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Social and Cognitive Influences in
 Teaching Argumentative Texts
           Mary Ann Reilly
Tasks
1. Define argumentive discourse and
   writing, clarifying differences btw argument
   and persuasion.
2. Examine quasi-experimental research related
   to argumentive discourse with 8th graders.
3. Examine case study of teaching argumentive
   writing in 7th grade.
4. Make use of reading strategy, Say Something.
Thinking and Middle Schoolers
• "[A]bove all else... middle grades schools must
  be about helping all students learn to use
  their minds well" (p. 11), and
• "The main purpose of middle grades
  education is to promote young adolescents'
  intellectual development." (p. 10)

  From: Jackson, A., & Davis, G. (2000). Turning Points 2000: Educating adolescents in the 21st century.
  New York: Teachers College Press.
Why Argument?
• Constructing arguments (Voss & Wiley, 1997;
  Wiley & Voss, 1999; Zohar & Nemet, 2002)
  and engaging in argumentive discussion
  (Mason, 1998, 2001) enhance conceptual
  understanding of subject matter in school-
  age children, as well as college students.

• From Kuhn &Udell, 2003.
Developing Argumentive Discourse & Writing
Persuasion and Argument
1. Same Goals: To convince, to defend, to
   question
2. Different Methods:
• Persuasion: Built on logos, pathos, and/or
  ethos
• Argument: Built on logical models that include
  claim, reasons, evidence, anticipated
  objections and rebuttal
Goals of Argument
• According to Walton (1989), skilled
  argumentation has two goals.
1. Secure commitments from the opponent that
   can be used to support one's own argument.
2. Undermine the opponent's position by
   identifying and challenging weaknesses in his
   or her argument.
Challenges for Adolescents Regarding
              Argument
• Adolescents are:
1. unlikely to construct two-sided arguments
2. to distinguish evidence and explanation in
   support of their claims

(Kuhn &Udell, 2003)
Parts of an Argument
              (Toulmin Method)
1. Claim: General statement, assertion upon which the
   argument is based
2. Reasons: Why does a writer believe the claim s/he makes?
   The reasons a writer gives are the first line of
   development of any argument.
3. Evidence: Facts, examples, statistics, expert testimony,
   among others--to back up our reasons
4. Anticipated Objections & Rebuttals: What might others
   object too and how does the author rebut those
   objections? (*Most often not attended to by
   adolescents)
5. Drawing Conclusions: Statement about the effectiveness
   of the argument by reader
Developing Argumentative Discourse
• Academically at-risk middle-school students engage in a ten-week
  debate activity focused on the topic of capital punishment. Based
  on their initial pro v. con opinions, students are assigned to a 4-6
  person team who share their opinion and with whom they work
  until near the end of the project.
• The social goal that unites and energizes the team is preparation for
  a final "show-down" debate activity against a team holding the
  opposing opinion.
• Assessments preceding and following the activity are based on
    – a student's individual argument in support of a pro or con opinion, for
      both the capital punishment topic and a new, transfer topic,
    – a sample of argumentive discourse between two students holding
      opposing opinions, again on both the capital punishment topic and a
      new topic. Initial results indicate significant progress in the quality of
      both individual argument and argumentive discourse following the
      activity.
Developing Argumentative Discourse
• 34 academically at-risk eighth-grade students attending
  two low-performing, inner-city public middle schools in
  New York City.
• Students were organized into Pro and Con teams concerned
  capital punishment based on student survey results.
  Experimental & Control group.
• Pre/Post Assessment designed to examine sophistication of
  argument (single to dual, reduction in expository response )
• Each team worked with an adult for two 90-minute lessons
  per a week for 8 weeks building argumentative discourse
  skills that are displayed during debate/showdown. Control
  group worked w/ adult for 7 of the 16 sessions.
Pair Teams: Pro and Con of a Claim
1. Generating Reasons
2. Supporting Reasons with Evidence
3. Evaluating Reasons
4. Developing Reasons into an Argument
5. Examining and Evaluating Opposing Side’s Reasons
6. Generating Counterarguments to Others’ Reasons
7. Generating Rebuttal to Others’ Reasons
8. Contemplating Mixed Evidence
9. Contemplating & Evaluating Two Evidence (Rehearsal)
10. Showdown
Say Something
1. With a partner engage in Say Something as
   you read from pages 1248 (beginning with
   Intervention) to 1251 (ending at Results) .
