CEPA AND SSAP BOOKS.PDF

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NATIONAL CEPA RESOURCE BOOK FOR
SUSTAINABLE
WETLANDS MANAGEMENT
FOR USE
BY
THE GENERAL PUBLIC AND COMMUNITIES,
SCHOOLS AND SCHOOL CLUBS,
ENVIRONMENTAL AND USER GROUPS,
CBOS AND NGOS,
LOCAL AND CENTRAL GOVERNMENT,
OUTREACH AND EXTENSION AGENTS,
RAMSAR SITE AND PROTECTED AREA MANAGERS,
CEPA UNITS, UNIVERSITIES, COLLEGES, RESEARCH AND TRAINING INSTITUTIONS
Recommended Citation:
URT (2012), A National CEPA Resource Book For Sustainable Wetlands Management. Edited by Wildlife Division, Published by:
Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
Wildlife Division

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Table of Contents
FOREWORD........................................................................................................................................................viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.....................................................................................................................................ix
Useful Acronyms, Terms and Definitions:............................................................................................................x
CHAPTER ONE......................................................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION TO SUSTAINABLE WETLANDS MANAGEMENT IN TANZANIA ............................1
1.1. Introduction to this Resource Book................................................................................................................1
1.2. What is SWMP?.............................................................................................................................................2
1.3. What is CBNRM of Wetlands?......................................................................................................................2
1.4. Who are the Target Audience of this Resource Book? ..................................................................................3
1.5. Who are the Users of the Resource Book?.....................................................................................................3
1.6. How to Use this Resource Book: ...................................................................................................................3
1.7. Accompanying CEPA Materials and Tools: ..................................................................................................4
1.8. Useful SWM Training Materials:...................................................................................................................4
CHAPTER TWO ....................................................................................................................................................6
TANZANIA WETLANDS ECOLOGY, BIOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEM FUNCTIONS...............................6
2.1. Definition of Wetlands...................................................................................................................................6
2.2. Wetlands Ecology..........................................................................................................................................6
2.3. Characteristics of Wetlands............................................................................................................................9
2.4. Wetlands and the Hydrological Cycle (Water Cycle)..................................................................................10
2.5. Hydrology and Nature of the Wetland .........................................................................................................11
2.6. Wetland Habitats..........................................................................................................................................12
2.7. Adaptations to Life in the Wetlands.............................................................................................................12
2.8. Webs of Life in Wetlands.............................................................................................................................14
2.9. Wetlands Productivity..................................................................................................................................15
2.10. Wetland Functions Support Life:...............................................................................................................15
2.11. Wetlands are often Mistaken as Waste Lands............................................................................................17
CHAPTER THREE ..............................................................................................................................................18
WETLANDS OF TANZANIA AND CLASSIFICATION BY TYPES............................................................18
3.1. Distribution of Wetlands in Tanzania ..........................................................................................................18
3.2. River Basins of Tanzania .............................................................................................................................19
3.3. Protected Wetlands of Tanzania:..................................................................................................................20
3.4. Ramsar Classification of Types of Wetlands ...............................................................................................24

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a. Marine/Coastal Wetlands - Saline water:....................................................................................................25
b. Inland Wetlands - Fresh water. ...................................................................................................................25
c. Man – Made Wetlands: ...............................................................................................................................26
3.5. Coastal Wetlands of Tanzania......................................................................................................................26
3.6. Inland Wetlands of Tanzania........................................................................................................................27
3.7. Man-made/Non-natural Wetlands................................................................................................................29
CHAPTER FOUR.................................................................................................................................................31
IMPORTANCE OF WETLANDS IN TANZANIA...........................................................................................31
4.1. Wetlands Ecosystem Services and Functions ..............................................................................................31
4.2. Ecological Benefits of Wetlands..................................................................................................................32
4.2.1. Preservation of Biodiversity..................................................................................................................32
4.2.2. Soil Erosion Control and Wetlands.....................................................................................................33
4.2.3. Flood Control and Wetlands .................................................................................................................33
4.2.4. Water System/Water Sources and Wetlands.........................................................................................33
4.2.5. Water Filtration/Purification and Wetlands ..........................................................................................34
4.2.6. Climate Change Control and Wetlands.................................................................................................34
4.3. Economic Products of Wetlands ..................................................................................................................35
4.3.1. Food and Agriculture in Wetlands: .......................................................................................................36
4.3.2. Pastoralism and Wetlands .....................................................................................................................38
Pastoralist (nomadism/Semi-nomadism): .......................................................................................................39
Agro-pastoralists:............................................................................................................................................39
4.3.3. Source of Energy and Wetlands............................................................................................................39
4.3.4. Building Materials and Wetlands..........................................................................................................40
4.3.5. Tourism and Wetlands ..........................................................................................................................40
4.3.6. Fish and Wetlands:................................................................................................................................41
4.4. Education and Wetlands:..............................................................................................................................42
4.5. Medicine and Wetlands:...............................................................................................................................42
4.6. Transportation and Wetlands. ......................................................................................................................42
4.7. Worship and Wetlands. ................................................................................................................................42
4.8. Recreation and Wetlands..............................................................................................................................42
4.9. Other Uses....................................................................................................................................................43
CHAPTER FIVE...................................................................................................................................................44
THREATS TO WETLANDS IN TANZANIA ...................................................................................................44
5.1. Global Wetland Degradation........................................................................................................................44
5.2. Threats to Wetlands in Tanzania..................................................................................................................45

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5.2.1. Unsustainable Agriculture. ...................................................................................................................45
a. Trends in Irrigation In Wetlands. ................................................................................................................46
b. SWOT Analysis of Irrigation in Wetlands..................................................................................................46
5.2.2. Over-stocking Livestock. ......................................................................................................................47
5.2.3. Unsustainable Fishing ...........................................................................................................................47
5.2.4. Cutting Down Catchment Trees (Deforestation)...................................................................................48
5.2.5 Improper Disposal of Solid and Liquid Wastes in Wetlands .................................................................49
5.2.6. Urban, Dams and Road Construction:...................................................................................................50
5.3. Climate Change and Wetland Damage in Tanzania.....................................................................................50
CHAPTER SIX......................................................................................................................................................54
WETLANDS AND POLICY IN TANZANIA....................................................................................................54
6.1. Holistic Management & Wetlands............................................................................................................54
6.2. Policy and Laws Governing Wetlands.........................................................................................................56
6.2.1. Arusha Manifesto:.................................................................................................................................56
6.2.2. Wetlands in the Wildlife Policy (2007):................................................................................................56
6.2.3. Wetlands and the Poverty Reduction Strategy (MKUKUTA II): .........................................................57
6.2.4. Wetlands and the Forest Policy (2009): ................................................................................................57
6.2.5. Wetlands and the Agriculture Policy (1997):........................................................................................57
6.2.6. Wetlands and the Water Policy (2002): ................................................................................................58
6.2.7. Wetlands and Environment Policy (1997) ............................................................................................58
6.2.8. Wetlands and Environment Management Act(EMA) 2004..................................................................58
6.2.9. Wetlands and Fishery Policy (2007):....................................................................................................59
6.2.10. Wetlands and Tourism Policy (1999):.................................................................................................59
6.2.11: Wetlands, Energy and Minerals Policy:..............................................................................................59
6.2.12. Wetlands and the Health Policy (1990):..............................................................................................59
6.2.13. Local Government Policy (1990), Act (1982) and Village Land Act (1998): ....................................60
6.3.14. International Protocols/Conventions...................................................................................................60
6.4. SADC Protocols/Conventions......................................................................................................................61
6.5. The Ramsar Convention and Tanzania ........................................................................................................62
CHAPTER SEVEN...............................................................................................................................................66
COMMUNITY MANAGEMENT (CBNRM) OF WETLANDS IN TANZANIA: .........................................66
7.1. What is CBNRM of Wetlands?....................................................................................................................66
7.2. What is the Hierarchy of Management for CBNRM?..................................................................................67
7.3. Local Government Planning and Wetlands..................................................................................................68
7.4. What is the Objectives of SWMP and CBNRM?.........................................................................................68

