The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL

The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
_________________________________________________________________

Contents Page

FOREWORD ix

INTRODUCTION TO THE GUIDE 1

CHAPTER ONE: SELECTING A TOPIC AND NARROWING IT
DOWN 4
1.1 Selecting a Topic 7
1.2 How to Search for Bibliographic Resources 9
1.2.1 Books 9
1.2.2 Other Resources 10
1.2.2.1 Specialized Journals and Handbooks 10
1.2.2.2 Technical Dictionaries 10
1.2.2.3Annotated Bibliographies 11
1.2.2.4 Computer Searches 11
1.2.2.4.1 Databases 11
1.2.2.4.2 Online Journals 12
1.2.2.5 Other Theses 13
1.3 Reading and Exploiting Resources 13
1.4 Narrowing Down the Topic: Research Methodology 15
1.4.1 Research Methods 16
1.4.1.1 Descriptive Research 16
1.4.1.1.1 Survey Research 16
1.4.1.1.2 Observational Research 16
1.4.1.1.3 Ethnographic Research 17
1.4.1.2 Correlational Research 17
1.4.1.2.1 Relationship Studies 18
1.4.1.2.2 Prediction Studies 18
1.4.1.3 Experimental Research 19
1.4.1.4 Other Research Types 19
1.4.1.4.1 Historical Research 20
1.4.14.2 Causal-Comparative Research 20
1.4.1.4.3 Methodological Research 20
1.4.2 Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research 21
1.4.3 Selecting Appropriate Research Methodology 24
1.4.4 Research Procedures in Second Language Acquisition 25
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1.4.4.1 Error Analysis 25
1.4.4.2 Methods for Investigating Developmental Patterns 27
1.4.4.2.1 Obligatory Occasion Analysis 27
1.4.4.2.2 Target-Like Use Analysis 28
1.4.4.2.3 Frequency Analysis 28
1.4.4.3 Research Methods for Studying Illocutionary Acts 29
1.4.4.4 Methods for Investigating Input and Interaction 30
1.5 Narrowing Down Your Topic 30
1.6 Evaluating the Topic: Is Yours a Good Topic? 31

CHAPTER TWO: WRITING THE INTRODUCTION 35
2.1 Parts of the Thesis 37
2.2 Content of the Introductory Chapter 39
2.3 Explanation of Key Elements in the Introduction 40
2.4 Rhetoric and Formulas 41
2.4.1 Introduction to the Problem 41
2.4.2 Purpose of the Study 47
2.4.3 Research Questions and Hypotheses 48
2.4.3.1 Research Questions 48
2.4.3.2 Hypotheses 49
2.4.4 Definitions of Terms 50
2.4.5 Significance of the Study 50
2.5 Sample Introductions 51

CHAPTER THREE: ACADEMIC WRITING, COMPUTER SKILLS,
AND FORMAT 75
3.1 Academic Writing: Things to Consider When Writing the Thesis 77
3.1.1 Formal Grammar and Style 77
3.1.2 Latinate versus Phrasal Verbs 78
3.1.3 Verbosity and Wordiness 80
3.2 Editing the Paper 80
3.2.1 Editing for Grammar 80
3.2.1.1 The Sentence 81
3.2.1.2 The Paragraph 82
3.3 Using the Computer 83
3.3.1 Word for Windows: A Beginning Tutorial 83
3.3.1.1 Turning on the Computer 85
3.3.1.2 Entering Text 86
3.3.1.3 Moving Around 86

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3.3.1.4 Editing Text 86
3.3.1.5 The Toolbars (Barras de Herramientas) 87
3.3.1.6 Formatting Paragraphs 88
3.3.1.7 Cutting, Pasting, and Copying (Cortar, Pegar, y Copiar) 89
3.3.1.8 Windows (Ventanas) 90
3.3.1.9 Selecting Language 90
3.3.1.10 Spelling, Thesaurus, and Grammar (Ortografía y Gramática) 91
3.3.1.11 Inserting Clip Art (Imágenes Prediseñadas) 91
3.3.1.2 Columns 92
3.3.1.13 Sections 93
3.3.1.14 Finding and Replacing (Buscar y Reemplazar) 93
3.3.1.15 Spelling and Thesaurus 94
3.3.1.16 AutoCorrect (Autocorrección) 94
3.3.1.17 Footnotes (Notas a Pie de Página) 94
3.3.1.18 Headers and Footers (Encabezado y Pie de Página) 95
3.3.1.19 Inserting Tables 95
3.3.1.20 Inserting a Chart from Excel 96
3.4 Formatting Your Paper 97
3.4.1 Title Pages 97
3.4.2 Dedications 99
3.4.3 Acknowledgments 100
3.4.4 Table of Contents 101
3.4.5 Table of Appendices 102
3.4.6 List of Tables 102
3.4.7 Body of the Paper 102
3.4.8 References 104

CHAPTER FOUR: WRITING THE LITERATURE REVIEW 105
4.1 Content and Function of the Literature Review 107
4.2 Starting the Literature Review from an Outline 107
4.3 American Psychological Association (APA) Style 110
4.3.1 Citing References in Your Text 110
4.3.2 Citing a Word Discussed in a Secondary Source 112
4.3.3 Citations in the Reference List at the End of Your Paper 112
4.3.3.1 Journal Article 112
4.3.3.2 Book 113
4.3.3.3 Chapter in a Book 113
4.3.3.4 ERIC Document 114
4.4 Developing the Outline 114