   Stop after each section (Delineated by
   subheadings) and say something about what
   you have read.
2. Be ready to debrief about what you read and
   the experience in 10 minutes.
Results
• Researchers coded students utterances during
  showdown as
  – simple disagreement (with what the partner has
    said),
  – disagreement accompanied by an alternate
    argument, and
  – disagreement accompanied by a critique of the
    partner's utterance.
• Increased production in all categories.
Example of Pre/Post
• Initial assessment: If someone did something wrong, they should be
  subject to capital punishment. (Why is that?) Because for instance if
  they kill someone, maybe the same thing is due to them. (Any other
  reason?) Well, I feel that people should pay if they did something
  wrong.
• Final assessment: If someone goes out and kills another person
  they should receive a justified punishment, an equal punishment.
  So that if they killed someone then they should receive the same
  thing. But I can also see how other people can have a different
  opinion because not everyone thinks the same and they may feel
  that it's wrong to kill another person, that people deserve a second
  chance. But personally I feel that if you have enough nerve to go
  out and kill somebody else, well then you just deserve to be killed
  as well. (Okay, anything else?) Well, one of the reasons why I have
  this opinion is that I've seen where facts have shown that capital
  punishment has reduced crime. And I always think that less crime
  will make a better life for everyone.
• “argument skills develop and that engagement
  in an argumentive discourse activity enhances
  that development (Felton & Kuhn, 2001; Kuhn
  et al., 1997). …such advancement can be
  observed not only in the arguments that an
  individual constructs in support of a claim but
  also in the quality of argumentive discourse
  generated in peer dialogues” (Kuhn &Udell, p.
  1255).
Developing Demands in Orally Arguing & Listening to Argument
                       as per CCSS
•SL.6.3. Delineate a            •SL.7.3. Delineate a           SL.8.3. Delineate a
speaker’s argument and          speaker’s argument and         speaker’s argument and
specific claims,                specific claims, evaluating    specific claims, evaluating
distinguishing claims that      the soundness of the           the soundness of the
are supported by reasons        reasoning and the              reasoning and relevance
and evidence from claims        relevance and sufficiency of   and sufficiency of the
that are not.                   the evidence.                  evidence and identifying
•SL.6.4. Present claims and     •SL.7.4. Present claims and    when irrelevant evidence is
findings, sequencing ideas      findings, emphasizing          introduced.
logically and using pertinent   salient points in a focused,   SL.8.4. Present claims and
descriptions, facts, and        coherent manner with           findings, emphasizing
details to accentuate main      pertinent descriptions,        salient points in a focused,
ideas or themes; use            facts, details, and            coherent manner with
appropriate eye contact,        examples; use appropriate      relevant evidence, sound
adequate volume, and clear      eye contact, adequate          valid reasoning, and well-
pronunciation.                  volume, and clear              chosen details; use
                                pronunciation.                 appropriate eye contact,
                                                               adequate volume, and clear
                                                               pronunciation.
Developing Demands in Writing Argument as per CCSS

•W.6.1. Write arguments to support     •W.7.1. Write arguments to            •W.8.1. Write arguments to
claims with clear reasons and          support claims with clear reasons     support claims with clear reasons
relevant evidence.                     and relevant evidence.                and relevant evidence.
–Introduce claim(s) and organize       –Introduce claim(s), acknowledge      –Introduce claim(s), acknowledge
the reasons and evidence clearly.      alternate or opposing claims, and     and distinguish the claim(s) from
–Support claim(s) with clear reasons   organize the reasons and evidence     alternate or opposing claims, and
and relevant evidence, using           logically.                            organize the reasons and evidence
credible sources and demonstrating     –Support claim(s) with logical        logically.
an understanding of the topic or       reasoning and relevant evidence,      –Support claim(s) with logical
text.                                  using accurate, credible sources      reasoning and relevant evidence,
–Use words, phrases, and clauses to    and demonstrating an                  using accurate, credible sources
clarify the relationships among        understanding of the topic or text.   and demonstrating an
claim(s) and reasons.                  –Use words, phrases, and clauses to   understanding of the topic or text.
–Establish and maintain a formal       create cohesion and clarify the       –Use words, phrases, and clauses to
style.                                 relationships among claim(s),         create cohesion and clarify the
–Provide a concluding statement or     reasons, and evidence.                relationships among claim(s),
section that follows from the          –Establish and maintain a formal      counterclaims, reasons, and
argument presented.                    style.                                evidence.