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7.5. The Institution of SWMP:............................................................................................................................69
7.5.1. The Role of NAWESCO:......................................................................................................................69
7.5.2. The Role of MNRT:..............................................................................................................................70
7.5.3. The Role of NWWG: ............................................................................................................................71
7.5.4. The Role of WD and Wetlands Unit:....................................................................................................71
7.5.5. Role of PA and Ramsar Site Project Managers (PM): ..........................................................................72
7.5.6. PMO-RALG and Wetlands:..................................................................................................................72
7.5.7. Role of DSC and Wetlands: ..................................................................................................................73
7.5.8. Role of Local Government and Wetlands:............................................................................................73
7.5.9. Role of Regional Secretariat (RAS) and Wetlands:..............................................................................73
7.5.10. Role of District Council and Wetlands: ..............................................................................................74
7.5.11. Role of Village Government and Wetlands: .......................................................................................74
7.5.12. Role of Private Sector and Wetlands:..................................................................................................74
7.5.13. Role of NGOs and Wetlands:..............................................................................................................74
7.5.14. Role of Development Partners (DP) and Wetlands:............................................................................75
7.6. CBNRM and Wetlands: ...............................................................................................................................75
7.6.1. SWM at District Level: .........................................................................................................................75
7.6.2. SWM at Village Level: .........................................................................................................................77
7.6.3. Capacity Support to Districts ................................................................................................................78
CHAPTER 8 ..........................................................................................................................................................80
WETLANDS FRIENDLY INVESTMENTS (WFI) IN TANZANIA...............................................................80
8.1. Wise Use Principles .....................................................................................................................................80
8.2. Best Practices for SWM through Wise Use in Place....................................................................................81
8.2.1. Current Wetland Investments and Impacts ...........................................................................................81
8.2.2. Wetlands Wise Use and Sustainable Development:..............................................................................82
8.3. Sustainable Livestock Management In Wetlands ........................................................................................82
8.3.1. Introduction to Pastoralism WFI:..........................................................................................................82
8.3.2. WFI Options in Pastoralism..................................................................................................................83
8.3.3. Rangeland Management of Wetlands: ..................................................................................................84
8.3.4. Regulation of Access to Wetlands: .......................................................................................................84
8.3.5. Establishment of Agro-pastoralism in Wetlands:..................................................................................85
8.3.6. Additional WFIs:...................................................................................................................................86
8.4. Sustainable Irrigation Management In Wetlands.........................................................................................87
8.4.1. Introduction to WI Problems:................................................................................................................87
8.4.2. WFI Suggestions:..................................................................................................................................87

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FOREWORD
Introduction
The Government, when revising the Wildlife Policy, in 2007, saw it proper to put equal emphasis on wildlife, as on wetlands. Wetlands
not only provide key ecological functions to sustain biodiversity in Protected Areas (PA) and in wildlife corridors, but are a source of 95%
of all water for all human, livestock, biodiversity (ie wildlife) and industrial needs. Without wetlands there is no “water,no life, no wildlife
and, no economy”. For years, wetlands had been considered wastelands, unsustainably managed, taken for granted, unappreciated,
undervalued, encroached and drained. Today, we realize that although wetlands make up less than 10% of Tanzania, their “critical, l ife
support services” sustains our lives, our crops, our wildlife and our livestock. They provide security as sources of food, water, energy,
economy, income and livelihoods. However they are the most vulnerable ecosystem to unsustainable use and climate change. Climate
change is all about water, and water makes up wetlands and therefore consideration of strategies for mitigation and adaptation are needed.
The Role of Communication, Education and Public Awareness (CEPA):
Tanzania has set aside 40% of land use for nature conservation (eg wildlife, forest, marine and Ramsar site). This is one of the highest in
the world. Whereas this was possible 50 years ago, today this is no longer practical. Protected Areas (PA) now compete with the growing
population which has increased, as has greater demand for land and natural resources for livelihoods. In order to sustain people, wildlife
and wetlands, the 2007 Wildlife Policy seeks new technological advances to improve ways of managing our resources. Similarly, in order
to sustain wildlife and wetlands, wise use and management of these resources will depend on how the public perceive the importance of
conservation now, and for use by future generations. Public awareness is therefore a key to sustainability, and this is the objective of this
CEPA Resource Book.
Broad based knowledge of wetland life support values, economics and livelihood opportunities can “open eyes”, change perspectives and
transform unsustainable resource use patterns. Mass Communication, Education and Public Awareness (CEPA) is therefore vital to change
these mis-perceptions, values and attitudes about wetlands. Needed is to empower appropriate actions at the user level, and CEPA is the
key to contribute to informed decision making, policy and planning!
For CEPA to be effective, the Wildlife Policy 2007 calls for greater cooperation between sectors, academia, NGOs, CBOs, private sectors
and Local Government Authorities (LGA). It encourages Wildlife Division, Protected Area Managers, NGOs and local government to
collectively engage as “change agents” in transferring knowledge, technology and information through training, outreach programs,
wildlife clubs, extension services, Community Based Conservation (CBC) or Community Support Services (CSS). The aim of Tanzania’s
Poverty Reduction Strategy, popularly known as MKUKUTA, is to engage “user group”’ participation in Community Based Natural
Resource Management (CBNRM). This is the aim of this Resource Book, with respect to wetlands and to the biodiversity that is dependent
on wetland functions.
Users of this Resource Book:
The primary targets of this Resource Book are the general public, the youth in schools, Wildlife Clubs, local communities and CBOs.
Examples of users include extension agents, school teachers, college lecturers, Malihai Clubs of Tanzania (MCT), Wildlife Conservation
Society of Tanzania (WCST), Roots and Shoots (R&S), NGOs, Local and Central Government, Ramsar Site and Protected Areas (PAs)
Project Managers (PM) and their CBC agents. It is also designed as reference material, part of education services like schools,
environmental groups, universities, colleges, research and training institutions.
CEPA Focal Areas:
Growing human population and their survival strategies means that mankind is putting increased pressure on its wetlands by: agricultural
encroachment, pastoralism (overgrazing), traditional irrigation, hunting bush meat for food, fishing, harvesting non-timber products for
household needs and trade, catchment damage by creating channels or damming, and deforestation and production of greenhouse gases
leading to climate change. A lack of knowledge and poor appreciation of the importance of wetlands values lead to i) unsustainable use,
ii) under valuation, iii) mis-management and iv) inefficient utilization. Wetlands resources and their ecosystem services would need to be
treated as “public economic goods” and managed sustainably. Inventories and Participatory Resource Assessment (PRA) help to
highlight problems in order to bring into attention the threats on wetlands so that the solutions are incorporated into village and district
development plans. This CEPA Resource Book is intended to raise awareness to users so that they understand and apply the appropriate
mitigating measures on the planning and implementation of wetland friendly investments (WFI) as wise use micro-projects.
Subsequent Reviews:
This Guide is an updated edition of an earlier, 1995 Wetlands Brochure by Malihai Clubs of Tanzania (MCT). It is designed as a national
resource book and CEPA guide as part of training materials in Sustainable Wetlands Management (SWM). As such, rolling reviews and
updates shall take place every 3-5 years so as to align appropriate actions based on results on the ground. The NWWG CEPA Sub-
committee shall be the oversight body, advising the NWWG and National Wetlands Steering Committee (NAWESCO), monitoring
progress, in conjunction with Wetlands Unit and Malihai Clubs of Tanzania.
The Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism (MNRT) feels that this first step towards a user friendly Wetlands CEPA Resource Book
will contribute to our long term goal of raising awareness on wise use of wetlands for the conservation of bio-diversity and sustaining life
supporting ecosystem services.
…………………………
Permanent Secretary, MNRT
will contribute to our long term go
supporting ecosystem services.
………………………………………………………………………
PPPPPPPeermanent Secretary, MNRT