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4.4.1 Structure of the Literature Review Paragraph 114
4.4.2 Paragraph Writing Practice 118
4.4.3 Successfully Expressing One’s Point of View: Coherence 122
4.4.3.1 Sentence Connectors 123
4.4.3.1.1 Uses of Connectors 124
4.4.3.1.2 Using Connectors to Express One’s Point of View 125
4.4.4 Some Practical Advice for the Review of Literature 132
4.4.4.1 Integrating Ideas from Sources 132
4.4.4.2 Common Errors in the Review of Literature 133
4.4.4.3 Solutions to the Problems 134
4.4.4.4 Revising Literature Review Paragraphs 134

CHAPTER FIVE: WRITING THE METHOD CHAPTER 139
5.1 Content and Function of Chapter III: The Methodology Chapter 141
5.2 Describing Subjects 141
5.3 Instruments 141
5.3.1 Locating and Developing Instruments 142
5.3.2 Developing One’s Own Instruments 142
5.3.3 Procedures for Instrument Design 142
5.4 Describing Instruments 143
5.5 Describing Procedures 143
5.6 Describing Data Analysis 144
5.7 Sample Methodology Chapters and Appended Instruments 145

CHAPTER SIX: WRITING THE RESULTS CHAPTER 181
6.1 Analyzing Data 183
6.1.1 Steps for Data Analysis Procedures 183
6.1.2 Guidelines for Using Tables 183
6.1.3 Considerations When Using Figures 184
6.1.4 Appendices 184
6.2 Content of Chapter Four 185
6.2.1 Hypotheses (Subheadings) 185
6.2.2 Variable 185
6.2.3 Time Sequence 186
6.3 Using Excel to Process Data 186
6.3.1 Moving around the Worksheet 186
6.3.2 Entering Data 186
6.3.3 Editing Data 187
6.3.4 Resizing 187

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6.3.5 Averaging Test Scores 187
6.3.6 Counting the Number of Students 188
6.3.7 Creating a Chart 188
6.3.8 Adding More Data 189
6.3.9 Filling the Formula 189
6.3.10 Putting New Series in the Chart 190
6.3.11 Handling Data in Excel 190
6.3.12 Entering Data 190
6.3.13 Making a Chart 190
6.3.14 Filtering 191
6.3.15 Forms 191
6.3.16 Sorting 191
6.3.17 Subtotals 192
6.3.18 Excel Practice 192
6.4 Writing and Formatting the Chapter 197
6.5 A Note on Quantitative Data Analysis 206
6.5.1 Measures of Central Tendency 206
6.5.2 Measures of Variability 206
6.5.3 SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) 207
6.6 Sample Results Chapters 208

CHAPTER SEVEN: WRITING THE CONCLUSIONS CHAPTER
AND DEVELOPING A PRESENTATION 241
7.1 Writing the Conclusions 243
7.1.1 A Summary of Your Study 243
7.1.2 Implications for Practice (in TESOL) 243
7.1.3 Limitations of the Study 243
7.1.4 Suggestions for Further Research 244
7.2 Concluding Remarks about Chapter Five 244
7.3 Sample Conclusions Chapters 245
7.4 Organizing Your Thesis Presentation 257
7.4.1 Content of the Presentation 257
7.4.2 Developing a PowerPoint Presentation 259
7.4.2.1 Basic Operation and Entering Text 259
7.4.2.2 Changing the Background Color, Design, or Template 259
7.4.2.3 Customizing Animation or Slide Transitions 260
7.5 Defending the Thesis 260
7.5.1 The Professional Examination 261
7.5.2 Tips for a Successful Defense 262

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7.5.2.1 First of All, Prepare Yourself 262
7.5.2.2 Just in Case: Backups, Equipment, and Materials 262
7.5.2.3 Like a Good Actor, Rehearse for Your Big Night 263
7.5.2.4 The One-Million-Dollar Question? 264
7.5.2.5 Formality, Presence, and Etiquette 264

EXERCISE ANSWER KEY 267

LIST OF REFERENCES AND SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 294
Background Research Upon which the Text is Based 297
Research Methodology 298
Writing and Academic Writing 299
Writing Papers, Theses, Dissertations 299
Data Analysis and Statistics 299
Specialized Dictionaries 300
Theses Directed by the Author 301

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FOREWORD
_________________________________________________________________
“Professionalization” is the concept that best characterizes the current
situation of the English Language Teaching (ELT) academic community in
Mexico (Wharton, 1994). This situation has generated a growing interest among
ELT professionals to pursue graduate studies, participate in conferences, and
publish nationally and internationally. This interest, which emerges from both
their personal motivation for professional development and as a result of the
Mexican educational policies, has generated a very dynamic academic community
in the last ten years.
Given that the majority of these professionals are non-native English speakers,
they are aware of the crucial role that their English language skills play in their
careers. Most of them are conscious that in order to participate actively in the
ELT profession they have to learn to communicate within the ELT discourse
community (Swales 1990).
It is in this context that the presentation of a thesis as an “initiation ritual”
into the profession has acquired a renewed meaning in Mexico. Learning to
communicate within an academic discourse community is a social process.
Every discourse community has its own meaning-making and interpreting
practices. Thus, ELT undergraduate students have to learn to communicate
within the ELT discourse community by observing, comparing, analyzing,
discussing, evaluating, writing and presenting; in other words, through their oral
and written interaction with other novices and experts. They have to learn to write
academic texts which meet the discoursal expectations of their tutors or
professors, who will interpret and finally evaluate their texts. Thus, the process of
writing a thesis has become an opportunity for undergraduate students to enhance

