The document provides an overview of qualitative research methods. It discusses how qualitative research aims to understand people's behaviors and perspectives through in-depth studies using techniques like interviews, observations, and case studies. The document outlines different approaches to qualitative research from various academic fields and compares it to quantitative research. It also discusses how qualitative research develops descriptive findings rather than predictive theories and is useful for answering questions about how and why.

1. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
METHODS
Paulino Silva
ISCAP – IPP
8th july 2015

2. AGENDA
• Introduction to Qualitative Research
• Research Design
• Research Question(s)
• Collecting Evidence
– Qualitative interviews
– Observation
– Texts and documents
– Audio and video
• Case studies
• Data analysis
• Some tips for an effective qualitative research
• Conclusions
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 2

3. WHO ARE YOU?
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 3

4. FOR DISCUSSION
• What is Qualitative Research?
• How different is Qualitative Research from
Quantitative Research?
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 4

5. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
What is it? What is not?
Motivations,
emotions
Non-­‐quantifiable
data
analysis
Round
table
Personal
interviews
Focus
groups,
case
studies
Casual
conversation
Well-­‐being
Individualization,
needs
Sensibility
Answer
the
questions
How?
and
Why?
Data
analysis
Empirical
studies
What
is
not
qualitative
Use
of
surveys
More
concrete
and
objective
studies
Points
of
view
Numerical
rating
Source:
Responses
from
the
course
"Qualitative
Research
Methods"
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 5

6. WHAT IS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH?
• Many attempts to define qualitative research in
the social sciences and to differentiate it from
quantitative research (Bryman, 1988, 2001;
Hammersley, 1992; Silverman, 2001);
• No consensus on these questions, as qualitative
research cannot be considered a unified set of
techniques or philosophies, and has developed
from a wide range of intellectual and
disciplinary traditions (Mason, 2002).
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 6

7. WHAT IS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH?
• Qualitative research is commonly associated
with certain schools that are known for
developing an interpretivist sociological
tradition (Mason, 2002).
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 7

8. WHAT IS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH?
• Anthropologists have been using qualitative
research in the form of ethnography;
• Psychologists, more associated with
quantitative research methods, have
developed research based on content
analysis and psychoanalysis;
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 8

9. WHAT IS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH?
• Educators have conventionally used case
study methods;
• Historians have developed an approach to
the use of qualitative methods in the writing
of oral and life histories;
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 9

10. WHAT IS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH?
• Media and cultural researchers rely heavily
on qualitative ways of knowing;
• Health scholars also support strongly their
research on qualitative research.
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 10

11. FROM WIKIPEDIA...
Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualitative_research
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 11

12. FROM WIKIPEDIA...
Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualitative_research
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 12
Qualitative
research
is
a
method
of
inquiry
employed
in
many
different
academic
disciplines,
traditionally
in
the
social
sciences,
but
also
in
market
research
by
the
business
sector
and
further
contexts
including
research
and
service
demonstrations
by
the
non-­‐profit
sectors.
Qualitative
researchers
are
involved
in
studies
of
almost
any
imaginable
phenomenon,
and
their
studies
often
require
institutional
human
subjects
approvals
"in
the
field”.

13. FROM OTHER WEBSITES...
Source:
http://www.qrca.org/?page=whatisqualresearch
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 13

14. FROM OTHER WEBSITES...
Source:
http://www.qrca.org/?page=whatisqualresearch
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 14
Qualitative
research
is
designed
to
reveal
a
target
audience’s
range
of
behavior
and
the
perceptions
that
drive
it
with
reference
to
specific
topics
or
issues.
It
uses
in-­‐depth
studies
of
small
groups
of
people
to
guide
and
support
the
construction
of
hypotheses.
The
results
of
qualitative
research
are
descriptive
rather
than
predictive.
From ‘Qualitative Research
Consultants Association’

