

80. ZIPARCountermeasures
How to curb Digital Astroturfing
Restrictive vs. incentivizing countermeasures:
Restrictive: Limit activities.
Incentivizing: Promote honesty.
E.g., through nudging.
Generally, incentives are preferable to restrictions.

81. ZIPARCountermeasures
How to curb Digital Astroturfing
Restrictive vs. incentivizing countermeasures:
Restrictive: Limit activities.
Incentivizing: Promote honesty.
E.g., through nudging.
Generally, incentives are preferable to restrictions.
Restrictions are not actually solutions.

82. ZIPARResearch prospects
Dead on arrival?

83. ZIPARResearch prospects
Dead on arrival?
Research on Digital Astroturfing is inherently difficult.

84. ZIPARResearch prospects
Dead on arrival?
Research on Digital Astroturfing is inherently difficult.
Digital Astroturfing is clandestine activity.

85. ZIPARResearch prospects
Dead on arrival?
Research on Digital Astroturfing is inherently difficult.
Digital Astroturfing is clandestine activity.
Purely inductive case-study research is not enough.

86. ZIPARResearch prospects
Dead on arrival?
Research on Digital Astroturfing is inherently difficult.
Digital Astroturfing is clandestine activity.
Purely inductive case-study research is not enough.
E.g., because of the «survival bias».

87. ZIPARResearch prospects
Dead on arrival?
Research on Digital Astroturfing is inherently difficult.
Digital Astroturfing is clandestine activity.
Purely inductive case-study research is not enough.
E.g., because of the «survival bias».
We need a conceptual framework that acts as a compass.

88. ZIPARResearch prospects
Dead on arrival?
Research on Digital Astroturfing is inherently difficult.
Digital Astroturfing is clandestine activity.
Purely inductive case-study research is not enough.
E.g., because of the «survival bias».
We need a conceptual framework that acts as a compass.
We need different research designs:

89. ZIPARResearch prospects
Dead on arrival?
Research on Digital Astroturfing is inherently difficult.
Digital Astroturfing is clandestine activity.
Purely inductive case-study research is not enough.
E.g., because of the «survival bias».
We need a conceptual framework that acts as a compass.
We need different research designs:
Case studies to document instances of Digital Astroturfing.

90. ZIPARResearch prospects
Dead on arrival?
Research on Digital Astroturfing is inherently difficult.
Digital Astroturfing is clandestine activity.
Purely inductive case-study research is not enough.
E.g., because of the «survival bias».
We need a conceptual framework that acts as a compass.
We need different research designs:
Case studies to document instances of Digital Astroturfing.
Algorithmic means to identify Digital Astroturfing.

91. ZIPARResearch prospects
Dead on arrival?
Research on Digital Astroturfing is inherently difficult.
Digital Astroturfing is clandestine activity.
Purely inductive case-study research is not enough.
E.g., because of the «survival bias».
We need a conceptual framework that acts as a compass.
We need different research designs:
Case studies to document instances of Digital Astroturfing.
Algorithmic means to identify Digital Astroturfing.
Micro-level testing of incentive effectiveness.

92. ZIPARResearch prospects
Dead on arrival?
Research on Digital Astroturfing is inherently difficult.
Digital Astroturfing is clandestine activity.
Purely inductive case-study research is not enough.
E.g., because of the «survival bias».
We need a conceptual framework that acts as a compass.
We need different research designs:
Case studies to document instances of Digital Astroturfing.
Algorithmic means to identify Digital Astroturfing.
Micro-level testing of incentive effectiveness.
We need to work with the operators of the relevant venues.

93. ZIPARThank you
Thanks for your attention!