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their English skills and learn to communicate within the ELT community, which
enables their further professional development after graduation. Furthermore, the
fact that students have to write a thesis has other advantages. It allows for a more
holistic evaluation where the students are expected to demonstrate their abilities,
attitudes and values as well as their knowledge. The presentation of a thesis is
sometimes the only holistic evaluation process that students are subject to and
where they integrate what they have learned along the years in the university.
Roberto Criollo's book comes then as an invaluable contribution to fill an
existing gap. Books that prepare for thesis writing in ELT and enable learners to
carry out research are hard to find. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in
TESOL/AL has several strengths. First of all, it is the result of the author’s own
reflective teaching practice and ongoing engagement with theory. Second, it was
developed in a “real” context with students at the Benemérita Universidad
Autónoma de México. Nevertheless, as recently confirmed in an ELT event for
Tutors at the BUAP where professors from 5 Mexican state universities shared
common problems of thesis writing, this book will address the needs of many
university students struggling with thesis writing in Mexico and elsewhere. The
third advantage of the book is that it is Genre-based. It focuses on the
communicative intentions, the content, the rhetorical organization, the grammar
and the register used in the development of writing an ELT Thesis in English.
Finally, it is a hands-on product based writing book which can either be used as
part of a course or by autonomous learners.
As a practicing teacher educator, I am fortunate to see my former students
make a career in the ELT field. I got to know Roberto Criollo as an
undergraduate student at the BUAP more than 10 years ago. Since then I
somehow knew he had the personal drive and capacity to become an outstanding

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professional. Then he left for the US where he successfully completed an MA in
TESOL at Columbia Teachers’ College. Now as colleagues and friends, we
frequently share ideas, teaching experiences, and a continuous concern for
making the field of ELT more professional. This book is certainly a contribution
to this.
Fatima Encinas Prudencio,
Ex-coordinadora de la Licenciatura en Lenguas Modernas, BUAP.
Coordinadora del programa de Inglés de la Universidad Iberoamericana Plantel
Golfo Centro.

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INTRODUCTION TO THE GUIDE
_________________________________________________________________

The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL is intended to help
students and BA./MA. candidates in the development and presentation of their
thesis projects. It is based on systematic research carried out over five years and
on actual experience in the direction of 32 BA. theses and 2 MA. theses in this
field. The underlying theoretical approach supporting this book is genre analysis
(GA), which views writing as a communicative act within a discourse community.
GA considers each genre (“type of text”) to be unique and thus suggests that it be
explicitly taught in terms of communicative purposes and rhetorical structure. For
this reason, the Guide is completely and exclusively directed at developing the
thesis, and no time is wasted explaining concepts or theoretical constructs that are
not directly related to the development of the thesis project.
In addition, each chapter contains exercises that will prepare the learner for
the actual tasks he has to perform on his/her own project. The correct answers to
each exercise are provided in the Answer Key to the guide. In this way, the reader
can see whether he/she has correctly understood the instructions, principles, or
models presented in the chapter. The ultimate and unique feature of the Guide is
that it provides actual examples of thesis chapters for the reader to use as models
when developing his/her own.
The Guide is organized in seven chapters, each focused on a different stage
of the process of writing and defending a thesis. These chapters, although
consecutive, are not intended to be read in a linear manner. Instead, the reader
should go to the chapters that he or she is interested in, depending on the stage
that he/she is at in the development of his or her own thesis project. From that

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particular chapter, the reader can hop back and forth, using the information that is
useful for his/her most practical and immediate purposes.
Chapter One concerns the selection and the evaluation of the topic. It will
be useful for those who still do not have a thesis project or are doubtful about it.
In Chapter Two, attention is paid to the process of writing an introduction to the
thesis. This process is approached fully by presenting an outline of the content, an
explanation for each part of the chapter, the rhetorical formulas to be used, and
sample introductions to guide the aspiring thesis writer. Chapter Three focuses
on the writing conventions, the computer skills, and the formats and templates
necessary to develop the thesis project. This part should be continuously used as a
reference when working on other chapters, as most of the content presented here
will apply to the whole paper. Chapter Four is, without a doubt, one of the most
interesting chapters, as it deals with the theoretical framework of the thesis. In it,
the reader will find the easy way to the development of the literature review for
his/her project. The approach and techniques used here will facilitate the task of
writing what is, undoubtedly, the longest and most difficult chapter in the thesis.
There are clear instructions from writing an outline, citing references in APA
style, developing the outline, to several examples that will guide and train the
reader. Similarly, Chapter Five deals with the methodology chapter, providing
explanations, exercises, and examples of chapters with appended research
instruments that will facilitate work on this part of the thesis.
In Chapter Six, the process of writing the results chapter of the thesis is
explained in detail. Data analysis, handling data in Excel, and calculating
statistics are only some examples of what the reader will find in this chapter. In
addition, the chapter is fully complemented with an explanation of the content of
the results chapter, some exercises, and actual examples for the reader to study

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and use as models. Finally, Chapter Seven deals with the conclusions, developing
a presentation, and preparing for defense. At the end of the book, the Answer Key
and a List of References and Suggested Bibliography are provided for the reader
who needs additional information or is interested in any of the given areas
outlined.
It is now up to the reader to make the most of this guide. Good luck and
may your efforts be rewarded with an academic degree.