15. FROM OTHER WEBSITES...
Source:
http://www.qrca.org/?page=whatisqualresearch
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 15
Qualitative
research
methods
originated
in
the
social
and
behavioral
sciences:
sociology,
anthropology
and
psychology.
Today,
qualitative
methods
in
the
field
of
marketing
research
include
in-­‐depth
interviews
with
individuals,
group
discussions
(from
two
to
ten
participants
is
typical);
diary
and
journal
exercises;
and
in-­‐
context
observations.
Sessions
may
be
conducted
in
person,
by
telephone,
via
videoconferencing
and
via
the
Internet.
From ‘Qualitative Research
Consultants Association’

16. FROM OTHER WEBSITES...
Source:
http://www.qsrinternational.com/what-­‐is-­‐qualitative-­‐research.aspx
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 16
From ‘QSR International -­ NVivo’

17. FROM OTHER WEBSITES...
Source:
http://www.qsrinternational.com/what-­‐is-­‐qualitative-­‐research.aspx
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 17
From ‘QSR International -­ NVivo’

18. FROM OTHER WEBSITES...
Source:
http://www.qsrinternational.com/what-­‐is-­‐qualitative-­‐research.aspx
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 18
From ‘QSR International -­ NVivo’

19. FROM OTHER WEBSITES...
Source:
http://www.qsrinternational.com/what-­‐is-­‐qualitative-­‐research.aspx
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 19
From ‘QSR International -­ NVivo’

20. WHAT IS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH?
• It is a type of scientific research that consists of
an investigation that:
– Seeks answers to a question (especially if it is a Why
or How question);
– Uses a predefined set of procedures to answer it;
– Collects evidence;
– Produces findings that were not determined in
advance;
– Produces findings that are applicable beyond the
immediate boundaries of the study.
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 20

21. QUALITATIVE VS. QUANTITATIVE
“The distinction between quantitative and
qualitative methods is not entirely clear-cut,
and all researchers should think very
carefully about how and why they might
combine any methods, whether qualitative,
quantitative, or both.”
Mason (2002: 6)
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 21

22. RESEARCH TAXIONOMY
Critical
Research
Interpretive
Research
Positivist
Research
Subjectivism
(nature
of
social
sciences)
Objectivism
(nature
of
social
sciences)
Radical
Change
(approach
to
society)
Regulation
(approach
to
society) Source:
(Hopper
&
Powell,
1985)
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 22

23. POSITIVIST RESEARCH
Use
a
theoretical
model
to
formulate
hypotheses
Test
the
hypotheses
Generalize
the
results
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 23

24. INTERPRETIVE RESEARCH
Use
field
work
Study
the
phenomena
in
the
natural
environment
Development
of
holistic
theories
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 24

25. FINDING A FOCUS AND KNOWING
WHERE YOU STAND
• Normally, it’s not very difficult to find a
broad topic or area for research;
• It’s more challenging to design an effective
project with a clear, relevant and
intellectually worthwhile focus to explore
the topic!
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 25

26. WHERE YOU STAND
26

27. WHAT YOUR RESEARCH IS ABOUT
• Explain to others briefly but specifically what
your research is about.
– Not a over-­‐general version
– Not a long and detailed version of your research
focus
• The middle course between the previous
two;
• Be able to articulate what is the ‘essence’ of
your enquiry.
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 27

28. FIVE ESSENTIAL TOPICS
1. The Social ‘Reality’: Your Ontological
Perspective
2. Knowledge and Evidence: Your
Epistemological Position
3. Your Broad Research Area
4. Your Intellectual Puzzle
5. Your Research Questions
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 28

29. WHAT YOUR RESEARCH IS ABOUT
1. What is the nature of the phenomena, or entities, or
social ‘reality’, that you wish to investigate?
2. What might represent knowledge or evidence of
the entities or social ‘reality’ that you wish to
investigate?
3. What topic, or broad substantive area, is the
research concerned with?
4. What is the intellectual puzzle? What do you wish to
explain or explore? What type of puzzle is it?
5. What are your research questions?
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 29