                                       –Provide a concluding statement or    –Establish and maintain a formal
                                       section that follows from and         style.
                                       supports the argument presented.      –Provide a concluding statement or
                                                                             section that follows from and
                                                                             supports the argument presented.
Developing Demands in Reading Argument as per CCSS

•RI.6.8. Trace and          •RI.7.8. Trace and           •RI.8.8. Delineate and
evaluate the argument       evaluate the argument        evaluate the argument
and specific claims in a    and specific claims in a     and specific claims in a
text, distinguishing        text, assessing whether      text, assessing whether
claims that are supported   the reasoning is sound       the reasoning is sound
by reasons and evidence     and the evidence is          and the evidence is
from claims that are not.   relevant and sufficient to   relevant and sufficient;
                            support the claims.          recognize when
                                                         irrelevant evidence is
                                                         introduced.
What Types of Instruction Support the
      Argumentative Thinking?
• Kuhn et al. (1997) and Lao and Kuhn (2002)
  have shown that extended engagement in
  argumentative discourse, in the absence of
  any additional instruction, is a sufficient
  condition for enhancement of the quality of
  arguments produced by individuals following
  discourse.
Nystrand & Graff (2001)
• “Argumentation, especially, is an arduous and dialogic
  process of response to others, on the onehand, and
  anticipation of response, on the other. Skilled writers
  know how to peer over theirshoulders, as it were,
  while pushing on with their own ideas. The writer's
  interlocutors henceplay a key role in the ostensibly
  private act of writing, contributing to its development
  byelaborating different positions and by questioning
  and disagreeing with ideas the writer proposes.Yet
  these processes are often short-circuited when
  knowledge is routinely treated, as it is inmany
  classrooms, as a given—fixed, and found in texts” (p.7).
Task 1
• Examine the transcript between the 7th grade
  teacher and the student. (Handout)
• Based on the transcript, what do you think the
  student is learning? What makes you say so?
Task #2 Examine the Teacher’s Instruction: What does
  she believe will best guide student writing/thinking?
• I was telling you before that when you write . . . a solid paragraph, you
  have amain idea here, and then you support it with details, . . . and the
  more details youhave, the stronger that topic sentence is gonna be. Right?
  Okay. So here's myquestion to you: If you have your thesis and your
  assertions chart filled out andyou're writing an introduction, can you do
  this? We will use this as a paragraph.Let's take . . . all the information you
  have, and you're going to write a draft ofyour paper. In your introduction,
  is it possible for you to — have your table top beyour thesis statement and
  assertions one, two, and three? Okay? So, in yourintroduction, your thesis
  sentence is either going to be your, generally, it's eitherthe first or last
  sentence of a paragraph in your introduction. And, in yourintroduction,
  you're also gonna state, just state your assertions. . . . So essentially,your
  paper could be 5 paragraphs in length. It could be an introduction, in
  whichyou state your assertions. It could be assertion one and the details,
  assertion twoand the details, assertion three and the details, and a wrap-
  up, a conclusion. . . .now if you follow that format, which I think is easy to
  follow. . . . [3/2/98, from Nystrand & Graff, 2001 ]
Consider this question…
What happens to student learning when a
teacher’s comments and actions move them
towards closure rather than opening dialog?

Is completing the assignment more important
than learning?
Directions from teacher to students in
  keeping a double entry notebook.
• [T]his is what things I personally thought about
  the book, and you can say, "Oh,this book is
  awful—I don't like it, I'm bored, I can't relate to
  the characters." Youare certainly free to say
  whatever you honestly feel about the book, so
  just makesure you kind of back it with why. Don't
  just say [it's not a good book]—that's notenough.
  . . . I wrote, "Dear whoever-I-was-talking-to,
  Things must have beenawful, This is hard to read,
  Awful for that boy to have run away. What do
  youthink he is hoping to find in the city? Is he
  going to meet someone?" [1/27/98]
Intellectual Environment Matters
• The type of activities that happen in the classroom
  influence how well students think. How the complex
  demands of a large modern classroom
  configurewriting and reading activities can inhibit the
  epistemology of argument.
• In the 9 weeks researchers observed (in blocks of two
  55-minute classes back to back), not 1 ofthe total 4,950
  minutes was given over to discussion in any extended
  form (they defined discussionas the free exchange of
  information among students and/or between at least 3
  students and theteacher that lasted at least a half
  minute).