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The Director of Wildlife wishes to acknowledge the following:
Prepared with Financial and Technical Assistance from:
The support of the Global Environment Fund (GEF) that financed the precursor of this CEPA Resource Book, the 1995
version of the Malihai Clubs of Tanzania (MCT) Wetlands Brochure, is highly appreciated. The Danida Component support
to Sustainable Wetlands Management Program (SWMP), helped fund the MCT, WU and the authors to update the material,
provided technical assistance, supported editing meetings, consultative workshops and printing of the final publication.
Acknowledgement is extended to:
The staff of the Wildlife Division, notably from the Wetlands Unit (WU), Malihai Clubs of Tanzania (MCT) and the
Wildlife Conservation Society of Tanzania (WCST) who did the editing, compilation and publication of this document with
technical support from the Wetlands Advisor.
Further, he would like to acknowledge the individual contributions received from:
Ms Nyangabo Musika, Said Mshana, Hassan Namkeleja, Ms Victoria Ferdinand, Ms Africo Simon, Ms Wande Kema, Imani
Nkuwi and Sadiki Lotha Laisser.
The Co-editing inputs are appreciated from:
Members of the National Wetlands Working Group (NWWG), Communication, Education and Public Awareness ( CEPA)
Sub-Committee and Wetlands Unit, notably: Charles Mulokozi, Lotha Laisser, Herman Keraryo, Ms Rehema Tibanyenda,
Privatus Kasisi, Nassoro Salum Wawa, Lota Melamari, Dr. Said Abdallah, Ms Flora Nzema, Japhet Jonas, Wengeslaus
Lambilela, Charles Masanja, Pellage Kauzeni, I.A. Lejora, Ms Priscilla Mbangwa, Norbert Ngowi, Amina Kibola, et al.
Special Thanks are due to the Following Institutions and NGOs:
Pasiansi Wildlife Training Institute, CAWM Mweka, UDSM, IRA, PMO-RALG, TANAPA, NCCA, SUA Forconsult, JET,
Roots and Shoots (R&S), RUBADA, NEMC and others, too numerous to mention.
In appreciation
……………………………..
Director of Wildlife
For Further Information, Please Contact:
Director, Wildlife Division,
P.O. Box 9372, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
E-mail: dw@mnrt.go.tz,
Phone: 255 22 2866408, 2866376, 2866418. Fax: 255 22 2865836, 2863496.
In apa preciation
………………………………………
Director of Wildlifeff

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Fact Box 1:
Useful Acronyms, Terms and Definitions:
Use this Fact Box as a dictionary, as a means of reading abbreviations in the text and of understanding the words being used. Additional definitions of
words not abbreviated appear in a fact box at the end of this Resource Book:
AA Authorized Association. In wildlife management, as per the
WMA Regulations, it means a state empowered (by the
Director, WD), Community Based Organization (CBO)
whose primary objective is to conserve wildlife and wetland
resources (as public goods) for the benefit of its local
community members, on village land.
In fisheries, it means a body of persons incorporated or not
incorporated and includes Beach Management Units (BMU)
declared under the Fisheries Act (2004) (See below).
AEWA Asia-Europe Water Bird Agreement. An international
convention to support conservation of water birds.
AFM Administration and Finance Manual. Is a harmonized tool
for the administration of SWM and PFM mainstreamed into
the local government MTEF planning, budgeting and
reporting system.
AWP Annual Work Plan. Is the annual activity plan of a Village,
District or Division.
BMU Beach Management Unit. As per the Fisheries Act (2004)
means a group of devoted stakeholders in a fishing
community, whose main function is management
conservation and protection of fish in their locality in
collaboration with the government.
BTC Belgium Technical Cooperation, Belgium aid.
CAWM College of African Wildlife Management. Based at Mweka,
offers certificate and diploma level training in wildlife.
CBC Community Based Conservation. Akin to CBNRM, it is the
engagement of communities, generally around Game
Reserves (by WD), based on village participation in
conservation co-management of wildlife & wetlands.
CBCTI Community Based Conservation Training Institute.
Located in Likuyu Sekamaganga, is a college of the WD for
community leaders and village game scout training.
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity.
CBNRM Community Based Natural Resource Management: Is the
management of natural resources by the community user
group on village land or in co-management with the State on
state land or open areas, and applies equally to forestry,
fisheries, wetlands and wildlife.
CBO Community Based Organization: Means a non-government
organization, appointed as representatives of village
government, to conserve and sustainably manage resources
on reserved village land for the benefits of the local
community ordinary resident in the area.
CCS Community Conservation Services. Akin the CBNRM, it is
the support given to communities around National Parks (by
TANAPA) as a benefit sharing scheme to entice co-
management responsibilities.
CEPA Communication, Education and Public Awareness. A
strategy to raise mass awareness on a topic, using mass media
tools.
CH4 Methane.
CO2 Carbon Dioxide.
COP Conference of Parties, an global meeting of international
conventions (eg Ramsar, UNCED, etc).
CR Community Reserve: a natural resource (ie forest, fish,
wetlands or wildlife) within a Village Area set aside by a
group in the community, with the support of the Village
Assembly and the Village Council (= Village Reserve).
CSO Civil Society Organization. An NGO representing civil
society.
D*D Decentralization by Devolution. Describes recent local
government reforms to empower administration at the local
governance level.
DADPS District Agricultural Development Plans. District DDP for
agriculture.
Danida Danish Development Aid
DC District Council, comprises a body of the elected, political
representation of the ward, who govern the district and its
development activities.
DDP District Development Plan. Is the 3 year rolling plan of
envisioned district level developments, in MTEF format.
DDT An agro-chemical pesticide.
DED District Executive Director. Senior technical and accounting
officer of a District Council.
DeNRM Decentralized Natural Resource Management. The process
of devolving management to the local government of natural
resources = CBNRM under D*D.
DEMC District Environment Management Committee. Councilors
appointed to oversee environment and natural resource
elements of the District Development Plans (DDP).
DEMO District Environment Management Officer. Is appointed
under EMA, responsible as secretary to the District
Environment Committee, and facilitator of SOER and EAP
process.
DFO District Forestry Officer. Forestry specialist of a District
Council.
DFP District Focal Point. A district officer appointed by DED to
represent a sector (eg SWM and PFM).
DFT District Facilitation Team. Made up of a multi-sector team
of expertise (eg. In natural resources, forest, fish, wetlands or
wildlife) who are designated as the District extension service
providers to deliver technical messages to communities (=
EMC).
DGO District Game Officer. Wildlife and wetland specialist of a
District Council.
DLNREO District Lands, Natural Resources and Environment
Officer. The senior district officer to coordinate the DFT in
natural resource (ie. forest, fish, wetlands or wildlife)
management.
DNRAB District Natural Resources Advisory Board. A collective
of district stakeholders to group to assist and monitor WMA
developments.