30. WHAT YOUR RESEARCH IS ABOUT
1. What is the nature of the phenomena, or entities, or
social ‘reality’, that you wish to investigate?
2. What might represent knowledge or evidence of
the entities or social ‘reality’ that you wish to
investigate?
3. What topic, or broad substantive area, is the
research concerned with?
4. What is the intellectual puzzle? What do you wish to
explain or explore? What type of puzzle is it?
5. What are your research questions?
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 30

31. WHAT YOUR RESEARCH IS ABOUT
1. What is the nature of the phenomena, or entities, or
social ‘reality’, that you wish to investigate?
2. What might represent knowledge or evidence of
the entities or social ‘reality’ that you wish to
investigate?
3. What topic, or broad substantive area, is the
research concerned with?
4. What is the intellectual puzzle? What do you wish to
explain or explore? What type of puzzle is it?
5. What are your research questions?
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 31

32. WHAT YOUR RESEARCH IS ABOUT
1. What is the nature of the phenomena, or entities, or
social ‘reality’, that you wish to investigate?
2. What might represent knowledge or evidence of
the entities or social ‘reality’ that you wish to
investigate?
3. What topic, or broad substantive area, is the
research concerned with?
4. What is the intellectual puzzle? What do you wish to
explain or explore? What type of puzzle is it?
5. What are your research questions?
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 32

33. WHAT YOUR RESEARCH IS ABOUT
1. What is the nature of the phenomena, or entities, or
social ‘reality’, that you wish to investigate?
2. What might represent knowledge or evidence of
the entities or social ‘reality’ that you wish to
investigate?
3. What topic, or broad substantive area, is the
research concerned with?
4. What is the intellectual puzzle? What do you wish to
explain or explore? What type of puzzle is it?
5. What are your research questions?
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 33

34. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
• Research questions will form the backbone of
your research design;
• Qualitative approaches usually require
formulating questions to be explored and
developed in the research process, rather than
hypotheses to be tested by empirical research;
• A research question is one which the research is
designed to address (it is nothing to do with a
question an interviewer might ask an
interviewee);
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 34

35. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
• Research questions will form the backbone of
your research design;
• Qualitative approaches usually require
formulating questions to be explored and
developed in the research process, rather than
hypotheses to be tested by empirical research;
• A research question is one which the research is
designed to address (it is nothing to do with a
question an interviewer might ask an
interviewee);
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 35

36. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
• Research questions will form the backbone of
your research design;
• Qualitative approaches usually require
formulating questions to be explored and
developed in the research process, rather than
hypotheses to be tested by empirical research;
• A research question is one which the research is
designed to address (it is nothing to do with a
question an interviewer might ask an
interviewee);
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 36

37. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
• Research questions are the formal expression
of your intellectual puzzle;
• Research questions should be formulated
clearly (even if changes may occur during the
research process);
• Research questions can be refined during the
process of research;
• Many research topics can lead to several
research questions, but we need to decide
which of them is the main research question.
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 37

38. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
• Research questions are the formal expression
of your intellectual puzzle;
• Research questions should be formulated
clearly (even if changes may occur during the
research process);
• Research questions can be refined during the
process of research;
• Many research topics can lead to several
research questions, but we need to decide
which of them is the main research question.
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 38

39. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
• Research questions are the formal expression
of your intellectual puzzle;
• Research questions should be formulated
clearly (even if changes may occur during the
research process);
• Research questions can be refined during the
process of research;
• Many research topics can lead to several
research questions, but we need to decide
which of them is the main research question.
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 39

40. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
• Research questions are the formal expression
of your intellectual puzzle;
• Research questions should be formulated
clearly (even if changes may occur during the
research process);
• Research questions can be refined during the
process of research;
• Many research topics can lead to several
research questions, but we need to decide
which of them is the main research question.
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 40

41. DESIGNING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
• After formulate research questions your research is
already set on certain tracks in relation to its design
and strategy because you have started to position it
ontologically and epistemologically;
• Now it’s time to think about the methods to use to
generate data in order to help you to answer your
research questions;
• Focus your thinking about creating links between
methods and research questions;
• Think strategically (for example, the interview
method can be a component in a range of different
methodological strategies – it is not a strategy itself).
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 41