Summary
• “…the idea of writing as argument imply
  changes not only instudent products but also
  in the overall teaching practices of
  classrooms. A few changes inwriting
  instruction, while important, may not have the
  desired results if the dominantepistemology
  of the classroom derails the instructional goals
  for writing” (Nystrand& Graff, 2001).
Recommended Next Steps
• During Summer 2012, develop a unit of study
  appropriate for middle school that:
    1. Emphasizes thinking related to argument
    2. Emphasizes argumentive discourse
    3. Provides teachers and students with scaffolded
       approach to discussing and writing argumentive text
    4. Connects talking and writing with reading/analyzing
       argumentive text
    5. Is ready to implement for 2012-2013 SY
•   Deeply improve one practice in order to
    leverage excellence when you are not present.
Works Cited
Felton, M., & Kuhn, D. (2001). The development of argumentive discourse skills. Discourse Processes, 32, 135-
     153
Jackson, A., & Davis, G. (2000). Turning Points 2000: Educating adolescents in the 21st century. New York:
     Teachers College Press.
Kuhn, D. &Udell, V. (2003). The development of argument skills. Child Development, 74( 5), 1245-1260.
Kuhn, D., Shaw, V., & Felton, M. (1997). Effects of dyadic interaction on argumentive reasoning. Cognition and
     Instruction, 15, 287-315.
Lao, J., & Kuhn, D. (2002). Cognitive engagement and attitude development. Cognitive Development, 17, 1203-
     1217.
Mason, L. (1998). Sharing cognition to construct scientific knowledge in school contexts: The role of oral and
     written discourse. Instructional Science, 26, 359-389.
Mason, L. (2001). Introducing talk and writing for conceptual change: A classroom study. In L. Mason (Ed.),
     Instructional practices for conceptual change in science domains. Learning and Instruction, 11, 305-329.
Nystrand, M. & Graff, N. (2001). Report in argument’s clothing. An ecological perspective on writing instruction
     in a seventh-grade classroom. The Elementary School Journal, 101(4), 479-493.
Voss, J., & Wiley, J. (1997). Developing understanding while writing essays in history. International Journal of
     Educational Research, 27, 255-265.
Walton, D. N. (1989). Dialogue theory for critical thinking. Argumentation, 3, 169-184.
Wiley, J., & Voss, J. (1999). Constructing arguments from multiple sources: Tasks that promote understanding
     and not just memory for text. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 301-311.
Zohar, A., & Nemet, F. (2002). Fostering students' know-edge and argumentation skills through dilemmas in
     human genetics. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 39, 35-62.

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Developing Argumentive Discourse & Writing

  • 1. Social and Cognitive Influences in Teaching Argumentative Texts Mary Ann Reilly
  • 2. Tasks 1. Define argumentive discourse and writing, clarifying differences btw argument and persuasion. 2. Examine quasi-experimental research related to argumentive discourse with 8th graders. 3. Examine case study of teaching argumentive writing in 7th grade. 4. Make use of reading strategy, Say Something.
  • 3. Thinking and Middle Schoolers • "[A]bove all else... middle grades schools must be about helping all students learn to use their minds well" (p. 11), and • "The main purpose of middle grades education is to promote young adolescents' intellectual development." (p. 10) From: Jackson, A., & Davis, G. (2000). Turning Points 2000: Educating adolescents in the 21st century. New York: Teachers College Press.
  • 4. Why Argument? • Constructing arguments (Voss & Wiley, 1997; Wiley & Voss, 1999; Zohar & Nemet, 2002) and engaging in argumentive discussion (Mason, 1998, 2001) enhance conceptual understanding of subject matter in school- age children, as well as college students. • From Kuhn &Udell, 2003.
  • 6. Persuasion and Argument 1. Same Goals: To convince, to defend, to question 2. Different Methods: • Persuasion: Built on logos, pathos, and/or ethos • Argument: Built on logical models that include claim, reasons, evidence, anticipated objections and rebuttal
  • 7. Goals of Argument • According to Walton (1989), skilled argumentation has two goals. 1. Secure commitments from the opponent that can be used to support one's own argument. 2. Undermine the opponent's position by identifying and challenging weaknesses in his or her argument.