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DoE Division of Environment. In the VPO office, coordinates
EMA.
DPG-E Development Partner Group on Environment.
DPLO District Planning Officer. Responsible to LGA, for
developing and monitoring the DDP implementation.
DSC Director of Sector Coordination. Responsible in PMO-
RALG for the coordination of decentralization of natural
resource sectors (ie. forest, fish, wetlands or wildlife).
DW Director of Wildlife. Head of the Wildlife Division.
EAP Environment Action Plan. Mandated by EMA at village,
district and sector level, and revised every 5 years, it is the
natural resource sectors (ie. forest, fish, wetlands or wildlife)
plan of the national and DDP.
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment. Measuring the
environmental consequences of any project, action, etc.
EMA Environmental Management Act. Is the umbrella
legislation that governs environmental management and all
natural resource sectors (ie. forest, fish, wetlands or wildlife).
EMC Environment Management Committee. Is mandated by
EMA, potentially replacing the DFT as the focal point for a
multi-sector committee to manage the environment and all
natural resources (ie. forest, fish, wetlands or wildlife).
ENR Environment and Natural Resource Unit in VPO.
EU European Union.
FBD Forestry and Beekeeping Division of the Ministry of
Natural Resources and Tourism.
Finnida Finnish Development Aid.
GCA Game Control Area. A protected area for wildlife allowing
limited use, eg for sport hunting.
GDP Gross Domestic Product. The annual turn-over of the
economy of a country.
GEF Global Environment Facility. A funding agency in
environment.
GR Game Reserve. Is state reserved land for protection of
wildlife, subject to regulated consumptive use.
GMP General Management Plan (or Integrated Management Plan
= IMP) is a tool to guide management and development of a
PA, Ramsar Site or wetland.
GTZ German Technical Cooperation. A German government
technical assistance service provider.
Ha Hectare.
HEP Hydro-electric Power. Electricity generated from water
powered turbines.
HIV/AIDS Human immune-deficiency Virus/Acquired Immuno-
deficiency Syndrome. A sexually transmitted desease.
IBA Important Bird Area. Areas of significance to birds.
IDCC Inter-District Development Committee. A collective of
district administrators who come together to manage a trans-
boundary resource, like wetlands.
IGA Income Generating Activity. A livelihood action that
generates income.
IMP Integrated Management Plan. A holistic GMP taking all
sectors into consideration.
IRA Institute for Resource Assessment. An institute within
UDSM for research and technical services in resource
management.
IWM Institute of Wildlife Management (Pasiansi). An WD
college for the training of game wardens and rangers, located
in Mwanza.
IWRM Integrated Water Resource Management. Is the holistic,
basin wide approach taken to manage water resources.
JAST Joint Assistance Strategy of Tanzania. The DP alignment
to government under Paris Declaration.
JET Journalist for Environment in Tanzania. A society of
environmental journalists.
JM Joint Management. A general term to describe how a
community can collaborate with central or local government
in the management of gazetted natural resource areas (ie
forest, fish, wetlands, marine or wildlife) reserves. A state of
“co-management” prevails, based on Joint Management
Agreements (JMA), Joint Management Plans (JMP), etc.
JMA Joint Management Agreements made between LGA and
communities to manage state forests.
JMP Joint Management Plans made by community and LGA to
manage state forests.
KVRS Kilombero Valley Ramsar Site, a registered Ramsar Site.
Km Kilometers
LF Lesser Flamingo.
LGA Local Government Authority. Means under D*D, the
mandated governance institutions at Village, Ward and
District level.
LNRS Lake Natron Ramsar Site. A registered Ramsar Site.
LUP Land Use Plan. Is a planning tool for villages to designate
current land use zones, areas for future expansion and
reserves for protection.
M3
Cubic Meter
M&E Monitoring and Evaluation. Is a management tool for
measuring progress against pre-set targets in MTEF, to assess
progress is on track, and the outputs achieved in the form of
tangible, OVIs.
MCT Malihai Clubs of Tanzania. The CEPA arm of Wildlife
Division, supports school and community wildlife clubs.
MDA Ministry, Departments and Agencies. Describes central
level institutions.
MDG Millenium Development Goals. Global targets to reduce
poverty.
MMRS Malgarasi-Moyovosi Ramsar Site. One of the largest RS in
Tanzania. Previously under SIMMORS project.
MNRT Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism. Parent
ministry of forest, wetlands, marine parks and wildlife, and
their economic use through tourism.
MPA Marine Protected Areas or reserves as defined in the Marine
Parks and Reserves Act (1994).
MTEF Medium Term Expenditure Framework. Is the government
planning, budgeting and reporting tool based on annual and 3
year rolling plans, with M&E formats for reporting progress.