42. DESIGNING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
• After formulate research questions your research is
already set on certain tracks in relation to its design
and strategy because you have started to position it
ontologically and epistemologically;
• Now it’s time to think about the methods to use to
generate data in order to help you to answer our
research questions;
• Focus your thinking about creating links between
methods and research questions;
• Think strategically (for example, the interview
method can be a component in a range of different
methodological strategies – it is not a strategy itself).
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 42

43. DESIGNING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
• After formulate research questions your research is
already set on certain tracks in relation to its design
and strategy because you have started to position it
ontologically and epistemologically;
• Now it’s time to think about the methods to use to
generate data in order to help you to answer our
research questions;
• Focus your thinking about creating links between
methods and research questions;
• Think strategically (for example, the interview
method can be a component in a range of different
methodological strategies – it is not a strategy itself).
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 43

44. DESIGNING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
• After formulate research questions your research is
already set on certain tracks in relation to its design
and strategy because you have started to position it
ontologically and epistemologically;
• Now it’s time to think about the methods to use to
generate data in order to help you to answer our
research questions;
• Focus your thinking about creating links between
methods and research questions;
• Think strategically (for example, the interview
method can be a component in a range of different
methodological strategies – it is not a strategy itself).
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 44

45. WHICH METHODOLOGY TO
USE?
45

46. FROM ONTOLOGY TO METHODOLOGY?
The selection of the most appropriate research
methodology is dependent on the nature of
the phenomenon being researched...
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 46

47. ... IN PARTICULAR...
Ontology
• Assumptions which
the
researcher
holds
regarding
the
nature
of
the
phenomenon’s
reality…
Epistemology
• …
will
affect
the
way
in
which
knowledge
can
be
gained
about
that
phenomenon…
Methodology
• …
and
this
in
turn
affects
the
process
through
which
research
can
be
conducted.
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 47

48. METHOD: WHAT IS IT?
• The word method comes from the Greek
word μέθοδος (méthodos, way to come to
an end).
• “a procedure, technique, or way of doing
something, especially in accordance with a
definite plan.”
In Dictionary.com
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 48

49. RESEARCH METHODS
• What are research methods?
– Research techniques that allow specific analyzes
according to the methodology followed by
research in which they are used.
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 49

50. RESEARCH METHODS
• Examples:
– Interviews
– Observation
– Texts and documents
– Audio and video
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 50

51. RESEARCH METHODS
• Combination of methods (examples):
– Management: Interviews + Documents
– Anthropology: Participant Observation +
Interviews
• One single study can combine the use of all
four methods;
• Any method can be used in quantitative
research (but not often).
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 51

52. INTERVIEWS
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 52

53. “QUALITATIVE” INTERVIEWS
• Normally semi-­‐structured or open
interviews;
• Similar to normal conversations;
• Researcher – interviewee / group of people;
• In person, by phone, internet, video-­‐
conference;
• During a month, or several years;
• In a small or large number.
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 53

54. WHY “QUALITATIVE” INTERVIEWS?
• They can be the only adequate way to give a
deep response to research questions.
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 54

55. PREPARE THE INTERVIEW
• Think carefully about the set of questions to
use (these questions can come up from
other previous interviews or from other
method used previously);
• Think about the best way to approach
interviewees in order to obtain their
permission (e-­‐mail, telephone, etc.);
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 55

56. PREPARE THE INTERVIEW
• Think carefully the best way to approach
some sensitive topics, in order to avoid
interviewee retraction;
• Prepare to manage adequately the interview
(in order to obtain responses to the
questions previously prepared, control the
recording, if it is the case, etc.).
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 56

57. EVEN WITH THE BEST PREPARATION...
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 57

58. INTERVIEW SCRIPT (EXAMPLE)
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 58

59. INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPTION
(EXAMPLE)
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 59