  • 8. Challenges for Adolescents Regarding Argument • Adolescents are: 1. unlikely to construct two-sided arguments 2. to distinguish evidence and explanation in support of their claims (Kuhn &Udell, 2003)
  • 9. Parts of an Argument (Toulmin Method) 1. Claim: General statement, assertion upon which the argument is based 2. Reasons: Why does a writer believe the claim s/he makes? The reasons a writer gives are the first line of development of any argument. 3. Evidence: Facts, examples, statistics, expert testimony, among others--to back up our reasons 4. Anticipated Objections & Rebuttals: What might others object too and how does the author rebut those objections? (*Most often not attended to by adolescents) 5. Drawing Conclusions: Statement about the effectiveness of the argument by reader
  • 10. Developing Argumentative Discourse • Academically at-risk middle-school students engage in a ten-week debate activity focused on the topic of capital punishment. Based on their initial pro v. con opinions, students are assigned to a 4-6 person team who share their opinion and with whom they work until near the end of the project. • The social goal that unites and energizes the team is preparation for a final "show-down" debate activity against a team holding the opposing opinion. • Assessments preceding and following the activity are based on – a student's individual argument in support of a pro or con opinion, for both the capital punishment topic and a new, transfer topic, – a sample of argumentive discourse between two students holding opposing opinions, again on both the capital punishment topic and a new topic. Initial results indicate significant progress in the quality of both individual argument and argumentive discourse following the activity.
  • 11. Developing Argumentative Discourse • 34 academically at-risk eighth-grade students attending two low-performing, inner-city public middle schools in New York City. • Students were organized into Pro and Con teams concerned capital punishment based on student survey results. Experimental & Control group. • Pre/Post Assessment designed to examine sophistication of argument (single to dual, reduction in expository response ) • Each team worked with an adult for two 90-minute lessons per a week for 8 weeks building argumentative discourse skills that are displayed during debate/showdown. Control group worked w/ adult for 7 of the 16 sessions.
  • 12. Pair Teams: Pro and Con of a Claim 1. Generating Reasons 2. Supporting Reasons with Evidence 3. Evaluating Reasons 4. Developing Reasons into an Argument 5. Examining and Evaluating Opposing Side’s Reasons 6. Generating Counterarguments to Others’ Reasons 7. Generating Rebuttal to Others’ Reasons 8. Contemplating Mixed Evidence 9. Contemplating & Evaluating Two Evidence (Rehearsal) 10. Showdown
  • 13. Say Something 1. With a partner engage in Say Something as you read from pages 1248 (beginning with Intervention) to 1251 (ending at Results) . Stop after each section (Delineated by subheadings) and say something about what you have read. 2. Be ready to debrief about what you read and the experience in 10 minutes.
  • 14. Results • Researchers coded students utterances during showdown as – simple disagreement (with what the partner has said), – disagreement accompanied by an alternate argument, and – disagreement accompanied by a critique of the partner's utterance. • Increased production in all categories.
  • 15. Example of Pre/Post • Initial assessment: If someone did something wrong, they should be subject to capital punishment. (Why is that?) Because for instance if they kill someone, maybe the same thing is due to them. (Any other reason?) Well, I feel that people should pay if they did something wrong. • Final assessment: If someone goes out and kills another person they should receive a justified punishment, an equal punishment. So that if they killed someone then they should receive the same thing. But I can also see how other people can have a different opinion because not everyone thinks the same and they may feel that it's wrong to kill another person, that people deserve a second chance. But personally I feel that if you have enough nerve to go out and kill somebody else, well then you just deserve to be killed as well. (Okay, anything else?) Well, one of the reasons why I have this opinion is that I've seen where facts have shown that capital punishment has reduced crime. And I always think that less crime will make a better life for everyone.
  • 16. • “argument skills develop and that engagement in an argumentive discourse activity enhances that development (Felton & Kuhn, 2001; Kuhn et al., 1997). …such advancement can be observed not only in the arguments that an individual constructs in support of a claim but also in the quality of argumentive discourse generated in peer dialogues” (Kuhn &Udell, p. 1255).
