5. Where is East Timor?
The Island of Timor lies at
the eastern end of the
Malay Archipelago, about
seven hundred km from
Port Darwin on the North
Western coast of Australia.
Although the western half
of the island, with the
exception of Oecussi-
Ambens, has historically
been part of Indonesia, the
east of the island has not
and has a separate history
and identity
6. What is the Island like?
• Volcanic Island
• Mostly mountainous. South’s flat and suited for farming.
• Tropical climate. Very high annual rainfall.
• It’s main exports are:
Coffee
Copra
Palm Oil
Rice
Wax
Hides
• Timor ‘s seas are currently being investigated by
multinationals searching for oil.
9. • East Timor has long been involved in international
trade.
• Before the Portuguese arrived, the island's woods
were traded with the Chinese and the Arabs who
bought them by barter; exchanging axes, pottery,
lead and other goods for sandalwood.
• The local population was culturally diverse and
nearly thirty ethnic languages have been
identified.
• The Portugese encouraged the use of Tetum as a
common language.
10. Antique Hierarchy
Kings or Chiefs Liurai
Lesser Nobles Dato
Freemen, Slaves
Ema-
and Nomadic Ato Lutum
Shepherds reino
12. • Timor was "discovered" by Portuguese navigators in
the sixteenth century. Over the next two centuries,
contact between the Timorese and the Portuguese
centred around Portuguese-sponsored missionary
activities. In the eighteenth century, the Portuguese
stepped up the colonisation process and established a
seat of government in Timor. The Portuguese were not
the only colonial power in the area and found
themselves in conflict with the Dutch over Timor.
Shortly after establishing government in Timor, the
Portuguese abandoned the western half of the island
to the Dutch. The division of the island was officially
set down in a treaty between the Portuguese and the
Dutch in 1859. This treaty was not formally ratified by
the two governments until 1904.
13. • The local people resisted the colonisation of
their island. There were armed insurrections
in 1719, 1895 and 1959. Some Dominican
missionaries supported these revolts against
the government. Although under Portuguese
influence for such a long time, the Portuguese
had little direct effect on the culture. Until the
nineteenth century, the liurai (traditional
rulers) effectively avoided direct control, and
as Portugal went into decline after the first
world war, East Timor was largely neglected.
14. • During World War II, Japan occupied East
Timor. With considerable help from the
Timorese, several hundred Australian soldiers
carried out a guerrilla war on the island. The
cost for helping the Australians was high,
villages were burned, and food supplies were
seized. The number of Timorese killed by
Japanese and in the allied bombing that
preceded recapture is estimated at 40,000.
15. • Portugal was given East Timor back after the
war and continued to neglect the island. But
the economy began to improve and this,
coupled with a general world-wide move
towards decolonization, encouraged more and
more Timorese to consider independence.
16. • Although the 1959 insurrection failed, the
internal pressure for independence increased
and in the 1970's a national liberation front
was formed. Events in Portugal precipitated
the situation, the fall of the fascist regime
there in April 1974 significantly strengthened
the independence movement in East Timor.
The new Portuguese government legalised
pro-independence groups and in September
1974 FRETELIN, the Revolutionary Front for
the Independence of East Timor was founded.
17. • Despite its bright start, the decolonisation process was
to go radically wrong. Within East Timor, the colonial
administration was concerned that things were going
too quickly. They helped to form UDT, the Timor
Democratic Union, which campaigned for a more
gradual move to independence and possible federation
with Portugal. Between them, UDT and FRETELIN had
the support of 90% of the Timorese population. A third
force entered East Timorese politics, APODETI, the
Timor Popular Democratic Association, which
supported integration with Indonesia. This group had
been set up by the Indonesian consulate and failed to
gain significant support. Indonesia had been a Dutch
colony, a large nation it was comprised of numerous
islands colonised by the Dutch in the area, one of
which was West Timor.
18. • At some point in 1974 the Indonesian generals
had set up a covert intelligence operation,
Operasi Komodo, which aimed to bring about
East Timor's integration with Indonesia by any
means.
20. • The "excuse" for the Indonesian invasion was an
armed conflict between UDT and FRETELIN,
which was in fact largely engineered by the
Indonesian army.
• UDT attempted a coup in August 1975. A few
days before this, the leaders of UDT, who had no
knowledge of any ulterior Indonesian motives,
were flown to Jakarta. There they were told, in
confidence, by General Murtopo that FRETILIN
was a communist group and that they were being
trained by the North Vietnamese to take over
East Timor. The UDT coup was designed to
preempt this, completely fictitious, FRETILIN
coup.
21. • FRETILIN resisted the UDT takeover and there
was a brief armed conflict between the two
groups. But within three weeks of the UDT
coup, the conflict was over and FRETILIN was
in control of the territory. The Indonesian
army though continued to claim that there
was an ongoing problem and the Indonesian
(government controlled) national press
reported increasing chaos within East Timor.
With very little international press interest
these stories were accepted without question.
22. • To give further credence to these stories, the
Indonesians launched, on October 16, an attack from
West Timor. They claimed that this was an attack by
the UDT and that this showed the conflict was ongoing.
In fact by this stage most of the leaders of the UDT
were being held in a refugee camp in West Timor well
out of the way. The Indonesian attack went wrong -
five western journalists were killed and the Indonesians
were successfully bogged down by FRETILIN resistance.
There is evidence to suggest that, following the deaths
of the western journalists, the Indonesian government
temporarily halted the invasion, afraid of a negative
reaction from western governments. There was none.
23. • The Indonesian government took this as a sign
that their invasion would be tolerated. They
began to make a series of small incursions to
give support to their story that they were only
going in to protect the East Timorese from an
on-going civil war. In an attempt to get some
international recognition, FRETILIN declared
unilateral independence on November 28th
1975. The Indonesians responded with a full-
scale and very public invasion on December
7th.
24. • There was fierce resistance in Dili to this
invasion but this was quelled by massive
Indonesian reinforcements. On 25th and 26th
of December landings at Liquica and Maubara
led to more mass killings. By the end of
February 1976, the Indonesian appointed
government of East Timor admitted that
60,000 East Timorese had died since the
invasion. Many Timorese sought refuge
behind FRETILIN lines, nearly half a million
people may have been displaced in the first
few months after the invasion.