Roberto Criollo, MA.

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CHAPTER ONE:

SELECTING A TOPIC AND NARROWING IT DOWN

Selecting a Topic

How to Search for Bibliographic Resources

Reading and Exploiting Resources

Research Methodology

Narrowing Down Your Topic

Evaluating the Topic: Is Yours a Good Topic?

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In this chapter, we will look at the steps that should be taken when
selecting, narrowing down, and evaluating a thesis topic.

1.1 Selecting a Topic
One of the most difficult steps in developing a thesis is selecting a topic.
Selection of topic requires familiarity with the state of research in the area of
TESOL/AL. You need to know:
 What has been accomplished
 What hypotheses have or have not been supported
 What the controversies and the unresolved issues are
 What theories are applicable
 What contributions have resulted from research
(Long, Convey, & Chwalek, 1985)
As you can see, choosing a topic may be difficult because of a lack of
knowledge of the area of study. Sometimes students do not have a clear idea of
what they can or cannot write a thesis on. Then, they tend to think of unrealistic
or impossible topics that they will eventually drop. Before choosing a topic, a
careful analysis of our area of study and its different sub-areas is necessary.
On the other hand, it is also of crucial importance to select a topic based on
one’s interests and concerns. Successful completion of a thesis project depends to
a great extent on one’s willingness to ‘marry’ the topic. For that reason, the first
step in topic selection will always be defining one’s research interests. The figure
below outlines the steps that should be followed in topic selection.

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Steps in Topic Selection

Define your interests

Think of a possible
topic

Review the literature
nterests

Identify specific
researchable problems

Decide on one of them
and focus on it

As the figure illustrates, you must first explore your interests and try to find
something that you could develop as a thesis project. When you have found it, the
second step is to review the literature related to this topic. Even when this
literature review does not yet involve writing a theoretical background chapter,
the main concepts and theories behind the topic should be investigated.
The second step in topic selection involves then developing a preliminary
list of references and finding definitions for the most important terms related to
the topic to be researched into. The following section provides information on
how to do to this. Get ready to go to the library, buy a large notebook, and read
the information below.

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1.2 How to Search for Bibliographic Resources
1.2.1 Books
Using books seems to be easy, but it might be a very difficult task if the
research is not systematic. Searching and exploring resources requires careful
planning and organization. You may want to follow the steps below to optimize
the use of your bibliographic sources.
1. Go to your library and look for books that are directly related to your topic.
2. If you’re not sure whether or not a given book may be useful, check the table
of contents.
3. If the book is useful, check it out. If it is not, just leave it there... you may find
lots of interesting books, but if they are not related to your project, do not
waste your time and energy on them!
4. Once you have a book in your hands, write its data on a list. You will need
this later for your list of references. The APA format for citing references is
shown below.
Author’(s’) Last Names, First Name Initials. (Year in parentheses). Title of the
book underlined or in italics. City of publication: Publishing House.

Here’s one example:
Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.

Notice that the second line is indented as to show the author’s last name.

5. Make copies of only the page(s) or chapter(s) you are going to need.
Remember... everything may be interesting, but if it is not directly related to
your study, you don’t need it. Remember to include the first page of the book
so you can retrieve its data.

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6. Make copies of the bibliography at the end of the book.... you may find useful
references there!
7. Get a big binder and put all of your copies together. That will be your thesis
bible.

1.2.2 Other Resources
Besides books, there are some other important sources of information that
can make your literature review more comprehensive (Long, Convey, & Chwalek,
1985). These are:

1.2.2.1 Specialized Journals and Handbooks
In this type of publications, you can find updated information about current
theories in SLA and TESOL. Some of the most common ones are:
 The TESOL Quarterly
 Language
 Applied Linguistics
You can probably find some volumes of the TESOL Quarterly in your
Library. Also, you could subscribe to it, and get new information every three
months!

1.2.2.2 Technical Dictionaries
Dictionaries that define terms and concepts in our field. One example is:
Richards, J.C., Platt, J., & Platt, H. (1992). Longman dictionary of language
teaching and applied linguistics. Essex: Longman.

Besides providing you with some definitions of important concepts, a
technical dictionary can guide you in your search for resources, as it tells you how

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some terms are related and provides you with the bibliography where the
definitions were taken. It is advisable to look for the original sources mentioned
in the dictionary. A direct citation gives more weight to your research!

1.2.2.3 Annotated Bibliographies
These are ‘books’ that only contain bibliography about a given concept (i.e.
reading). Usually they are listed alphabetically and a brief explanation of the
content of each book or article is given. You can also base your research on these
annotated bibliographies, but of course you should also look for the original
sources mentioned there!

1.2.2.4 Computer Searches
1.2.2.4.1 Databases
Nowadays, the internet has become a great aid for research. Without moving from
your school, you can have access to numerous data bases with information about
particular topics in science and humanities. However, the risk of computer
searches is that they are time-consuming and you can find a lot of trash on the net.
I strongly encourage you to be serious in your computer searches. Some reliable
sources of information are:
 ERIC (Educational Resources Information Center): Book reviews and
articles on different fields.
 RLIN (Research Libraries Information Network): Book reviews and
articles on different fields. It can be accessed by key words.
 OCLC (On-Line College Library Center): Same as previous ones.
 DIALOG: Same
 ORBIT: Same

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 Bibliographic Retrieval System (BRS): Bibliographies and reviews.
 Educational Testing Service (ETS): Statistical information and test
instruments.
 MICASE. The University of Michigan Corpus of American Spoken
English. You will find samples to conduct discourse or conversation
analysis.
 CHILDES. The most important database on child language, with
software and samples of child speech for you to use in your research.
Important if you want to do research on children linguistic development.
All of these data bases can be accessed through internet. Go to a search
instrument (Alta Vista, Yahoo), and type any of the titles above... you’ll get to the
sites. Once in the sites, look for the information on the topics you are researching.