  • 17. Developing Demands in Orally Arguing & Listening to Argument as per CCSS •SL.6.3. Delineate a •SL.7.3. Delineate a SL.8.3. Delineate a speaker’s argument and speaker’s argument and speaker’s argument and specific claims, specific claims, evaluating specific claims, evaluating distinguishing claims that the soundness of the the soundness of the are supported by reasons reasoning and the reasoning and relevance and evidence from claims relevance and sufficiency of and sufficiency of the that are not. the evidence. evidence and identifying •SL.6.4. Present claims and •SL.7.4. Present claims and when irrelevant evidence is findings, sequencing ideas findings, emphasizing introduced. logically and using pertinent salient points in a focused, SL.8.4. Present claims and descriptions, facts, and coherent manner with findings, emphasizing details to accentuate main pertinent descriptions, salient points in a focused, ideas or themes; use facts, details, and coherent manner with appropriate eye contact, examples; use appropriate relevant evidence, sound adequate volume, and clear eye contact, adequate valid reasoning, and well- pronunciation. volume, and clear chosen details; use pronunciation. appropriate eye contact, adequate volume, and clear pronunciation.
  • 18. Developing Demands in Writing Argument as per CCSS •W.6.1. Write arguments to support •W.7.1. Write arguments to •W.8.1. Write arguments to claims with clear reasons and support claims with clear reasons support claims with clear reasons relevant evidence. and relevant evidence. and relevant evidence. –Introduce claim(s) and organize –Introduce claim(s), acknowledge –Introduce claim(s), acknowledge the reasons and evidence clearly. alternate or opposing claims, and and distinguish the claim(s) from –Support claim(s) with clear reasons organize the reasons and evidence alternate or opposing claims, and and relevant evidence, using logically. organize the reasons and evidence credible sources and demonstrating –Support claim(s) with logical logically. an understanding of the topic or reasoning and relevant evidence, –Support claim(s) with logical text. using accurate, credible sources reasoning and relevant evidence, –Use words, phrases, and clauses to and demonstrating an using accurate, credible sources clarify the relationships among understanding of the topic or text. and demonstrating an claim(s) and reasons. –Use words, phrases, and clauses to understanding of the topic or text. –Establish and maintain a formal create cohesion and clarify the –Use words, phrases, and clauses to style. relationships among claim(s), create cohesion and clarify the –Provide a concluding statement or reasons, and evidence. relationships among claim(s), section that follows from the –Establish and maintain a formal counterclaims, reasons, and argument presented. style. evidence. –Provide a concluding statement or –Establish and maintain a formal section that follows from and style. supports the argument presented. –Provide a concluding statement or section that follows from and supports the argument presented.
  • 19. Developing Demands in Reading Argument as per CCSS •RI.6.8. Trace and •RI.7.8. Trace and •RI.8.8. Delineate and evaluate the argument evaluate the argument evaluate the argument and specific claims in a and specific claims in a and specific claims in a text, distinguishing text, assessing whether text, assessing whether claims that are supported the reasoning is sound the reasoning is sound by reasons and evidence and the evidence is and the evidence is from claims that are not. relevant and sufficient to relevant and sufficient; support the claims. recognize when irrelevant evidence is introduced.
  • 20. What Types of Instruction Support the Argumentative Thinking? • Kuhn et al. (1997) and Lao and Kuhn (2002) have shown that extended engagement in argumentative discourse, in the absence of any additional instruction, is a sufficient condition for enhancement of the quality of arguments produced by individuals following discourse.
  • 21. Nystrand & Graff (2001) • “Argumentation, especially, is an arduous and dialogic process of response to others, on the onehand, and anticipation of response, on the other. Skilled writers know how to peer over theirshoulders, as it were, while pushing on with their own ideas. The writer's interlocutors henceplay a key role in the ostensibly private act of writing, contributing to its development byelaborating different positions and by questioning and disagreeing with ideas the writer proposes.Yet these processes are often short-circuited when knowledge is routinely treated, as it is inmany classrooms, as a given—fixed, and found in texts” (p.7).
  • 22. Task 1 • Examine the transcript between the 7th grade teacher and the student. (Handout) • Based on the transcript, what do you think the student is learning? What makes you say so?