25. • By April 1976 there were 32,000 Indonesian
troops in East Timor and 10,000 in West
Timor. On the 31 May a people's assembly was
convened by the army. On the 2nd of June,
the delegates (all 28 of them, "supervised" by
the army) asked the Indonesian government
to annex East Timor. On the 17th of July
President Suharto signed a bill that made East
Timor Indonesia's 27th province. The UN has
never accepted this assembly as legitimate
and, under International law, the annexation
of East Timor remains illegal.
26. • Officially, the decolonization process was
never completed in East Timor and the UN
recognizes Portugal as the administrative
power. Portugal was suffering from internal
difficulties at the time of the invasion and
effectively abandoned East Timor to the
Indonesians. They have, however, never
accepted the annexation and the Portuguese
have campaigned strongly for the East
Timorese, particularly over the last few years.
28. • Gaining control of their new 27th province
proved difficult for the Indonesian regime. The
East Timorese resisted strongly and the situation
only moved significantly in the Indonesian's
favour when they managed to acquire counter-
insurgency aircraft from a number of western
states (See Western Complicity below). These
were used to bomb the mountainous areas,
where most of the population was hiding.
Casualties came not just from the bombing itself,
but the attacks were so intense that it was
impossible to farm and many people died from
starvation.
29. • Finally, in 1978 and 79 what was left of the population
began to return to their homes, in an attempt to
escape the famine and relentless attacks. In order to
further depress the people, the Indonesian army split
up many communities and forcibly resettled them.
• By the end of 1979, the Indonesian generals believed
that they had destroyed all resistance. FRETILIN, who
had led the armed resistance, had suffered huge losses
and their leader, Nicolau dos Rein Lobato, had been
killed in combat in December 1978. The people had
also suffered, an estimated 200,000 out of a total
population of 700,000 had died. (Although they had
initially been enemies, UDT also joined FRETILIN in
their resistance to the Indonesians.)
30. • But resistance continued. FRETILIN regrouped
under their new leader, Xanana Gusmao, and the
guerrilla war continued throughout the 1980's. (A
ceasefire was negotiated between Gusmao and
the head of the Indonesian forces in East Timor in
1983 but rejected by President Suharto).
• In 1988 FRETILIN and UDT set up a coordinating
body, CNRM - the National Council for Maubere
resistance, through which they could work
together for an independent East Timor. Xanana
Gusmao, now a CNRM as well as Fretelin leader,
was appointed head of the National Armed
Forces for the Liberation of East Timor (FALINTIL).
(In 1998, the CNRM became CNRT, the national
council for Timorese resistance)
31. • Since the invasion, the Indonesian regime has
acted with brutality towards the local
population. The traditional community
structures were destroyed by resettlement.
Movement was so restricted that famine often
arose simply because people could not get to
the land to farm. Numerous cases of rape,
murder and political imprisonment have been
documented.
• What has been the role of the international
community in all this ?
32. “Western”
Complicity
(Western in a cultural sense, most of the countries named are in fact to the north-west,
south and north-east of East Timor).
33. • On the 22nd of December 1975, the UN
Security Council condemned the invasion of
East Timor. Since then numerous resolutions
supporting the East Timorese have been
passed. Portugal, in 1988, managed to secure
both European Commission and Parliament
support. In 1989 the UN Human Rights sub-
commission also expressed concern. But
despite this, East Timor was effectively off the
International agenda. Why ?
34. • Most of the major western states tacitly
supported the invasion. US President Gerald
Ford was in Jakarta just prior to the invasion.
The Australian Government was one of the
first to recognise the Indonesian takeover as
legitimate and its failure to pursue the death
of five journalists working for two Australian
news agencies in October 1975 may have
encouraged the Indonesian government to
proceed.
35. • Sales of weapons and aid to Indonesia have
been significant. Without the large supplies,
including counter-insurgency aircraft bought
in 1977, the Indonesian victory would have
been far from inevitable. America supplied
large amounts of military equipment. Both
Britain and France supplied aircraft.
Indonesian military personnel were trained in
the west.
• It is unlikely that Indonesia would have
succeeded in their takeover without this
support.
38. • Despite continuing resistance, Indonesia felt by
1989 that they were sufficiently in control of East
Timor to introduce a policy of transmigration and
to allow a papal visit.
• At a mass by the Pope on Oct 12th 1989 in Dili in
front of a number of foreign journalists, an anti-
Indonesian demonstration took place. This was
the start of a new direction for the resistance
movement and in January and September 1990
pro-independence demonstrations were again
held in Dili. Although suppressed by the regime,
the non-violent and political resistance was
beginning to grow. This unarmed resistance
began to work closely with the armed groups.
39. • Initially, the Indonesians do not seem to have
seen this new initiave as a major threat. A visit
to East Timor by Portuguese MP's was to be
allowed in early November 1991, but this was
cancelled at the last minute as the
Indonesians objected to the presence of an
Australian journalist who was to accompany
the visit.
41. • On November 12th 1991 Indonesian troops
opened fire on a crowd of unarmed and
peaceful demonstrators at the Santa Cruz
cemetery in Dili. The demonstration followed
a mass for a pro-democracy activist who had
been shot by the Indonesian army. What was
different about this atrocity, compared to the
many which had gone on previously, was that
some foreign journalists were present and
managed to get much of the shooting on film.
42. • Between those killed in the initial shooting
and those who were arrested and have never
been seen since, an estimated 200 - 300
people were killed.
• The world wide outcry was intense and the
Indonesian regime had to set up a commission
of inquiry. Some soldiers were sentenced for a
few months, however captured demonstrators
received sentences from 10 years to life.
43. • The Santa Cruz massacre provided the impetus
necessary to restart action on the diplomatic
front. The UN made a concerted effort to get
Portugal and Indonesia around a table to discuss
solutions. They hoped to eventually include
Timorese leaders: Xanana Gusmao, head of
CNRM and FALINTIL; and Bishop Belo, the
spiritual leader of Timorese catholics. But before
the talks took place, on the 20th December 1992,
Xanana was arrested. Shortly afterwards he
appeared on television and denounced his fight
for independence.
44. • In 1993 Xanana Gusmao received a life
sentence in a trial that was condemned as
unjust by observers. He was only allowed to
read 2 pages of a 28 page defence. From
prison, a number of smuggled interviews
reached the outside and it became clear that
Xanana's denouncement was forced, and that
he still supported independence. If anything,
his imprisonment gave Xanana much greater
influence and a higher profile internationally.