1.2.2.4.2 Online Journals
A second important source of information and references that you will find
on the world wide web is the Online Journal. An online journal is a publication
similar to a printed journal except that it is available through the net. Some
journals are refereed and some others aren’t. Some of them have a printed
counterpart, and some others do not. Yet some of them are free and some others
will require you to use your plastic money.
1. Check out the Cambridge Catalogue of Online Journals at
http://193.60.94.214/public/door

2. Or the Oxford Journals: http://www3.oup.co.uk/jnls/online/

Some suggested free journals and e-zines are the following:

3. The Internet TESL Journal: Directed at TESL teachers, with theoretical and
practical stuff that you can use and cite. http://iteslj.org Check my article!

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4. TESL-EJ http://www.kyoto-su.ac.jp/information/tesl-ej/

5. Language Learning and Technology http://llt.msu.edu/

6. ELT Spectrum magazine www1.oup.co.uk/elt/magazine/

7. EFL Web http://www.eflweb.com/

8. Onestopenglish Magazine http://www.onestopenglish.com/index.htm
Macmillan publishers free magazine.

1.2.2.5 Other Theses
Theses on related topics or on the same topic as yours can help you in two ways.
First, you can use their information and cite them as references. Also, you may
find in the list of references some titles of books that you didn’t know about
which could be useful for your research!
All of the sources listed above are valid and reliable references. In any
case, remember that you should provide careful reference of where you take the
information from, and that reading original sources gives support to your
research. Beware of plagiarism!
The last step in this search for references involves looking for definitions of
the most important terms to be used in the research. Reading and note-taking
should then be done systematically. First, get your list of terms to be defined.
Then, scan the materials, taking into account the considerations below

1.3 Reading and Exploiting Resources
Again, although reading seems to be an activity for which no explanations or
instructions are necessary, reading and exploiting resources for a research project
needs to be a systematic activity. Make sure that you follow the steps given
below:

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 First, read the whole text of interest from the beginning to the end, trying to
get just the general idea. Then put the text down and try to infer this main idea.
 In your own words, and in the shortest way possible (one sentence may be
good), write what the text is about. Also write the main idea or point that you
think the author is trying to make.
 Read the text again for more specific information. This time, you may want to
use a highlighter to underline the important information. At this point,
remember that important information means definitions, expression of points
of view, conclusions, and the like. Also, the first sentence of each paragraph
(the topic sentence... remember?) is usually the most important one and it tells
you what the paragraph is about.
 Take some notes of the important information you intend to use for your
project. Try to summarize the information using outlines, charts, graphs, or
any other visual representation that can help you get a better understanding of
the text.
 Later, you can write this information on cards (or even better, onto a
notebook, which would be exclusive for your thesis notes), for further use in
your literature review. There are two ways to take notes:
 Copying directly from source, using the author’s own words (Quotation).

 Summarizing and/or paraphrasing the information, using your own words

(Citation).

Citations involve a more careful reading and processing of information, and
they are recommended. However, they are more difficult to write. The important
thing, in any case, is avoid mixing the author’s words and yours. If you use a
quotation, make sure you copy correctly and accurately, and if you use citations,

14


make sure you are not using any word that the author has used. Every note should
include references, including chapter or page numbers.
 Organize your notes in such a way that you can refer to them, read them again,
and compare and contrast the information.

1.4 Narrowing Down the Topic: Research Methodology
Once you have developed a little literature review, it’s time to delimit your topic.
That is, you must identify specific researchable problems. To do this, you need to
select the research method that you are going to use. Let us start by defining the
concept of thesis.
What is a thesis?

Simply stated, a thesis is a piece of research that is required by a university in
order to award an academic degree.

What is research?
“Research is the study of an event, situation, problem or phenomenon using
systematic and objective methods in order to understand it better and develop
theories or principles about it” (Richards, Platt, & Platt 1992; Vogt 1999).

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1.4.1 Research Methods
There are some major types of research in the field of humanities. Below
you will find the description of each of these research types (Based on Long,
Convey, & Chwalek 1985).

Exercise One: Fill in the blanks with the words you find appropriate in each
case (the same word may be used more than once). The words you can choose
from are given before each definition. When you finish, check your answers
in the answer key at the end of this book.

Questionnaires – Questions - Quantitative – Collecting – Qualitative - Hypotheses –
Interviews

1.4.1.1 Descriptive Research: It involves _________ data in order to answer
__________ or test ____________ about the current status of the situation under
study.

1.4.1.1.1 Survey Research typically employs ____________ or, in some cases,
________ to determine people’s opinions, attitudes, and perceptions about the
situation being studied. Survey research ordinarily uses __________ methods,
but ___________ methods may be necessary if the data are obtained from
interviews.