60. INTERVIEWS DETAILS (EXAMPLE)
Source:
Silva
and Ferreira
(2010)
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 60

61. INTERVIEW: THE WRONG APPROACH
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 61

62. INTERVIEW: THE RIGHT APPROACH
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 62

63. OBSERVATION
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 63

64. OBSERVATION
• Watch activities made by interviewees and
other professionals;
• Watch social actions, behaviours, relations, etc.;
• Observation is very used to try to understand
other cultures;
• Can be combined with other research methods
(ex: participation in meetings, observe the
reaction of interviewees during an interview).
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 64

65. OBSERVATION (MASTER STUDENT
EXAMPLE)
• “Direct observation, allowed to understand how the
activities, behaviours, relationships, social activities
and events held and / or communicated by observed.
The observation was carried out for long periods of
time, since the company under case study work by
shifts, thus allowing the presence of the researcher.
The reactions of respondents was collaborative. It was
not observed negative behaviours. Observations notes
were registered after leaving the company.”
• This observation allowed the student to be aware of
what really was going on in the factory and to
validate some information collected through
interviews.
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 65

66. TEXTS AND DOCUMENTS
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 66

67. TEXTS AND DOCUMENTS
• A method widely used in qualitative research;
• Variety of documental sources: legislation,
newspapers, magazines, newsletters,
textbooks and other publications, mailing
(physical or electronic), projects, reports,
diaries, memos, historical archives,
commercials, contracts, websites;
• Can be part of a wider research strategy or be
the only method used (example: study dating
back to a distant past).
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 67

68. DOCUMENTS REGISTRATION
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 68

69. AUDIO AND VIDEO
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 69

70. AUDIO AND VIDEO
• Rarely used in quantitative research, mainly
because of the difficulty in quantifying data
generated by this method;
• Widely used in qualitative research. For
example, recorded interviews are more reliable
than researcher manual notes;
• It allows the review of the content, as needed;
• Sometimes it is difficult to get permission for
this type of method.
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 70

71. AUDIO AND VIDEO
• Very relevant when we want to understand
how individuals express themselves, either by
conversation (audio recording) or by body
language (video recording);
• It may not be suitable in certain places
(example: manufacturing facilities with noise
hinder audio recording);
• It requires great availability of time (example:
transcription of recorded interviews).
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 71

72. AUDIO AND VIDEO
• It allows more reliable information, but can
constrain the professionals;
• The researcher needs to gain the trust of the
professional, which may not be easy;
• There are situations when respondents
refuse to recording interviews;
• It is common for respondents to explain
further their positions / opinions after the
recorder be turned off.
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 72

73. METHOD TRIANGULATION
• Sometimes different methods are part of
the same research strategy;
• It is common to use several different
methods, namely, interviews, texts and
documents, observation, audio -­‐ all of them
to enable triangulation of the data collected.
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 73

74. WHAT IS TRIANGULATION?
• Enable to test validity of data gathered using
different research methods.
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 74