(His life sentence was commuted to 20 years
as part of a "good will" gesture to celebrate
one of Suharto's birthdays.)
46. • 1995 saw the 20th anniversary of the invasion,
and the fourth anniversary of the Dili
massacre. Around this time there was
considerable unrest in East Timor and the
Indonesian regime arrested and detained
large numbers of young men. 1995 saw a
return to oppression in East Timor. The
number of disappearances increased and
there were many reports of detainees being
tortured in prison. At the same time as the
situation in East Timor was deteriorating,
resistance was moving to Jakarta.
47. • Young East Timorese had been encouraged to go to
Jakarta to study, the regime hoping to weaken the
traditional culture further and strengthen their ties to
Indonesia. But many of these Timorese had links to the
resistance movement. As the anniversaries approached
there were demonstrations outside foreign Embassies
in Jakarta. The demonstrations usually ended with a
number of the protesters jumping into the embassy
walls and pleading for asylum. (A number of Timorese
simply jumped into embassy's without prior
demonstration.) The countries involved did not have to
worry about embarassing the Indonesian government
by accepting them as Portugal automatically agreed to
take them.
48. • The largest demonstration in Jakarta, on the
anniversary of the invasion, involved not only
Timorese but Indonesian pro-democracy
activists. This was the first time there had
been such a link and was regarded as an
extremely positive move by many observers.
50. • Since the massacre at Santa Cruz the
international community was more active on
East Timor and some "appropriate noises"
were made. This was largely as a result of
growing number of individuals and groups
who campaigned in their own countries on
this issue. Yet the international response was
still disappointing. In their 1994 report to the
UN, Amnesty International criticised
governments who professed concern but then
sold Indonesia military equipment.
51. • The British government was and remains particularly
bad for this sort of double standard. It granted export
licenses for 44 Hawk aeroplanes, which are eminently
suitable for counter-insurgency use. The British claimed
that they were to be used for training purposes and
that they had assurances from the Indonesian
government that they would not be used in Timor. (Aid
and training were given to Indonesia on the same
grounds that it would not be used to support its
occupation of East Timor). The British government
though was highly selective about who it believed,
when Hugh O'Shaughnessy, a British Journalist, saw
Hawks over Dili on Sunday the 12th of November 1995,
the Government chose to believe the blanket denial by
the Indonesians.
52. • But, although, the British set a bad example,
Australia's record at this time was even worse.
Australia was one of the few countries to have
recognised the invasion and annexation as
legitimate. In 1991, it signed an agreement
with Jakarta to allow exploration and
extraction of the oil reserves in the Timor Sea.
Under International law this area still belongs
to the Portuguese government who were
outraged at the move. Australia also signed in
1995, a security treaty with Indonesia.
53. • It should be noted though that Australia has
the largest number of Timorese refugees and
that there is strong grassroots support for East
Timor. Due to this, the Australian government
was under constant pressure to change and
the Australian press kept the issue in the
public arena. Equally, the US also sold
weapons to the Suharto regime and was
reluctant to criticise its actions.
55. • 1996/1997 followed 1995 in being a time of
continued repression and increasing
resistance. Frequently human rights groups
reported arbitrary arrests and widespread
human rights abuses. The resistance of the
local population increased, perhaps
encouraged by the award of the Nobel Peace
prize to two East Timorese, Bishop Belo and
Jose Ramos-Horta.
56. • Internationally, there was increased activity. The new
Secretary-General of the UN, Kofi Annan, appointed a
special envoy to East Timor to try and regenerate the
cancelled tri-partite talks. Jamsheed Marker's first visit
to East Timor proved controversial. A group of
students, frustrated at being denied access to the UN
envoy, demonstrated outside his hotel. The
demonstration was broken up violently. There were
unconfirmed reports of deaths. Nearly 40 people were
arrested and human rights groups received reports of
abuse in prison. Despite this unpromising start, the tri-
partite talks were restarted and the Portuguese and
Indonesian governments agreed to increase the
number of meetings to try and find a solution to the
problem.
57. • One of the most positive developments on the
international front came at the end of the year
when Nelson Mandela was allowed to meet
Xanana Gusmao. Mandela offered to work as
a mediator in the conflict and called for
Xanana's release.
58. • The last few months of 1997 were very
difficult for Indonesia, huge forest fires raged
uncontrollably throughout Sumatra, causing
an environmental disaster that affected most
of South East Asia. The Indonesian economy
was affected by the sudden and unexpected
downturn in the South East Asian economies.
This latter factor was to make 1998 one of the
most dramatic years in recent Indonesian
history.
59. • 1998 started out uneventfully. The situation in
East Timor worsened as the government and
army responded harshly to continued
resistance. The drought in the region which
had exacerbated the forest fires in Sumatra,
led to fears of widespread famine to which
East Timor was particularly vulnerable.
60. • Indonesia continued to suffer from the impact of
the economic downturn. The rupiah lost 80
percent of its value in a matter of months.
Hundreds of thousands of people lost their jobs.
The Indonesian people began to openly demand
the end of the Suharto regime. In february tens of
thousands of Indonesians took to the streets. The
demonstrations become riots, with the anger of
the crowds directed their anger, possibly
encouraged by the police, at the Chinese
minority. Suharto was re-elected by the people's
consultative assembly in April for another five
years but lasted less than five weeks. In May he
was forced to resign and was replaced by his
close colleague, B. J. Habibie.
62. • Java is the most densely populated area in the
world with 120 million people or 890 per square
kilometre - 11 million more than the land can
sustain. This was the increasingly pressing reason
behind the Suharto government's transmigration
policy. In 1997, the government planned to
encourage 350 thousand people, 1000 a day, to
leave Java. Concerns were raised about where
they were going. The Indonesian equivalent of
green belt sites included areas of virgin rain forest
and also a number of politically sensitive areas
where it has been argued that transmigration was
being used as a way of swamping local cultures
with Javanese culture.
63. • Despite the continued resistance to their rule, the
Suharto regime actively encouraged Indonesians
to emigrate to East Timor by giving them money
incentives. It has also made it clear that
opportunities for East Timorese on the island
would be limited. Civil servants appointments
were often made to non-Timorese and non-
Timorese businesses were given preference over
Timorese ones. The best agricultural land
available was given to the newcomers. In turn,
East Timorese were encouraged to move to other
parts of Indonesia with promises of land when
they get there.