Participant – Control – Non-participant – Observing – Situation - Investigation

1.4.1.1.2 Observational Research determines the current status of a __________
by __________ it rather than simply asking about it. Observational research can
be broadly defined as ____________ observation or ____________ observation.
A case study is a type of observational research that ordinarily uses ___________
observation. In it, the researcher performs an in-depth ____________ of the

16


situation but usually is not directly involved in the situation and does not
___________ or manipulate it.

Records - Collected – Sociometrics – Participant – Researcher – Qualitative –
Variables – Naturalistic - Recordings

1.4.1.1.3 Ethnographic Research is a type of observational research that usually
employs _____________ observation as a form of inquiry in which the researcher
is both an observer, and as such is responsible to persons outside the situation
being studied, and also a genuine __________, and as such has a stake in the
situation and its outcomes. Ethnographic research usually occurs in a _________
setting, that is, the researcher __________ and studies behavior as it normally
occurs. It involves the intensive examination of a situation in which data are
___________ on many __________ over an extended period of time. These data
may come from in-depth interviewing, field notes, diaries, thematic musings of
the ______________, chronologs (running accounts of behavior), context maps or
diagrams, schedules, taxonomies, _____________ (relational diagrams showing
who interacts with whom) questionnaires, rating scales, checklists, and audio or
video ___________. The analysis of the data is largely ______________, and it is
also more inductive.

Criterion - Extent – Selection - Number – Relationship – Linear – Predict - Data –
Magnitude – Predictors - Variables – Graphed – Statistic – Complex – Variable -

1.4.1.2 Correlational Research: It involves collecting ___________ to
determine the existence of a _______________ between two or more variables
and to estimate the relationship’s ______________. The relationship is usually
described by a _____________ called the Pearson Product-Moment Correlation

17


Coefficient. This __________, which is between –1.00 and 1.00, describes the
__________ of a ____________ relationship between two __________ –that is,
how closely the points represented by ordered pairs of individual scores on each
variable approximate a straight line when ____________ in a coordinate system.
Values of –1.00 and 1.00 indicate a perfect ________ relationship (inverse and
direct, respectively), while a value of .00 indicates no linear __________.
Correlational research studies are usually classified as relationship studies or
prediction studies.

1.4.1.2.1 Relationship Studies examine the association between measures of
different _________ obtained at approximately the same time. In addition to
investigating the ___________ between variables of interest, these studies often
try to obtain a better understanding of factors that make up a ___________
construct such as intelligence, self-concept, or school ability.

1.4.1.2.2 Prediction Studies involve the establishment of an equation that is used
to _________ future performance on some variable, called the dependent ______
or the criterion, from information obtained from other variables, called the
________ variables or the predictors. In addition to predicting performance on the
criterion, researchers often seek to identify which ____________ are more
important in explaining changes in the _____________. Prediction studies are
used to aid in the ________ or placement of individuals, to identify individuals to
perform certain tasks or to receive special services, etc.

Experimental error – Internal – Dependent – Representativeness - Experiment –
Experimental – Validity - Evidence – Essential – Researcher – Independent –
Differences – Instructional programs – Produce – Variable - Controlled

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1.4.1.3 Experimental Research: It involves the examination of the effects of at
least one independent __________ on one or more ____________ variables while
other relevant variables are controlled. Direct manipulation of at least one
independent variable is the main characteristic that differentiates __________
research from other methods. When well conducted, experimental research
provides the strongest _________ for cause-and-effect relationships. Control of
extraneous variables is __________ in experimental research studies. The
____________ tries to remove the influence of any __________, other than the
___________ variables of interest, that might affect the dependent ___________.
Variables that typically need to be ____________ are those involving individual
___________ among subjects, such as ability or interest readiness, and
environmental variables, such as teachers or ___________ _____________ or
experiences. Such variables may ___________ unwanted differences between
experimental groups. Uncontrolled extraneous variables that affect performance
on the dependent variables increase the chances of ___________ __________ and
jeopardize the experiment’s __________.
A good research design maximizes both the ___________ validity and the
external validity of an ____________. Internal validity is the extent to which
changes in the dependent ____________ can be attributed to changes in an
___________ variable. External validity refers to the generalizability or
______________ of the findings.

1.4.1.4 Other Research Types

Test — Anticipating — Research —Purpose—Systematically — Understanding —
Past

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1.4.1.4.1 Historical Research
In this type of ______________, the researcher _____________ collects data
about ____________ events in order to __________ hypotheses. The main
____________ underlying this type of research is ______________ the past and
present, and, if possible, _____________ the future. It is not very common in the
areas of TESOL/AL.

1.4.1.4.2 Causal-Comparative Research

Group — Conducted — Causal-Comparative Research — Non-Experimental —
Compared — Manipulated — Experimental — Subjects — After — Possess —
Variables — Relationship

This research type is similar to ______________ research in that it tries to
establish cause-and-effect relationships between ________________ of interest.
However, the difference is that no experiment is ________________ and no
variable is _______________. Here, the ________________is studied ex post
facto –that is, __________ the fact. In these studies, a _____________ of
individuals possessing the target variables are studied and ______________ to
another group of ______________ who do not ______________ the variables,
and some conclusions are drawn. Because of this characteristic, some authors
refer to causal-comparative research as, _________________ but it goes better as
a type of descriptive research.

1.4.1.4.3 Methodological Research

Instruments — Procedures — Measurement — Gathering — Described — Focuses

20


Although the underlying methodological _________________ may be one of the
types of research ________________ above, what makes a study methodological
is the fact that it _________________ on testing certain procedures for
_________________ data, designing or validating
research___________________, and investigating aspects of statistics,
_________________, and evaluation. In other words, the subjects of
methodological research are research methodologies!!