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MUKUKUTA National Strategy for Growth and Poverty Reduction (=
NSGPR). National strategy to fight poverty.
NAWESCO National Wetlands Steering Committee. A national body
made up of Permanent Secretary’s of 8 ministries to look
after wetland resources (ie. representing local government,
agriculture, livestock, irrigation, forest, fisheries, wetlands or
wildlife) steering wetlands policy based on the Ramsar
Strategic Plan.
NAPA National Plan of Action. Plan for combating climate change.
NCCA Ngorongoro Crater Conservation Area. The authority
managing the Conservation Area.
NEMC National Environment Management Council. An
environmental watchdog.
NFP National Forest Program. Is a SWAp with joint donor
support to implement a nation-wide forest program initiative
in PFM.
NGO Non Governmental Organization. Describes service
providers.
NP National Park. A maximum wildlife protected area where no
consumptive use is allowed.
NR National Reserve. A natural resource (ie forest, fish,
wetlands or wildlife) which falls within the jurisdiction of the
State and is owned by the State as a whole and declared as a
reserved area by law (eg. Game Reserve), but subject to
certain permissible consumptive uses (= Protected Area
which does not preclude consumptive use).
NRM Natural Resource Management. Is the management of all
natural resources on ecological basis.
NWS National Wetlands Strategy. Is Tanzania’s national strategy
to implement the Ramsar Strategic Plan and is implemented
as the SWMP.
NWWG National Wetlands Working Group. A multi-sectoral
representative body advising NAWESCO on all matters
pertaining to SWM in Tanzania.
NYM Nyumba Ya Mungu. A HEP dam on Pangani River system.
O&OD Obstacles and Opportunities for Development. Is a local
level planning tool to get villages to express their
development needs and aspirations, it looks at opportunities
to exploit NR, not necessarily sustainable use.
O&M Operation and Maintenance.
o
C Degrees Centigrade.
OVI Objectively Verifiable Indicator. Is a tangible, measureable
deliverable as a result of implementing an action plan, usually
used in logical framework analysis (LFA) and make up the
targets for M&E.
PA Protected Area. The same as a national reserve, is a
geographically defined area, designated or regulated as a
centrally protected natural resource area (means National
Parks, Forest Reserves, Game Reserves, Ngorongoro
Conservation Area, Wetland Reserves, Marine Parks, Game
Control Areas, etc).
PFM Participatory Forest Management. Is the term for CBNRM
of forests.
PFM WG Participatory Forest Management Working Group. Is the
national advisory body to the NFP on PFM.
PlanRep Local Government Planning and Reporting Database. Is
central governments system for monitoring performance in
natural resource sectors.
PMO-RALG Prime Minister’s Office – Regional Administration and
Local Government. Is the MDA of all LGAs.
PPA Public Procurement Act (2004). Lays down how public
funds are used.
PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. MKUKUTA. The
national approach to poverty reduction.
PRA Participatory Resource Assessment. This is a process
which assesses the resource (ie forest, fish, wetlands or
wildlife) and leads to the development of a management plan.
PM Project Manager. Employed by and reporting to MDA (eg.
WD) centrally with responsibility for the management of
wildlife and wetland reserves (ie Game Reserves, Ramsar
Sites, etc).
RAMSAR The international wetlands convention named after a city
in Iran
R&S Roots and Shoots. A local NGO, linked to Jane Goodall
RAS Regional Administrative Secretary. Is the accounting
officer at Regional governance level.
RBA River Basin Authority. A basin authority to oversee water
allocation.
RBMP River Basin Management Plan. A basin wide IWRM plan
REMC Regional Environment Management Committee. Regional
level committee, under EMA.
RFP Regional Focal Point. Appointed by RAS to oversee sector
at regional level (eg SWM or PFM).
RMKRS Rufiji, Mafia, Kilwa Ramsar Site. A registered Ramsar
Site.
RS Regional Secretariat. Is the support unit to the RAS office.
RUBADA Ruaha Basin Development Authority. The basin authority
for Ruaha.
RWF Regional Wetlands Facilitator. Hired technical assistance
by SWM project to assist RFP.
SACCOS Savings and Credit Cooperatives Societies. Micro-credit
schemes.
SC Sub-committee. Of NWWG (eg CEPA SC).
SEA Strategic Environmental Assessment. Analysis for strategic
mitigation of any adverse effects of a policy, strategy, project,
program, etc.
SMART Describes OVIs as: Specific, Measurable, Achievable,
Realistic and Time Bound.
SOER State of the Environment Report. Mandated by EMA for
village, districts and sectors, with special emphasis given to
wetlands, it is a situation analysis of pressure, state and
response indicators used to monitor progress.
SSAP Single Species Action Plan. Following AEWA format, is a
national action plan to manage water birds.
SUA Sokoine University of Agriculture.
SWAp Sector Wide Approach. Is a holistic, programmatic
approach to sector development.

xv
SWMP Sustainable Wetlands Management (Programme). Is the
policy implementation of the NWS to attain wise use under
the Ramsar Convention Strategic Plans for Wetlands, under a
programmatic approach.
SWOT Success, weakness, opportunities and threats (or problems
= SWOP): Is a tool for the planning of sustainable and wise
use of resources. Unlike O&OD, it also looks at the threats
created by development and livelihoods and thereby allows
for mitigation measures to help restore damage caused by
unsustainable pressures.
t/ha Tons per hectare. A level of production per unit area.
TA Technical Advisor. An expert hired to advise a ministry,
program, project, etc
TAFIRI Tanzania Fisheries Research Institute. Coordinates all
fisheries research.
TAFORI Tanzania Forest Research Institute. Coordinates all
forestry research.
TANAPA Tanzania National Parks. The Wildlife Authority of MNRT
managing all NPs.
TAWIRI Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute. Coordinates all
research on wildlife and wetlands.
TB Tuberculosis. A lung disease.
TLU Total Livestock Units. Unit of measure as to how many
cattle can be grazed per unit area of land.
TNA Training Needs Assessment. An analysis of the training
needs of a particular sector.
TNRF Tanzania Natural Resources Forum. A collective of natural
resource NGOs, which network to trade information, and
lobby for policy change, work with communities, etc.
TORs Terms of Reference. Description, scope of work of a
consultancy or functions of a staff member, officer or
committee.
USAID USA Development Aid.
USD United States Dollar ($).
UDSM University of Dar es Salaam.
VA Village Assembly. This is the meeting of all adult members
of the village held at least four times a year, and described in
the Local Government (District Authorities) Act, 1982 as ‘the
supreme authority in the village’.
VC Village Council. The Government of the village elected by
the Village Assembly to govern all matters relating to the
community, including its shared resources.
VDC Village Development Committee. The LGA responsible for
village development planning.
VEMC Village Environment Management Committee. Made up
village leaders to manage the environment according to
EMA.
VEO Village Executive Officer.
VFMA Village Forest Management Area. The whole or part of a
local FR or National FR which has been placed under the
management authority of a Village Council (equivalent to a
WMA).
VLR Village Land Reserve. A natural resource (ie forest, fish,
wetlands, marine or wildlife) which falls within the Village
Area and is owned by the community as a whole and declared
as a reserved area by the Village Council and is protected,
acting on the recommendation of the Village Assembly.
VNRC Village Natural Resource Committee. Elected by the
Village Assembly and approved by the Village Council to act
as Manager of a Village natural resources (ie forest, fish,
wetlands, marine or wildlife).
VPO Vice Presidents Office. Is the MDA overseeing EMA.
WCST Wildlife Conservation Society of Tanzania. A membership
based NGO on natural resources conservation.
WD Wildlife Division. The Wildlife Authority of the Ministry of
Natural Resources and Tourism.
WEO Ward Executive Officer. Political appointee at ward level.
WFI Wetlands Friendly Investments. Are activities or mini-
projects carried out at grassroots level based on village
management plans to make unsustainable practices more
sustainable.
WMA Wildlife Management Area. Means the whole or part of
village land which has been placed under the management
authority of a Village Council (and/or CBO, an Authorized
Association) for purposes of conservation and sustainable
utilization of natural resources (ie forest, fish, wetlands or
wildlife).
WPT Wildlife Policy of Tanzania. The main policy that governs
wildlife and wetlands use and development.
WU Wetlands Unit. Is the secretariat in WD to NWWG and
NAWESCO, coordinating the SWMP and Ramsar
Convention.
WUA Water Users Association. Organizations of a cross-sector of
water users (ie irrigators, miners, livestock, wildlife, fishers,
HEP, domestic and industrial.
WWD World Wetland Day. Globally, all over the world CEPA
programs are carried out on wetlands on this day: 2nd
February.
WWF World Wide Fund for Nature. An international NGO
working on wildlife.