64. • The inevitable result was a population shift,
but the numbers are staggering. Between
1992 and 1997, 100,000 Indonesians moved
to East Timor (out of a 1995 population of 800
000.) At its height the influx reached 1,000
people a week. (Reliable figures are not
available for the movement of Timorese in the
other direction.)
66. • The Indonesian family planning programme won
support from the World Bank. But in East Timor it
appeared to be being seriously abused.There
were anecdotal reports that throughout the 80's
and 90's, women were being injected with what
they thought were vitamins or tetanus injections.
The injections were only given to women, with
sometimes whole classes of schoolgirls being
injected. Refugees have claimed that they took
part in or witnessed such incidents. The women
who had had such injections afterwards suffered
menstrual problems and had problem conceiving.
67. • Rumours spread to the large cities that the
injections were Depo-Provera, a
contraceptive. Interestingly, according to the
Indonesian governments own figures, Depo-
Provera is the most popular form of birth
control in East Timor. In 1987, 60% of all
women using contraception in East Timor
used Depo-Provera in comparison to 19% in
the rest of Indonesia. By 1990, the figure had
risen to 66%
68. The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace
and security
TOPIC #2
71. Where is Afghanistan?
Landlocked and
mountainous country, with
plains in the north and
southwest, Afghanistan is
variously described as
being located within South
Asia, Central Asia and
sometimes Western
Asia (or the Middle East).
Afghanistan's highest point
is Nowshak, at 7,485 m
(24,557 ft) above sea level.
78. 1959
• The Purdah is made optional,
women begin to enroll in the
University which has become co-
educational.
• Women begin to enter the
workforce, and the government.
79. 1961
Pakistan and
Afghanistan come
close to war over
Pashtunistan.
80. 1963, 1964
Zahir Shah demands
Daoud's resignation.
Dr. Mohammad Yusof
becomes Prime
Minister.
81. 1965
• The Afghan Communist Party was secretly
formed in January. Babrak Karmal is one of
the founders.
• In September, first nationwide elections
under the new constitution.
• Karmal was elected to the Parliament, later
instigates riots.
• Zahir and Yussof form second government.
84. 1973
• July 17th: Zahir Shah is on vacation in
Europe, when his government is
overthrown in a military coup headed
by Daoud Khan and PDPA (Afghan
Communist Party).
• Daoud Khan abolishes the monarchy,
declares himself President---Republic of
Afghanistan is established.
85. 1974
•UNESCO names Herat as
one of the first cities to
be designated as a part
of the worlds cultural
heritage.
86. 1975, 1977
• Daoud Khan presents a new
constitution. Women's rights
confirmed.
• Daoud starts to oust
suspected opponents from
his government.
87. 1978
• Bloody Communist coup: Daoud is killed, Taraki is
named President, and Karmal becomes his
deputy Prime Minister. Tensions rise.
• Mass arrests, tortures, and arrests takes place.
• Afghan flag is changed.
• Taraki signs treaty of friendship with the Soviet
Union.
• June--Afghan guerrilla (Mujahideen) movement is
born.
88. 1979
• Mass killings
• US ambassador killed
• Taraki is killed and Hafizullah Amin takes the
Presidency.
• Amin is executed, and he is replaced with
Babrak Karmal.
• Soviet Union (Russia) invade in December.
92. 1987
• Najibullah proposes ceasefire,
but the Mujahideen refuse to
deal with a "puppet
government".
• Mujahideen make great gains,
defeat of Soviets eminent.
93. 1988, 1989
• Peace accords signed in Geneva.
• Soviet Union defeated by Afghanistan, total
withdrawal by the Soviets occurred on Feb. 15,
1989.
• Experts agree that at least 40,000-50,000 Soviets
lost their lives in action, besides the wounded,
suicides, and murders.
• Mujahideen continue to fight against Najibullah's
regime.
• May--Afghan guerrillas elect Sibhhatullah
Mojadidi as head of their government-in-exile.
94. 1992
• April 15--The Mujahideen take Kabul and
liberate Afghanistan, Najibullah is protected
by UN.
• The Mujahideen form an Islamic State--Islamic
Jihad Council--elections.
• Iranian and Pakistani interference increases--
more fighting--
• Professor Burhannudin Rabbani is elected
President.
95. 1994
• The Taliban militia are born, and
advance rapidly against the
Rabbani government.
• Dostum and Hekmatyar
continued to clash against
Rabbani's government, and as a
result Kabul is reduced to rubble.
97. 1996
• June--Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, head of Hezbi-Islami, having been
eliminated as a military power, signs a peace pact with Rabbani, and
returns to Kabul to rule as prime minister.
• September 27--Taliban militia force President Rabbani and his
government out of Kabul. After the capture of Kabul, the Taliban
execute Najibullah.
• Alliance between Government, Hezbi Wahdat, and Dostum
• Oppression of women by the Taliban--women must be fully veiled,
no longer allowed to work, go out alone or even wear white socks.
Men are forced to grow beards. Buzkashi, the Afghan national sport
is outlawed.
• Tensions rise as Afghan government accuse Pakistan of aiding the
Taliban.
• Massive human rights violations by the Taliban.
98. 1997
• Mass graves of Taliban soldiers containing
between 1,500 and 2,000 bodies are found.
The men were believed to have been captured
in May by general Abdul Malik during the
Taliban's brief takeover of Mazar-i-Sharif.
99. 1998
• February--Earthquake strikes in northeastern Afghansitan, killing
over 4,000 people, destroying villages and leaving thousands of
people homeless.
• August--Taliban finally capture Mazar-i-Sharif, and massacre
thousands of innocent civilians afterwards, mostly Hazaras.
• August 20th--United States launches cruise missles hitting
Afghanistan's Khost region. US states its intent was to destroy so
called terrorist bases/training facilities used by Osama bin Laden
and his followers. Some Afghan civilians are also killed.
• September--Tensions rise between Iran and the Taliban. Iranians
are angry about the killing of their diplomats and a journalist by the
Taliban when they captured Mazar-i-Sharif. Soon they deploy
70,000 troops to carry out military exercises near the Afghan
border. In the end, no fighting occurs between the Taliban and the
Iranian army
100. 1999
• February--Earthquake hits eastern Afghanistan,
affecting over 30,000 people, and killing at least 60 to
70 people.