1.4.2 Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research
Once the different research methods available for use have been shown, it
is important to draw a distinction between quantitative and qualitative research.
Quantitative research refers to those studies in which data are analyzed in terms
of numbers. That is, when you calculate percentages or statistics. In contrast,
qualitative research includes “Studies of subjects that are hard to quantify” (Vogt
1999). Thus, introspection, case studies, ethnographic studies, and surveys where
data is collected by interviews, are typical examples of qualitative research.
It is important to mention that no paradigm is inherently better than the
other. However, there are some preferences depending on the country and the
institution. American universities, for example, will encourage and value hardcore
quantitative research, whereas British universities seem to find qualitative
research more fulfilling, especially at the graduate level. Choice of
methodological paradigm will then depend on the institution requirements and on
the purposes of the research. Some studies lend themselves better for qualitative
research, and some others are rather hard to handle using percentages and
statistics.

21


Finally, it must be emphasized that the quantitative-qualitative distinction
does not refer to a dichotomy of mutually exclusive paradigms, but rather to the
fact that research methodologies can be arranged along a continuum between
qualitative and quantitative paradigms. Thus, on one end of the continuum we
will find introspection techniques, whereas experimental research is the epitome
of quantitative research. The qualitative-quantitative continuum of research
methodologies is illustrated in the figure on the next page, taken from Larsen-
Freeman & Long (1991).

22


23


1.4.3 Selecting Appropriate Research Methodology
Research methodology must be carefully selected according to the nature of
the study and the type of results that want to be obtained.

Exercise Two: Read the following situations and choose the method(s) you
would use in each case. Check the Answer Key!

1. You want to determine what are your students’ learning styles so that you
can teach them in the most appropriate way, according to how they learn
best.
2. You want to investigate why one of your learners seems to be learning more
slowly than the others, even when he’s getting the same amount of input as
his peers.
3. You are interested in finding out if students with low language learning
achievement belong to the lower social classes.
4. You want to know whether the teachers in your school consider the textbook
is appropriate for the learners and for the program.
5. You want to determine what types of questions teachers tend to ask in the
classroom, and then determine the influence of these questions on students’
participation.
6. You want to elicit and classify the types of written errors committed by
LEMO students at advanced level.
7. You want to determine what are learner background factors that have an
influence on their TOEFL scores.
8. You are interested in finding out whether teachers in LEMO beginning
classrooms use the target language for communicating with their students
and to what extent students also use it for actual communicative interaction.

24


9. You want to know what types of materials, activities, cartoon characters, etc.
you should use with your kindergarten children, so that you can teach then in
the most effective way.

1.4.4 Research Procedures in Second Language Acquisition
Besides the major research methods described above, there are some more
specific research procedures in SLA (Ellis 1994). These procedures have been
used extensively and could be useful for your particular research. Let’s explore
them in detail.

1.4.4.1 Error Analysis: Corder (1974) TYPE: Descriptive

a) Collection of a sample of learner language

b) Identification of errors

c) Description of errors

d) Explanation of errors

e) *Evaluation of errors

a) Sampling:

 Massive sample
 Specific sample
 Incidental sample
 Natural samples
 Elicited samples

I. Clinical elicitation.

25


II. Experimental methods of elicitation: Bilingual Syntax Measure
(Burt, Dulay and Hernández 1973).

The method of data collection can have a marked effect on the results obtained.
 Cross-sectional samples
 Longitudinal samples

b) Identification
• Norm?
• Errors and mistakes
• Overt and covert errors
• Correctness and appropriacy
c) Description of errors

• Description: Burt and Kiparsky (1972); Politzer and Ramírez (1973); Richards
(1971b); Dulay, Burt and Krashen (1982).

Description of errors can be very difficult and inaccurate.

d) Explanation: Source of error.

I. Psycholinguistic
II. Sociolinguistic
III. Epistemic
IV. Discourse structure

e) Evaluation of errors: Consideration of the effect of the error on the
interlocutors.
I. Comprehension:
II. Affective response:

• Addressees:
I. Native or Nonnative speakers
II. ‘Experts’ or ‘non experts’

26


1.4.4.2 Methods for Investigating Developmental Patterns TYPE: Descriptive

It replaced Error Analysis, once researchers acknowledged the need to
consider the entirety of learner language instead of looking at it as a collection of
errors. One of the most powerful ideas originated from the study of
developmental patterns is that learner language is systematic.
Developmental patterns
 Order of acquisition
 Sequence of acquisition
Study of developmental patterns has focused primarily on grammatical structures.

Methods:
1.4.4.2.1 Obligatory Occasion Analysis (Brown 1974)
a) Samples of naturally occurring language are collected.

b) Obligatory occasions for the use of specific TL features are identified in the
data.

c) The percentage of accurate use of the feature is then calculated by
establishing whether the feature in question has been supplied in all the
contexts in which it is required.

- A feature was considered to be acquired if it was supplied correctly 90%
of the times.

- Brown (1973) considered a feature to have been acquired if it was
performed at the 90% level on 3 consecutive data collection points.
-
 Problem with this method: It did not account for the phenomena of avoidance
and oversuppliance.