1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO SUSTAINABLE WETLANDS MANAGEMENT IN
TANZANIA
This section introduces the Resource Book and its background as embedded in the Ramsar Convention, and answers some basic questions
about what this CEPA Guide is designed for and who are the targeted user groups, listing other resource material in this series.
a. Introduction to Resource Book, handouts, objectives, etc.
b. Wetlands Acronyms, Definitions and Terms.
c. Background on History of Ramsar Convention in Tanzania.
d. SWMP Explained.
e. 3 pillars of Ramsar: Wise Use (including CEPA), listing wetlands of international importance and international cooperation.
f. Target and User Groups of CEPA.
g. CEPA Resource Book, Leaflets and Poster Content.
h. SWM Guides
1.1. Introduction to this Resource Book
The first Wetlands Communication, Education and Participation for Awareness (CEPA) Brochure for Tanzania
was produced in Swahili in 1995, by the Malihai Clubs of Tanzania (MCT). It was used at that time as a tool for
targeting schools, wildlife clubs and communities. The aim, was to broaden understanding on wetlands and their
sustainable management to the general public and particularly the youth. This was followed by an IUCN book on
Wetlands of Tanzania in 1995 and SIMMORS CEPA materials in 2005. This current National Wetlands CEPA
Resource Book is more detailed to serve as reference material for education. It communicates the importance of
wetland ecosystem services to mankind, helps to explain the national Sustainable Wetlands Management
Program (SWMP) and elaborates Community Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) of wetlands. Its
application is towards the encouragement of wise use of wetlands under Devolution by Decentralization (D*D) as
relates to MKUKUTA. In doing so it elaborates the ecology, biology, importance and threats to wetlands and
how this can be manage within the policy framework.
In 2008, MNRT, through MCT and the Wetlands Unit in Wildlife Division (WU/WD) collaborated to update the
1995 MCT Wetlands Brochure. The result was a National Wetlands CEPA Resource Book. This Book is
intended as a compendium of knowledge, to be used as a CEPA training tool, to convey in a simple, easy to read
way, elements of wildlife and wetlands management which has emerged from the revised 2007 Wildlife Policy
and the new 2009 Wildlife Act. This CEPA Resource Book sets out to explain, amongst other things, the new
Wildlife Policy and wildlife legislation as applies to wetlands. It uses simple language for a wider audience aimed
at training and participatory involvement for greater awareness raising on wetlands.
The main aim of this Resource Book is for use by CEPA agencies to create a universal understanding that there is
an urgent need for all citizens to actively take part in sustainably management of their wetlands. It is also about
raising national awareness at all levels about wetlands, their ecology, functions, services, importance and
sustainable use. This has also been extended to include a comprehension of the holistic approach to the many
inter-dependent facets of wetland ecosystem services, like use in energy generation, food production (eg through
irrigation), provision of water and grazing for livestock and wildlife and, other uses so as to ensure future,
sustainable livelihoods.

2
1.2. What is SWMP?
In 2000, Tanzania joined the international convention on wetlands management known as the Ramsar
Convention of 1971. Accordingly, Tanzania produced its first National Wetlands Strategic Plan (2003-5). This
plan was revised in 2006-8 and has become popularly known as the national “Sustainable Wetlands Management
Program” (SWM P) based on a draft National Wetlands Strategy (NWS). SWMP is managed by a National
Sustainable Wetlands Management Steering Committee (NAWESCO), which is made up of 9 Ministries at
Permanent Secretary (PS) level. NAWESCO is the oversight body of SWMP, and is chaired by Ministry of
Natural Resources and Tourism (MNRT) and is assisted by a technical body - the National Wetlands Working
Group (NWWG) which is made up of 35 institutions. The Wildlife Division (WD) in the MNRT is the Secretariat
to these bodies, through the Wetlands Unit (WU).
The Malihai Clubs of Tanzania (MCT) is the CEPA arm of the WD. Jointly with the WU, MCT have a national
policy mandate to undertake CEPA in wetlands at all levels, from central to local government, NGOs, CBOs,
private sectors and the public at large. Likewise, Wildlife Conservation Society of Tanzania (WCST) is also the
Ramsar CEPA Focal point for Tanzania. Together with WU, they advise NWWG and NAWESCO on CEPA
strategies for creating greater awareness and understanding on wetlands. Collectively, WD/WU, MCT and WCST
combined efforts to develop this CEPA Resource Book, under the auspices of the NWWG Sub-Committee of
CEPA. The intention is that it will become one of the lead training instruments of the SWMP.
1.3. What is CBNRM of Wetlands?
Community Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) is defined as: the management of natural resources
at the lowest form of appropriate local governance, usually at the user group level, under the village government
and applies to all sectors: forestry, fisheries, wildlife, wetlands, bee keeping, water, etc.
In the case of CBNRM as applied to SWMP, this is currently being developed in 14 pilot Districts. The aim of
these pilot case studies is to develop a systematic approach to CBNRM of wetlands as applies under the
government policy of Decentralization by Devolution (D*D). This devolution of management to LGA, is
popularly becoming known as, “Decentralized Natural Resource Management” (DeNRM), however, unlike in
education, health and the like, the formal devolution under the Local government Reform Program (LGRP) has
yet to take place, and are still at a “pilot stage”.
Fact Box 2:
Decentralized Natural Resource Management (DeNRM) Defined
DeNRM and CBNRM are synonymous. DeNRM is the empowerment at the lowest local government level of user groups, to participate
jointly with LGA, to take charge of and to co-administer their natural resource base on village land (ie land, trees, water, fish, wildlife,
etc), to sustainably manage and wise use for present and future generations through the LGA planning system, with enforcement through
local government by laws and district development process.
What this means is that government reform policy in all natural resource sectors is to encourage civilian
participation management and control through user rights. This should empower the lowest user groups (the
community) to both own and sustainably manage their resources on village land. Under Local Government
Authority (LGA), village governance is both the user, owner and manager of its resource base. This is known as
“Participatory Management” if on village land,or “Joint Management or Co-Management”if on public or state
land (eg forest reserves). This Resource Book is about stimulating these kinds of local initiatives through
education and about instilling participation for awareness and joint action, where wetlands are concerned.
The similarity in the approach as relates to 6 basic steps to CBNRM, is universal across all sectors as outlined in
Chapter 7.