• September--The ex-king of Afghanistan, Mohammad
Zahir Shah, calls for a grand assembly, or Loya Jirga to
discuss ways of bringing peace to the country. The
United Front soon welcomes the idea, but the Taliban
ridicule Mohammad Zahir Shah's attempts at
establishing peace.
• October-- UN Security Council Resolution 1267 is
adopted; sanctions against the Taliban on grounds that
they offered sanctuary to Osama bin Ladin.
101. 2000
• May--Taliban torture and kill civilians in the
Robatak Pass
(on the border between Baghlan and
Samangan provinces).
• September--Taloqan finally falls to the Taliban.
• December-- UN Security Council Resolution
1333 is adopted; additional sanctions against
the Taliban for their continuing support of
terrorism and cultivation of narcotics, etc.
102. 2001
• January--Taliban torture and kill numerous civilians (Hazaras) in Yakaolang.
• March--Despite pleas and requests from various international diplomats, Islamic scholars, the
Taliban destroy ancient historical statues in the Kabul Museum, historical sites in Ghazni, and blow
up the giant Bamiyan Buddhas from the 5th century. World expresses outrage and disgust against
the Taliban action.
• April--Ahmad Shah Masood visits Europe to gather support against the Taliban.
• April--UN accuses Pakistan of not allowing adequate supply of food and medicines to displaced
Afghans, at the Jalozai camp, near Peshawar.
• April-- Mullah Rabbani, the Taliban's second-in-command dies of liver cancer.
• May-- Taliban order religious minorities to wear tags identifying themselves as non-Muslims.
• September 9-- Ahmad Shah Masood is killed by assassins posing as journalists. Two days later
(September 11th), suicide attacks on the U.S. kill more than 3,000 people and destroy the two
towers of the World Trade Center and part of the Pentagon.
• October-- Abdul Haq is killed by the Taliban. The United States and UK working with the forces of
the United Front (UNIFSA) launch air strikes against the Taliban. ( The Americans hold Osama bin
Laden directly responsible for the attacks on the World Trade Center, and the Taliban were targeted
for protecting him.)
• November: Taliban lose control of Mazar-i Sharif.
• December 5-- Bonn Agreement. Afghan political groups come together in Bonn, Germany and form
an interim government. Hamid Karzai is chosen as Chairman.
103. 2002
• April-- Former King Mohammad Zahir returns to
Afghanistan (April) -- does not claim throne.
• War continues against Al Qaeda and the Taliban.
• June-- Loya Jirga elects Hamid Karzai as President
of a Transitional Government. Karzai picks
members of his administration to serve until
elections are held in 2004
• July-- Haji Abdul Qadir (brother of Abdul Haq) is
killed. US air raid in Uruzgan province kills
approximately 48 civilians, many of them
members of a wedding party
104. 2003
• War against Al Qaeda and the
Taliban continue -- further
weakened.
• August - NATO takes control of
security in Kabul.
105. 2004
• January-- Afghanistan adopts a new constitution. The country is
now a republic with 3 branches of government (Executive,
Legislative, and Judiciary).
• 2004 October/November - Presidential elections are finally held
after being delayed twice. Hamid Karzai is declared the winner,
with 55.4% of the votes. He is sworn in December. Karzai's strongest
challenger, Yunis Qanuni, came in second with 16.3% of the votes.
The elections were not without controversy; allegations of fraud
and ballot stuffing were brought up by many of the presidential
candidates including Yunis Qanuni. Many felt that Hamid Karzai had
an unfair advantage over the other candidates as he had access to
financial and logistical resources that many of the other candidates
did not have. A panel of international experts was setup to
investigate the matter. The panel did find evidence of voting
irregularities, however, they said that it was not enough to affect
the outcome of the elections.
106. 2005
• Harsh winter leaves hundreds of people dead.
• Major advances in the disarmament process
announced.
• March-- Dostum appointed as the Chief of
Staff to the Commander of the Armed Forces.
Yunis Qanuni announces new political alliance
(March 31st).
• April-- Karzai welcomes the formation of
Qanuni's political alliance.
108. October 15, 1999
The Al-Qaeda and Taliban
Nexus
The United Nations Security
Council adopts Resolution 1267,
creating the so-called al-Qaeda
and Taliban Sanctions Committee,
which links the two groups as
terrorist entities and imposes
sanctions on their funding, travel,
and arms shipments. The UN
move follows a period of
ascendancy for al-Qaeda and its
leader, Osama bin Laden, who
guided the terror group from
Afghanistan and Peshawar,
Pakistan, in the late 1980s, to
Sudan in 1991, and back to
Afghanistan in the mid-1990s. The
Taliban, which rose from the
ashes of Afghanistan's post-Soviet
civil war, provides al-Qaeda
sanctuary for operations.
109. September 09, 2001
A Norther Alliance
Assassination
Ahmad Shah Massoud, commander of
the Northern Alliance, an anti-Taliban
coalition, is assassinated by al-Qaeda
operatives. The killing of Massoud, a
master of guerilla warfare known as
the Lion of the Panjshir, deals a serious
blow to the anti-Taliban resistance.
Terrorism experts believe his
assassination assured Osama bin
Laden protection by the Taliban after
the 9/11 attacks. Expert Peter Bergen
later calls Massoud's assassination "
the curtain raiser for the attacks on
New York City and Washington, DC."
110. September 11, 2001
Terrorists Strike the
United States
Al-Qaeda operatives hijack four
commercial airliners, crashing them
into the World Trade Center in New
York and the Pentagon in Washington,
DC. A fourth plane crashes in a field in
Shanksville, Pennsylvania. Close to
three thousand people die in the
attacks. Although Afghanistan is the
base for al-Qaeda, none of the
nineteen hijackers are Afghan
nationals. Mohammed Atta, an
Egyptian, led the group, and fifteen of
the hijackers originated from Saudi
Arabia. President George W. Bush
vows to "win the war against
terrorism,", and later zeros in on al-
Qaeda and Osama bin Laden in
Afghanistan. Bush eventually calls on
the Taliban regime to "deliver to the
United States authorities all the
leaders of al-Qaeda who hide in your
land," or share in their fate.
111. September 18, 2001
A War Footing
President George W. Bush signs into
law a joint resolution authorizing the
use of force against those responsible
for attacking the United States on
9/11. This joint resolution will later be
cited by the Bush administration as
legal rationale for its decision to take
sweeping measures to combat
terrorism, from invading Afghanistan,
to eavesdropping on U.S. citizens
without a court order, to standing up
the detention camp at Guantanamo
Bay, Cuba.