27


1.4.4.2.2 Target-Like Use Analysis (Pica 1983).
1. Samples of naturally occurring language are collected.
2. Obligatory contexts for use and non use of the feature are established.
3. Percentages of accuracy are estimated.
 Drawbacks of both Obligatory Occasion Analysis and Target-Like Use
Analysis: Both are target-language based, that is, they compare learner
language to the L2.
 Bley-Vroman (1983): The “Comparative Fallacy”.

1.4.4.2.3 Frequency Analysis (Cazden et al. 1975)
1. Catalogue the various linguistic devices that learners use to express a
particular grammatical structure (such as interrogation).

2. Calculate the frequency with which each device is used at different points
in the learners’ development.

 Since it allows to observe ‘vertical variation’ in learners development (how
different structures become prominent at different stages), frequency analysis
is one of the best ways of examining sequences of acquisition.
 Many of the studies were longitudinal in design (case studies in the 60s and
70s).
 There were also some cross-sectional studies. In these, researchers argued that
the accuracy in which different features were performed corresponded to their
order of acquisition.
 The existence of developmental patterns can be investigated in different areas
of language: linguistic (phonological, lexical, and grammatical), semantic, and
pragmatic.

28


Research in this area has focused mainly on the acquisition of grammatical
structures.

1.4.4.3 Research Methods for Studying Illocutionary Acts in Learner
Language
TYPE: Descriptive

Ideally, the study of illocutionary acts should involve the collection of three sets

of data:

1) Samples of illocutionary acts performed in the target language by L2 learners.
2) Samples performed by native speakers of the target language.
3) Samples of the same illocutionary act performed by the learners in their L1.

Kasper and Dahl (1991) distinguish data collection methods according to the
modality of data elicited:
1) Perception/comprehension/intuition.
a) Questionnaires.
b) Observational performance data.
2) Production.
a) Discourse completion tasks.
b) Role play.
c) Naturally occurring speech.
And the degree of control over learners’ production:
1) Elicited.
2) Observational.
The most successful studies have employed a combination of data types.

29


1.4.4.4 Methods for Investigating Input and Interaction

1) Data collection.

After collecting your data, you can follow different research methods, according
to your interests:

a) Linguistic Analysis (Descriptive).
b) Discourse analysis (Ethnographic, descriptive)
c) Conversational analysis (Ethnographic, descriptive)
d) Experimental method.
e) Pseudo-experimental method.
f) Introspective techniques (Ethnographic).

1.5 Narrowing Down Your Topic
Now that we have explored the different research methods that you can use,
it is time for you to select the research method that better suits the nature of your
study and its purposes. Decide what specific aspect of the topic you will focus on,
and think of:
 Specific questions you will try to answer.
 The assumptions and theoretical framework that provide the context for those
questions.
 The hypotheses you are interested in testing and the method you will use to
test them.
The procedures you should follow to narrow down your topic are described
below.
 First of all, decide on the research method that you will use. In other words,
Learning strategies, pragmatic interference, and all kinds of topics can be seen
and researched from different perspectives, according to what we are

30


interested in. For example, if our topic is learning strategies, we could use
descriptive, correlational or experimental research. Descriptive survey
research could help us find out opinions, perceptions and attitudes about
learning strategies. Correlational research can tell us whether learning
strategies seem to be related to learning effectiveness, and experimental
research can help us measure the effects of learning strategies on achievement
in a controlled environment. Choice of research method is a personal decision,
and it totally depends on what we are interested in doing. On the other hand,
this is the most important part of the thesis, since it determines whether your
study is valid or not as research.
 Write a specific problem statement.
 Construct a theoretical framework for your study.
 Formulate research questions and hypotheses.
 Identify the assumptions upon which the study will be based, and their
plausibility.
Congratulations! Now you have a thesis topic, and it is time to decide whether
this is a good topic or not. This is a difficult decision, because after choosing a
topic, it is very difficult to even think of giving up on it. However, some topics
may be impossible or very difficult to research, and it is better to know it from the
beginning. The criteria given below of what constitutes a good topic might help
you in deciding if yours is a good topic. As you read each question, reflect on
your topic and answer it to the best of your knowledge... good luck!

1.6 Evaluating the Topic: Is Yours a Good Topic?
Once you have selected your topic, you need to evaluate it. What is a good
topic for a thesis? The following criteria may be helpful.

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What is a good topic??

Find it out by answering the questions below!

 Is your topic directly related to our field of study? Or is it cross-disciplinary?
 Do you have a sound base knowledge about this topic? Do you master its basic
concepts?
 Is the topic relevant and applicable to the field?
 Is the topic interesting?
 Is the topic feasible?
 Is the topic original?
 Do you have an idea of the kind of bibliographic resources you will need for
your research? Are they readily available?
 Do you know any professors in the staff who can help you and guide you in
your research?
 Do you have a clear idea of the procedures you will need to carry out to
develop your project (i.e. the instrument you will use to collect your data, the
type of analyses you will follow to interpret your results)?
 Based on the instrument you intend to use, will you have access to the subjects
or institutions you intend to develop your research in?
 Will your research be extensive enough as to cover the institution thesis
requirements? Or will it be too short or too long?
If most of your answers are ‘YES’, your topic is a good one; if not, you really
need to consider changing it.

32


CHAPTER TWO:

WRITING THE INTRODUCTION

Parts of the Thesis

Content of the Introductory Chapter

Explanation of Key Elements in the Introduction

Rhetoric and Formulas

Sample Introductions

35

The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL

The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL

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