3
1.4. Who are the Target Audience of this Resource Book?
This Resource Book is designed for use by training, education, outreach and extension agents, with the aim of
providing information in a relatively simple and user friendly format in order to impart knowledge about wise use
of wetlands for participatory management and for awareness raising.
Fact Box 3:
Target Audience of this CEPA Guide
a. Wetlands user groups: like farmers, pastoralists, fishers, hunters, gathers of: natural food, fibers, medicines, etc.
b. Collective CBNRM groups: like PFM, BMU, WMA, Catchment Management,WUG, etc.
c. The youth: either in schools, clubs (e.g. wildlife), religious institutions, or places of higher learning, colleges, universities, etc.
d. Community leaders: like village groups, community leaders, grass root decision makers, policy and planners.
e. Local government authorities: like village leaders, local councilors, members of parliament and ward executives.
f. Central Government authorities: like ministries, directorates, regional government, parastatals and protected area PMs,
1.5. Who are the Users of the Resource Book?
This Resource Book is designed for use by CEPA agents as outreach material for providing knowledge to the
above target groups.
Fact Box 4:
Users and CEPA Agents of this Guide
a. By NGOs through patrons/matrons of wildlife clubs as well as community leaders for raising awareness to youth and community, (ie
Wildlife Clubs may include MCT, WCST, Roots and Shoots, etc).
b. By extension services (Government, District, Ward and NGOs) to assist, in Community Based Conservation (CBC) or Community
Conservation Services (CCS) or Local Government programs, under D*D.
c. By planners and local policy makers, and Wetlands Focal Points to include SWM in District Development Plans (DDP) and village
plans for District Natural Resources Advisory Board (DNRAB) to use in WMA management.
d. By training institutions like Mweka (CAWM), Likuyu Sekamganga (CBCTI), Pasiansi (IWM) and Universities like University of Dar
es Salaam (UDSM) and Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA) where it can be used to train future PA Managers, community
workers and extension outreach staff.
e. In schools, to guide school teachers and school clubs.
f. General public, as a Resource Book how to achieve wetlands awareness for use by NGOs, CBOs and private sector, as well as the
general public.
g. For use by Protected Areas Project Managers (PM) and their community workers, Ramsar Site Project Managers, to work with
communities in key wildlife corridors, WMAs and around PAs.
h. To provide the CEPA materials for inclusion in posters, leaflets, school lesson plans and the like. Fact Boxes present statistical
information in an easy to read formats, for quick reference, that can be quoted in speeches, in presentations, and used as training
aids.
i. To help the Reader to provide information, to change attitudes and instill more responsibility towards wise use of wetlands
resources.
1.6. How to Use this Resource Book:
This Resource Book is designed as a reference guide to use as a tool for teaching and for this purpose it has
adopted the following style.
Fact Box 5:
Layout and Use of this CEPA Guide
a. Abbreviations: A large number of the terms and acronyms used in this Resource Book will be new, and so all abbreviations used in
the text are explained in Fact Box ## for quick reference and as a learning guide.
b. Definitions: Most of the words used in the Resource Book, may be new and as a help, more definitions and explanations of terms are
given in Fact Box ##, in a quick reference style for easy reading.

4
c. Fact Box: Throughout, useful statistics and facts and figures have been used in “Fact Boxes”, designed for quick and easy reference,
and as data that can be used by managers when lobbying for resources or persuading resource users to change behavior.
d. Illustrations: Throughout, the Resource Book has used photographs, maps, tables and figures to illustrate its text. The photos are
presented as a separate insert so as to maximize on the use of colour.
e. Review Questions: At the end of every Chapter are suggestions for the teacher/trainer/extension agent to use as an exercise to quiz
the audience on what has just been discussed to check on understanding and to re-emphasize a point.
f. Group Work: To make it interesting, and enhance learning, each Chapter has suggestions for group exercises, and work activities to
give practical experience.
1.7. Accompanying CEPA Materials and Tools:
To facilitate outreach, each Chapter is accompanied by a CEPA leaflet, a 4 sided, folded A4 2 page hand out, an
illustrative text, generally in Swahili and English, for easy reading and reference by the trainees/audience and as
take home material to share with others.
Fact Box 6:
SWM CEPA Leaflets
1. Sustainable Wetlands Management in Tanzania.
2. Tanzania Wetlands Ecology and Biology
3. Wetlands of Tanzania and Types.
4. Importance of Wetlands in Tanzania.
5. Threats to Wetlands in Tanzania.
6. Wetlands Policy of Tanzania.
7. Community Based Management of Wetlands in Tanzania.
8. Wetlands Friendly Investments for Tanzania.
1.8. Useful SWM Training Materials:
In support of this CEPA Resource Book, the SWMP has also produced a number of useful training manuals and
guides.
Fact Box 7:
Additional, Useful SWM Manuals, Guides, Resource Books and Training Materials
1. A Guide to SWM Research Agenda
2. A SWM Manual (and Users Guide).
3. An Administration and Financial Management (AFM) Manual (For Participatory Forest Management (PFM) and Sustainable
Wetlands Management (SWM).
4. A User’s Guide to AFM Manual.
5. A Guide to District and Wetlands Inventory and Participatory Resource Assessment.
6. A Guide to Wetlands Friendly Investments in Pastoralism.
7. A Guide to Wetlands Friendly Investments in Irrigation.
8. Lesser Flamingo Single Species Action Plan (SSAP LF).
9. CEPA Leaflets (one for each of the CEPA chapters and the above).
10. The SWMP Strategy
Work Box 1:
Review Questions:
1. What does SWMP stand for…?
2. What does CBNRM stand for….?
3. List 2 users of this CEPA Guide Book…?
4. Where will you find useful definitions…?
5. What is a Fact Box...?
6. Name 2 useful wetlands manuals/guides…?

5
Group Work:
1. List the resource user groups who make use of wetlands in your area…?
2. Draw a diagram showing the link between these users, the village government and district administration…?
3. Use Fact Box 2 to guide you…..