112. October 07, 2001
The Opening Salvo
The U.S. military, with British support,
begins a bombing campaign against
Taliban forces, officially launching
Operation Enduring Freedom. Canada,
Australia, Germany, and France pledge
future support. The war's early phase
(PDF) mainly involves U.S. air strikes on
al-Qaeda and Taliban forces that are
assisted by a partnernship of about
one thousand U.S. special forces, the
Northern Alliance, and ethnic Pashtun
anti-Taliban forces. The first wave of
conventional ground forces arrives
twelve days later. Most of the ground
combat is between the Taliban and its
Afghan opponents.
113. November,2001
The Taliban in Retreat
The Taliban regime unravels rapidly
after its loss at Mazar-e-Sharif on
November 9, 2001, to forces loyal to
Abdul Rashid Dostum, an ethnic Uzbek
military leader. Over the next week
Taliban strongholds crumble after
coalition and Northern Alliance
offensives on Taloqan (11/11),
Bamiyan (11/11), Herat (11/12), Kabul
(11/13), and Jalalabad (11/14). On
November 14, 2001, the UN Security
Council passes Resolution 1378, calling
for a "central role" for the United
Nations in establishing a transitional
administration and inviting member
states to send peacekeeping forces to
promote stability and aid delivery.
114. December 05, 2001
An Interim Goverment
After the fall of Kabul in November
2001, the United Nations invites major
Afghan factions, most prominently the
Northern Alliance and a group led by
the former king (but not the Taliban),
to a conference in Bonn, Germany. On
December 5, 2001, the factions sign
the Bonn Agreement, endorsed by UN
Security Council Resolution 1383. The
agreement, reportedly reached with
substantial Iranian diplomatic help
because of Iran's support for the
Northern Alliance faction, installs
Hamid Karzai as interim administration
head, and creates an international
peacekeeping force to maintain
security in Kabul. The Bonn Agreement
is followed by UN Security Council
Resolution 1386 on December 20,
which establishes the International
Security Assistance Force, or ISAF.
115. December 09, 2001
The Taliban Collapses
The end of the Taliban regime is
generally tied to this date, when the
Taliban surrender Kandahar (PDF) and
Taliban leader Mullah Omar flees the
city, leaving it under tribal law
administered by Pashtun leaders.
Despite the official fall of the Taliban,
however, al-Qaeda leaders continue to
hide out in the mountains.
116. December, 2001
Bin Laden Escapes
After tracking al-Qaeda leader Osama
bin Laden to the well-equipped Tora
Bora cave complex southeast of Kabul,
Afghan militias engage in a fierce two-
week battle (December 3 to 17) with
al-Qaeda militants. It results in a few
hundred deaths and the eventual
escape of bin Laden, who is thought to
have left for Pakistan on horseback on
December 16--just a day before
Afghan forces capture twenty of his
remaining men. Despite intelligence
pointing to bin Laden's presence in
Tora Bora, U.S. forces do not lead the
assault, which is carried out by a
ragtag Afghan contingent led by Hazrat
Ali, Haji Zaman, and Haji Zahir. Some
critics will later question why U.S.
forces did not take a more assertive
role in the engagement.
117. March, 2002
Mixed Signals
Operation Anaconda, the first major
ground assault and the largest
operation since Tora Bora, is launched
against an estimated eight hundred al-
Qaeda and Taliban fighters in the
Shah-i-Kot Valley south of the city of
Gardez (Paktia Province). Nearly two
thousand U.S. and one thousand
Afghan troops battle the militants.
Despite the operation's size, however,
Anaconda does not represent a
broadening of the war effort. Instead,
Pentagon planners begin shifting
military and intelligence resources
away from Afghanistan in the direction
of Saddam Hussein's Iraq, which is
increasingly mentioned as a chief U.S.
threat in the "war on terror."
118. April 17, 2002
Reconstructing
Afghanistan
President George W. Bush calls for the
reconstruction of Afghanistan in a
speech at the Virginia Military
Institute. "By helping to build an
Afghanistan that is free from this evil
and is a better place in which to live,
we are working in the best traditions
of George Marshall," he says, evoking
the post-World War II Marshall Plan
that revived Western Europe. But the
United States and the international
community do not come close to
Marshall Plan-like reconstruction
spending for Afghanistan. The U.S.
Congress appropriates over $38 billion
in humanitarian and reconstruction
assistance to Afghanistan from 2001 to
2009.
119. June, 2002
Transitional Goverment
Named
Hamid Karzai, chairman of Afghanistan's
interim administration since December
2001, is picked to head the country's
transitional government. His selection
comes during an emergency loya jirga
assembled in Kabul, attended by 1,550
delegates (including about 200 women)
from Afghanistan's 364 districts. Karzai,
leader of the powerful Popalzai tribe of
Durrani Pashtuns, returned to
Afghanistan from Pakistan after the 9/11
attacks to organize Pashtun resistance to
the Taliban. Some observers allege Karzai
tolerates corruption by members of his
clan and his government. The Northern
Alliance, dominated by ethnic Tajiks, fails
in its effort to set up a prime
ministership, but does succeed in
checking presidential powers by assigning
major authorities to the elected
parliament, such as the power to veto
senior official nominees and to impeach a
president.
120. November, 2002
Establishing a
Reconstruction Model
The U.S. military creates a civil affairs
framework to coordinate redevelopment
with UN and nongovernmental
organizations and to expand the authority
of the Kabul government. These so-called
provincial reconstruction teams, or PRTs,
are stood up first in Gardez in November,
followed by Bamiyan, Kunduz, Mazar-e-
Sharif, Kandahar, and Herat. Command
for individual PRTs is eventually handed
over to NATO states. While credited with
improving security for aid agencies, the
model is not universally praised. Concern
mounts that the PRT system lacks central
controlling authority, is disorganized, and
creates what a U.S. Institute of Peace
report calls "an ad hoc approach" to
security and development. Such criticism
grows beyond the PRT program and
becomes a common theme in the NATO
war effort, as a maze of “national
caveats” restricts the activities of
member forces. Critics contend this limits
the coalition's effectiveness.