  • 23. Task #2 Examine the Teacher’s Instruction: What does she believe will best guide student writing/thinking? • I was telling you before that when you write . . . a solid paragraph, you have amain idea here, and then you support it with details, . . . and the more details youhave, the stronger that topic sentence is gonna be. Right? Okay. So here's myquestion to you: If you have your thesis and your assertions chart filled out andyou're writing an introduction, can you do this? We will use this as a paragraph.Let's take . . . all the information you have, and you're going to write a draft ofyour paper. In your introduction, is it possible for you to — have your table top beyour thesis statement and assertions one, two, and three? Okay? So, in yourintroduction, your thesis sentence is either going to be your, generally, it's eitherthe first or last sentence of a paragraph in your introduction. And, in yourintroduction, you're also gonna state, just state your assertions. . . . So essentially,your paper could be 5 paragraphs in length. It could be an introduction, in whichyou state your assertions. It could be assertion one and the details, assertion twoand the details, assertion three and the details, and a wrap- up, a conclusion. . . .now if you follow that format, which I think is easy to follow. . . . [3/2/98, from Nystrand & Graff, 2001 ]
  • 24. Consider this question… What happens to student learning when a teacher’s comments and actions move them towards closure rather than opening dialog? Is completing the assignment more important than learning?
  • 25. Directions from teacher to students in keeping a double entry notebook. • [T]his is what things I personally thought about the book, and you can say, "Oh,this book is awful—I don't like it, I'm bored, I can't relate to the characters." Youare certainly free to say whatever you honestly feel about the book, so just makesure you kind of back it with why. Don't just say [it's not a good book]—that's notenough. . . . I wrote, "Dear whoever-I-was-talking-to, Things must have beenawful, This is hard to read, Awful for that boy to have run away. What do youthink he is hoping to find in the city? Is he going to meet someone?" [1/27/98]
  • 26. Intellectual Environment Matters • The type of activities that happen in the classroom influence how well students think. How the complex demands of a large modern classroom configurewriting and reading activities can inhibit the epistemology of argument. • In the 9 weeks researchers observed (in blocks of two 55-minute classes back to back), not 1 ofthe total 4,950 minutes was given over to discussion in any extended form (they defined discussionas the free exchange of information among students and/or between at least 3 students and theteacher that lasted at least a half minute).
  • 27. Summary • “…the idea of writing as argument imply changes not only instudent products but also in the overall teaching practices of classrooms. A few changes inwriting instruction, while important, may not have the desired results if the dominantepistemology of the classroom derails the instructional goals for writing” (Nystrand& Graff, 2001).
  • 28. Recommended Next Steps • During Summer 2012, develop a unit of study appropriate for middle school that: 1. Emphasizes thinking related to argument 2. Emphasizes argumentive discourse 3. Provides teachers and students with scaffolded approach to discussing and writing argumentive text 4. Connects talking and writing with reading/analyzing argumentive text 5. Is ready to implement for 2012-2013 SY • Deeply improve one practice in order to leverage excellence when you are not present.
  • 29. Works Cited Felton, M., & Kuhn, D. (2001). The development of argumentive discourse skills. Discourse Processes, 32, 135- 153 Jackson, A., & Davis, G. (2000). Turning Points 2000: Educating adolescents in the 21st century. New York: Teachers College Press. Kuhn, D. &Udell, V. (2003). The development of argument skills. Child Development, 74( 5), 1245-1260. Kuhn, D., Shaw, V., & Felton, M. (1997). Effects of dyadic interaction on argumentive reasoning. Cognition and Instruction, 15, 287-315. Lao, J., & Kuhn, D. (2002). Cognitive engagement and attitude development. Cognitive Development, 17, 1203- 1217. Mason, L. (1998). Sharing cognition to construct scientific knowledge in school contexts: The role of oral and written discourse. Instructional Science, 26, 359-389. Mason, L. (2001). Introducing talk and writing for conceptual change: A classroom study. In L. Mason (Ed.), Instructional practices for conceptual change in science domains. Learning and Instruction, 11, 305-329. Nystrand, M. & Graff, N. (2001). Report in argument’s clothing. An ecological perspective on writing instruction in a seventh-grade classroom. The Elementary School Journal, 101(4), 479-493. Voss, J., & Wiley, J. (1997). Developing understanding while writing essays in history. International Journal of Educational Research, 27, 255-265. Walton, D. N. (1989). Dialogue theory for critical thinking. Argumentation, 3, 169-184. Wiley, J., & Voss, J. (1999). Constructing arguments from multiple sources: Tasks that promote understanding and not just memory for text. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 301-311. Zohar, A., & Nemet, F. (2002). Fostering students' know-edge and argumentation skills through dilemmas in human genetics. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 39, 35-62.

Notes de l'éditeur

  1. Ethos: ethics; Logos: Logic, Pathos: emotional