75. WORK / DISCUSSION
• Make a SWOT Analysis of Qualitative
Research Methods
– Strengths
– Weaknesses
– Opportunities
– Threats
PAULINO
SILVA
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76. CASE STUDIES
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SILVA
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77. CASE STUDY: WHAT IS IT?
• It is an empirical inquiry that investigates a
contemporary phenomenon in depth and
within its real-­‐life context, especially when
the boundaries between phenomenon and
context are nor clearly evident.
Source:
Yin (2009)
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SILVA
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78. TYPES OF CASE STUDIES
• Descriptive case studies;
• Illustrative case studies;
• Experimental case studies;
• Exploratory case studies;
• Explanatory case studies.
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SILVA
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79. DESCRIPTIVE CASE STUDIES
• Used to describe systems, techniques and
procedures followed in practice;
• Were especially popular in the 80s, when the
researchers sought to obtain exhaustive
descriptions of what was done in
companies;
• Currently they are used, particularly by
professional bodies to describe best practice
adopted by the most successful companies.
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SILVA
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80. ILUSTRATIVE CASE STUDIES
• They seek to illustrate practices, supposedly
innovative practices, developed by
companies described as excellent;
• The knowledge of these practices is very
important to understand to what extent the
theory and prescribed techniques are
followed by companies.
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SILVA
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81. EXPERIMENTAL CASE STUDIES
• They are the result of techniques, procedures
and practices developed conceptually by
researchers in order to be applied to companies
and analysed its impacts;
• Useful for studying problems in implementation
and benefits of using one or more techniques;
• Widely used in the 1970's when there was the
will to design sophisticated techniques, which
then would not be much used in practice.
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SILVA
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82. EXPLORATORY CASE STUDIES
• Allow the researcher to explore the reasons
for certain practices;
• With this type of study, hypotheses are
obtained to test in future studies (either
through other case studies, or through other
methods of research);
• Usually they represent a preliminary phase
of the research.
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SILVA
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83. EXPLANATORY CASE STUDIES
• They intend to study and explain the existence of
certain practices;
• The emphasis is in particular not in generic, unlike
the case of exploratory studies;
• The existing theory is used to explain the practices
observed by the researcher; when the existing
theory does not explain satisfactorily, it is necessary
to modify the existing theory or develop new
theories;
• For many researchers only this type of case studies
allow develop the full potential of research method
based on case studies.
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SILVA
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84. SINGLE-CASE OR MULTIPLE-CASES?
• Single-­‐case is suitable when:
– The critical case in testing a well-­‐formulated theory:
decisive to test a well-­‐formulated theory;
– An extreme case or a unique case: infrequent or
unique situation;
– Representative or typical case: context and
characteristics of a day-­‐to-­‐day situation;
– An revelatory case: phenomenon previously
inaccessible;
– An longitudinal case: studying the same single case
at two or more different points in time.
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SILVA
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85. CASE STUDY: THE PROCESS
Plan Design
Prepare
Collect
AnalyseShare
Source:
Yin,
2009
A LINEAR BUT ITERATIVE PROCESS
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SILVA
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86. PLAN
• Identify research questions or other
rationale for doing case study.
• Decide to use the case study method,
compared to other methods.
• Understand its strengths
and limitations.
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SILVA
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87. DESIGN
• Define the unit of analysis and the likely case
to be studied;
• Develop theory, propositions and issues
underlying the anticipated study;
• Identify the case study design (single,
multiple, holistic, embedded);
• Define procedures to
maintain case study quality.
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SILVA
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88. PREPARE
• Hone skills as a case study researcher;
• Train for specific case study;
• Develop case study protocol;
• Conduct pilot case;
• Gain approval for human subjects
protection.
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SILVA
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89. COLLECT
• Follow case study protocol;
• Use multiple sources of evidence;
• Create case study database;
• Maintain chain of evidence.
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SILVA
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90. ANALYSE
• Rely on theoretical propositions and other
strategies;
• Consider any of five analytic techniques,
using quantitative or qualitative data or
both;
• Explore rival explanations;
• Display data apart from
interpretations.
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SILVA
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91. SHARE
• Define audience;
• Compose textual and visual materials;
• Display enough evidence for reader to reach
own conclusions;
• Review and re-­‐write until done well.
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SILVA
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92. TESTING THE QUALITY OF METHOD
1. Construct validity: use multiple sources of
evidence for the same variable in analysis;
2. Internal validity: seek to establish a causal
relationship, whereby certain conditions are
believed to lead to other conditions;
3. External validity: define the domain to which
a study’s findings can be generalized;
4. Reliability: demonstrate that the operations
of a study – such as the data collection
procedures – can be repeated, with the same
results. Source:
Yin
(2003)
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SILVA
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93. TESTING THE QUALITY OF METHOD
1. Construct validity: use multiple sources of
evidence for the same variable in analysis;
2. Internal validity: seek to establish a causal
relationship, whereby certain conditions are
believed to lead to other conditions;
3. External validity: define the domain to which
a study’s findings can be generalized;
4. Reliability: demonstrate that the operations
of a study – such as the data collection
procedures – can be repeated, with the same
results. Source:
Yin
(2003)
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
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94. TESTING THE QUALITY OF METHOD
1. Construct validity: use multiple sources of
evidence for the same variable in analysis;
2. Internal validity: seek to establish a causal
relationship, whereby certain conditions are
believed to lead to other conditions;
3. External validity: define the domain to which
a study’s findings can be generalized;
4. Reliability: demonstrate that the operations
of a study – such as the data collection
procedures – can be repeated, with the same
results. Source:
Yin
(2003)
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
-­‐ 8.JUL.2015 94