121. May 01, 2003
“Major Combat” Over
During a briefing with reporters in
Kabul, Secretary of Defense Donald
Rumsfeld declares an end to "major
combat." The announcement coincides
with President George W. Bush's
"mission accomplished" declaration of
an end to fighting in Iraq. Rumsfeld
says President Bush, U.S. Central
Command Chief Gen. Tommy Franks,
and Afghan President Hamid Karzai
"have concluded that we are at a point
where we clearly have moved from
major combat activity to a period of
stability and stabilization and
reconstruction and activities." There
are only eight thousand U.S. soldiers
stationed in Afghanistan. It is predicted
that the transition from combat to
reconstruction will “open the door for
many aid organizations, particularly
European groups, that had balked at
sending troops, supplies, or other
assistance.
122. August, 2003
An International Mission
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO) assumes control of
international security forces (ISAF) in
Afghanistan, expanding NATO/ISAF's
role across the country. It is NATO's
first operational commitment outside
of Europe. Originally tasked with
securing Kabul and its surrounding
areas, NATO expands in September
2005, July 2006, and October 2006.
The number of ISAF troops grows
accordingly, from an initial five
thousand to around sixty-five
thousand troops from forty-two
countries (PDF), including all twenty-
eight NATO member states. In 2006,
ISAF assumes command of the
international military forces in eastern
Afghanistan from the U.S.-led
coalition, and also becomes more
involved in intensive combat
operations in southern Afghanistan.
123. January, 2004
A Constitution for
Afghanistan
An assembly of 502 Afghan delegates
agrees on a constitution for
Afghanistan (PDF), creating a strong
presidential system intended to unite
the country's various ethnic groups.
The act is seen as a positive step
toward democracy. "Afghans have
seized the opportunity provided by the
United States and its international
partners to lay the foundation for
democratic institutions and provide a
framework for national elections,"
declares U.S. Ambassador to
Afghanistan Zalmay Khalilzad.
124. October 09, 2004
A New President for
Afghanistan
In historic national balloting, Karzai
becomes the first democratically
elected head of Afghanistan. Voters
turn out in high numbers despite
threats of violence and intimidation.
Karzai wins with 55 percent of the
vote, while his closest rival, former
education minister Younis Qanooni,
polls 16 percent. Karzai's election
victory is marred by accusations of
fraud by his opponents and by the
kidnapping of three foreign UN
election workers by a militant group.
But the election is nonetheless hailed
as a victory for the fragile nation;
Afghans had not gone to the polls
since 1969, when they cast ballots in
parliamentary elections during the
reign of King Mohammed Zahir Shah.
125. October 29, 2004
Bin Laden Surfaces
Signaling the persistent challenges
facing the U.S.-led coalition in
Afghanistan, Osama bin Laden releases
a videotaped message three weeks
after the country's presidential
election and just days before the U.S.
polls in which George W. Bush will win
reelection. In remarks aired on the
Arab television network Al Jazeera, bin
Laden taunts the Bush administration
and takes responsibility for the attacks
of September 11, 2001. "We want to
restore freedom to our nation, just as
you lay waste to our nation," bin Laden
says.
126. May 23, 2005
An Enduring US
Commitment
Afghan President Hamid Karzai and
President George W. Bush issue a joint
declaration (PDF) that pronounces
their respective countries strategic
partners. The declaration gives U.S.
forces access to Afghan military
facilities to prosecute "the war against
international terror and the struggle
against violent extremism." The
alliance's goal, the agreement says, is
to "strengthen U.S.-Afghan ties and
help ensure Afghanistan's long-term
security, democracy, and prosperity."
Moreover, the agreement calls for
Washington to "help organize, train,
equip, and sustain Afghan security
forces as Afghanistan develops the
capacity to undertake this
responsibility," and to continue to
rebuild the country's economy and
political democracy.
127. September 18, 2005
Democracy and
Afghanistan
More than six million Afghans turn out
to vote for the Wolesi Jirga (Council of
People), the Meshrano Jirga (Council
of Elders), and local councils.
Considered the most democratic
elections ever in Afghanistan, nearly
half those casting ballots are women,
viewed as a sign of political progress in
a highly patriarchal and conservative
society. Sixty-eight out of 249 seats are
set aside for female members of
Afghanistan's lower house of
parliament and 23 out of 102 are
reserved in the upper house.
128. July, 2006
A Bloody Resurgence
Violence increases across the country
during the summer months, with
intense fighting erupting in the south
in July. The number of suicide attacks
quintuples from 27 in 2005 to 139 in
2006, while remotely detonated
bombings more than double, to 1,677.
Despite a string of recent election
successes, some experts blame a
faltering central government for the
spike in attacks. "As with most
insurgencies, the critical precondition
[to the Afghan insurgency] is the
collapse of governance" (PDF), says
Afghanistan expert Seth G. Jones.
Jones and other experts point to the
many Afghans who lack basic services,
the government's difficultly setting up
its police forces, and the lack of
international forces to assist with
security.
129. November 2006
Cracks in the Coalition
At the NATO summit in Riga, Latvia, rifts
emerge among member states on troop
commitments to Afghanistan. NATO
Secretary-General Jaap de Hoop Scheffer sets
a target of 2008 for the Afghan National
Army to begin to take control of security. "I
would hope that by 2008 we will have made
considerable progress," he says, "with a more
stable political architecture in place, and with
a strong interface between NATO and the
civilian agencies and effective, trusted Afghan
security forces gradually taking control."
Leaders of the twenty-six countries agree to
remove some national restrictions on how,
when, and where forces can be used. But
friction continues. With violence against
nongovernmental aid workers increasing,
U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert Gates
criticizes NATO countries in late 2007
Defense Robert Gates criticizes NATO
countries in late 2007 for not sending more
soldiers. "Our progress in Afghanistan is real
but it is fragile," Gates says. "At this time,
many allies are unwilling to share the risks,
commit the resources, and follow through on
collective commitments to this mission and
to each other. As a result, we risk allowing
what has been achieved in Afghanistan to slip
away"
130. May 2007
A Taliban Commander
Falls
A notorious Taliban military
commander, Mullah Dadullah, is killed
in a joint operation by Afghan, U.S.,
and NATO forces in the south of
Afghanistan. Dadullah is believed to
have been a leader of guerrilla forces
in the war in Helmand Province,
deploying suicide bombers and
ordering the kidnapping of
Westerners. He once told the BBC that
hundreds of suicide bombers awaited
his command to launch an offensive
against foreign troops.