95. TESTING THE QUALITY OF METHOD
1. Construct validity: use multiple sources of
evidence for the same variable in analysis;
2. Internal validity: seek to establish a causal
relationship, whereby certain conditions are
believed to lead to other conditions;
3. External validity: define the domain to which
a study’s findings can be generalized;
4. Reliability: demonstrate that the operations
of a study – such as the data collection
procedures – can be repeated, with the same
results. Source:
Yin
(2003)
PAULINO
SILVA
-­‐ QRM
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96. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH ANALYSIS
• Qualitative research provides rich, detailed and
contextualized information (this normally does
not happen with quantitative research);
• Qualitative research is less structured that
quantitative research;
• The ‘qualitative researcher’ should master, not
statistical techniques (as the quantitative
researcher), but the analysis of evidence,
following procedures in order to articulate
them with the theory adopted in the study.
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SILVA
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97. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH ANALYSIS
• The procedures of quantitative research are
based essencially in statistical analysis, they
are sequencial and well defined –
conversely, the procedures of qualitative
research are interactive, and sometimes as a
result of the researcher criativity.
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SILVA
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98. COMPONENTS OF THE ANALYSIS
PROCESS
Evidence
collection Building
displays
Conclusions
Evidence
reduction
Source:
Miles
e
Huberman,
1994,
p.
12
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SILVA
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99. IN CONCLUSION...
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SILVA
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100. RESEARCH PROCESS
Statement
of
the
obtained
results
Analysis
evaluation
Data
analysis
Evaluation
and
restatement
of
the
specific
research
questions
Data
collection
Evaluation
and
restatement
of
the
specific
research
questions
Choosing
of
adequate
methods
and
research
plan
Selection
of
the
research
groups,
whish
will
be
based
for
the
study
Statement
of
the
main
concepts
Statement
of
the
specific
research
questions
Statement
of
the
general
question
Source:
Adapted from Flick (2006),
p.
48
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SILVA
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101. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH SHOULD...
• Be systematically and rigorously conducted (no
excuses for doing different);
• Be accountable for its quality and its claims;
• Be flexible and contextual, strategically conducted;
• Involve critical self-­‐scrutiny by the researcher, or
active reflexivity;
• Produce explanations or arguments, not presenting
only mere descriptions;
• Produce explanations or arguments that can
demonstrate some wider resonance;
• Not be seen as opposite to quantitative research.
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SILVA
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102. SOME IMPORTANT REFERENCES
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SILVA
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103. ABDC JOURNAL QUALITY LIST
• The ABDC (Australian Business Deans
Council) Journal Quality List comprises 2 767
different journal titles, divided into four
categories of quality:
– A*: 6,9%;
– A: 20,8%;
– B: 28,4%;
– and C: 43,9% journals.
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SILVA
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104. ABDC JOURNAL QUALITY LIST
Journals that have “Qualitative” in their title:
1. Qualitative Research in Accounting and
Management
2. Qualitative Research in Organizations and
Management
3. Qualitative Research in Financial Markets
4. Qualitative Market Research: an
international journal
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SILVA
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105. TO THINK ABOUT…
“Not everything that counts can be counted,
and not everything that can be counted counts.”
Albert Einstein
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SILVA
-­‐ QRM
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106. Thank you very
much!
J
Questions?
PAULINO@ISCAP.IPP.PT