131. August 22, 2008
Collateral Killings Mount
Afghan and UN investigations find that
errant fire from a U.S. gunship killed
dozens of Afghan civilians in the
Shindand District of western Herat
Province, drawing condemnation from
President Hamid Karzai and bolstering
Taliban claims that coalition forces are
unable to protect the population. U.S.
military officials dispute the death toll
in this incident as well as claims that a
separate incident in Farah Province left
as many as 140 civilians dead. After
being named top U.S. commander in
Afghanistan in mid-2009, Gen. Stanley
A. McChrystal orders an overhaul of
U.S. air strike procedures. "We must
avoid the trap of winning tactical
victories, but suffering strategic
defeats, by causing civilian casualties
or excessive damage and thus
alienating the people," the general
writes.
132. February 17, 2009
Obama Recommits to
Afghanistan
New U.S. President Barack Obama
announces plans to send seventeen
thousand more troops to the war zone.
Obama reaffirms campaign statements
that Afghanistan is the more important
U.S. front against terrorist forces. He says
the United States will stick to a timetable
to draw down most combat forces from
Iraq by the end of 2011. As of January
2009 the Pentagon has thirty-seven
thousand troops in Afghanistan, roughly
divided between U.S. and NATO
commands. Reinforcements focus on
countering a "resurgent" Taliban and
stemming the flow of foreign fighters
over the Afghan-Pakistan border in the
south. Speaking on the troop increase,
Secretary of Defense Robert Gates
describes the original mission in
Afghanistan as "too broad" and calls for
establishing limited goals such as
preventing and limiting terrorist safe
havens.
133. March 27, 2009
A New American Strategy
President Obama announces a new
strategy for the war effort, linking
success in Afghanistan to a stable
Pakistan. The core goal of the strategy,
as outlined in an interagency white
paper, is "to disrupt, dismantle, and
defeat al Qaeda and its safe havens in
Pakistan, and to prevent their return
to Pakistan or Afghanistan." The
strategy urges the passage of
increased aid to Pakistan and a strict
standard of measuring progress in
fighting al-Qaeda and the Taliban.
Plans also call for the deployment of
an additional four thousand soldiers to
help train the Afghan army and police
force. President Hamid Karzai of
Afghanistan welcomes the strategy,
stating that the plan “will bring
Afghanistan and the international
community closer to success.”
134. April 2009
A Different Call to NATO
Senior U.S. military officials and
commanders, altering course from the
Bush administration, call on NATO
nations to supply non-military assets
to Afghanistan. Officials stress the
need for NATO members to step up in
building Afghan civil society, such as
providing resources for provincial
reconstruction teams, or PRTs. A two-
day NATO summit in early April ends
with a promise by NATO nations to
send an additional five thousand
troops to train the Afghan army and
police force, and to provide security
for the country's August presidential
election.
135. May 11, 2009
Command Change
Secretary of Defense Robert Gates
replaces the top U.S. commander in
Afghanistan, Gen. David D. McKiernan,
with counterinsurgency and special
operations guru Gen. Stanley A.
McChrystal. McKiernan's removal
comes eleven months after he
assumed command of NATO forces in
Afghanistan. Gates says the Pentagon
needs "fresh thinking" and "fresh
eyes" on the Afghanistan war at a time
when many analysts say operations
there are spiraling out of control.
Reports indicate that the appointment
of McChrystal is intended to bring a
more "aggressive and innovative"
approach to the Afghan war effort in
tune with a more focused
counterinsurgency strategy.
136. July, 2009
New Strategy, Old Battles
U.S. Marines launch a major offensive
in southern Afghanistan, representing
a major test for the U.S. military's new
counterinsurgency strategy. The
offensive, involving four thousand
Marines, is launched in response to a
growing Taliban insurgency in the
country's southern provinces,
especially Helmand Province. The
operation focuses on restoring
government services, bolstering local
police forces, and protecting civilians
from Taliban incursion. By August 2009
U.S. forces are to number between
sixty thousand and sixty-eight
thousand.
137. November, 2009
Afghan Presidential
Election
After more than two months of
uncertainty following a disputed
presidential election on August 20,
President Hamid Karzai wins another
term. The August 20 election, which
pitted Karzai against top contenders
Abdullah Abdullah and Ashraf Ghani, was
marred by fraud allegations. An
investigation by the UN-backed Electoral
Complaints Commission finds Karzai won
only 49.67 percent of the vote, below the
50 percent-plus-one threshold needed to
avoid a runoff. Under international
pressure, Karzai agrees to a runoff vote
on November 7. But a week before the
runoff, Karzai's main rival Abdullah pulls
out, and Karzai is declared the winner.
Concerns over Karzai's legitimacy grow,
and the United States and other
international partners call for improved
governance. U.S. Secretary of State Hillary
Clinton ties all future civilian aid to
greater efforts by the Karzai
administration to combat corruption.
138. December 01, 2009
Obama’s Afghan Surge
Nine months after renewing the U.S.
commitment to the Afghan war effort,
President Obama announces a major
escalation of the U.S. mission. In a
nationally televised speech, the president
commits an additional thirty thousand
forces to the fight, on top of the sixty-
eight thousand in place. These forces,
Obama says, "will increase our ability to
train competent Afghan Security Forces,
and to partner with them so that more
Afghans can get into the fight. And they
will help create the conditions for the
United States to transfer responsibility to
the Afghans." For the first time in the
eight-year war effort, a time frame is put
on the U.S. military presence, as Obama
sets July 2011 as the start of a troop
drawdown. But the president does not
detail how long a drawdown will take.
Obama says U.S. national interests are
linked to success in the Afghan war effort,
and argues that this temporary surge will
force Afghan political and military
institutions to assume responsibility for
their own affairs.
139. June 23, 2010
General McChrystal Relieved
from Afghan Command
Gen. Stanley McChrystal is relieved of
his post as commander of U.S. forces
in Afghanistan, following a
controversial Rolling Stone article in
which he and his aides were quoted
criticizing the administration.
President Barack Obama nominated
Gen. David Petraeus, head of the
military's Central Command and
architect of the 2007 Iraq surge, to
replace McChrystal. The change in
command comes at a crucial time in
the war, as additional surge forces are
scheduled to arrive ahead of a critical
operation in Kandahar. Obama
emphasizes that his acceptance of
McChrystal's resignation did not
reflect disagreement over the
counterinsurgency strategy he had
helped shape. "We are in full
agreement about our strategy," says
Obama, "this is a change in personnel,
not a change in policy."