6
CHAPTER TWO
TANZANIA WETLANDS ECOLOGY, BIOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEM
FUNCTIONS
This section describes the definition of wetlands, its ecology and biology with emphasis on different parts of the wetland ecosystem,
wetland characteristics, wetlands and food web, wetland biodiversity, plant and animal interactions and adaptation to wetlands life.
a. Definition of wetlands.
b. Describing the ecosystem, food chain/web/trophic levels.
c. Detailing the hydrological/water cycle.
d. Listing the biodiversity (Flora and Fauna of Wetlands).
e. Comparative productivity of wetland vs other ecosystems.
f. Functions of freshwater and marine ecosystems (purification, percolation, etc).
2.1. Definition of Wetlands.
There are wetlands everywhere where there is “water stored on land”!
Wetlands are areas where water covers the soil or substrate, or is present either at or near the surface of the
ground for all of the year, or for varying periods of time during the year.
Wetlands have the following definition (adopted from the Ramsar Convention):
‘They are areas of marsh, swamp, peat land, stream, river, lake or ponds etc, natural or artificial, temporal or permanent, with still or
running, salty or fresh water, together with coastal areas with water not exceeding six meters during low tides.’
The popular Kiswahili name for a wetland is ‘Ardhioevu’ or is sometimes referred to as ‘ardhi chepechepe’.
Fact Box 8:
About Wetlands:
a. Areas on land which are wet throughout all or part of the year.
b. Nature’s store of water on land(ie sponges).
c. Areas of marsh, fen, peat land, bogs, swamp, floodplain, ponds or all areas flooded with water.
d. Include springs, streams, rivers, dams and lakes.
e. Contribute to percolation and re-charge of ground water table, artisian springs, fossil groundwater lakes, etc.
f. They can be either natural or man-made (e.g. hydro-electric or irrigation dams, fish farms, salt pans, rice fields, sewage ponds, mine
sludge dams, gravel quarry pits).
g. Water can be permanent or temporary, static or flowing.
h. The water can be either, fresh, brackish, salty, sodaic or alkaline.
i. Include coastal marine inshore waters up to depths of 6 meters (e.g. lagoons).
j. Include islands, riparian or inter-tidal coastal zones.
k. Mangroves and areas influenced by tides, mud flats, estuaries, creeks and salts flats are regarded as wetlands.
l. Include inland lakes inshore waters up to depths of 6 meters.
m. Can be frozen water, like permafrost, ice caps and glaciers.
n. Wetlands are water, and as such are very fragile and sensitive towards climate change.
2.2. Wetlands Ecology
Wetland ecology is all about the environmental or natural science of the biology and functions of what is
basically an aquatic ecosystem. Ecology looks at the natural balance between flora and fauna biodiversity and

7
their relationship with the peculiar hydro-chemical cycle and food webs that characterizes the different types of
wetland bio-tomes.
Wetlands are part of a continuous landscape that grades from wet to dry. They are often found at the intersection
or interface between true terrestrial habitat (dry land) and true aquatic habitat (lake, sea or ocean) and usually
include elements of both ecosystems. Their characteristics are defined by those areas that are inundated or
saturated by surface or groundwater, and by frequency and duration of inundation sufficient to support different
life forms. Under normal circumstances wetlands support a prevalence of vegetation and fauna typically adapted
for life in aquatic environments, flooded or saturated soil conditions.
Wetlands can be extremely varied and fluctuating ecosystems and therefore inherently difficult to categorize.
Many wetlands are unique to a certain degree, as their individual characteristics are determined by a combination
of factors such as climate, soils and hydrology, which determines the combination of animals and vegetation.
Fact Box :9 Intersection of terrestrial habitat and aquatic habitat (Tiner, 1991)
Wetlands can be categorized by several biotomes, notably:
a. Open water: A true aquatic environment, permanently inundated, supporting submergent vegetation and aquatic live,
such as fish.
b. Permanently Flooded: Shallow waters, with emergent plants, generally covered in water for all or most part of the
year, extremely rich in organic nutrients and silt and very productive zone, a major fish feeding area.
c. Periodically Flooded: An intertidal or inter-flood zone where seasonally during the rains, water rises to inundate this
area categorized by plants, generally grasses and a few tree species (like mangroves, palm trees and acacias) that can
tolerate water logged soils, or their roots being under water for all or part of the wet season.
d. Permanently Saturated: Is boggy or marshy ground, waterlogged for all or part of the year due to seepage from
upstream sources or high water table. Again, characterized by vegetation types that can tolerate their roots in water.
e. Periodically Saturated: Higher ground, away from the permanent flooding areas, but in receipt of water logging for a
small part of the season, but not excessive such that trees and other vegetation predominate.
Fact Box 10: Low Water, Flooding and Flood Recession Phases of a Floodplain Cycle (Roggeri, 1995)

8
Wetlands also are marine in nature and can be categorized by (Richmond, 2002):
a. Tides: The daily rise and fall of the sea level is known as tides, and they are vital to the ecology of the inter-
tidal and coral wetlands. Produced by the gravitational pull of the moon more so than the sun, that causes the
oceans to bulge outward as they are pulled by the gravity of these two objects. High tide is always
experienced on the side of the earth directly facing the moon and on the opposite side of the planet. Tides
vary over a 24 hr period and over the 29 day lunar cycle due to the position of the earth and moon rotation.
b. Extreme or Spring Tides: Twice in a lunar cycle, at full moon and new moon, the sun and moon are directly
in line and their combined gravitational pull results in a greater tide range, or extremes known as “spring
tides” and can be 2-4 m.
c. Smaller or Neap Tides: During the half moon phases, when the sun and moon are in opposite sides of the
earth, their gravitational pull neutralizes each other and the tidal range is much smaller, called “neap tides”.
d. Tidal Range: The amplitude of a tide is determined by the season and shore topography, and during the
equinoxes in March and September, when the sun and moon are on the same plane, the amplitude is the
greatest.
Fact Box: Profile of a Coastal Intertidal Wetland Showing the Tidal Zones (Richmond, 2002)
e. Littoral Zone: The intertidal area, that washed by the tidal extremes, or intertidal zone, can be small a few
meters on rocky shores of 3km in shallow flats. The difference between the tidal ranges of spring and neap
therefore determine the ecology and habitats according to gradient between immersed and exposed shoreline.
The upper parts are only immersed during high spring tides and are dry most the year, with diverse plant
species (eg mangroves) while the sub-littoral lower reaches only exposed during spring lows are more diverse
in aquatic life (eg coral reefs).
f. Mangrove Forests: These are salt tolerant evergreen plants, of which 9 species are found in Tanzania. They
occur in soft sediment shorelines, from the mid-eulittoral to the upper shores, and trap sediments, recycle
nutrients, buffer wave action, stop erosion and make up a very productive ecosystem, breeding and nursery
grounds for many fish and aquatic species and a valuable source of timber and poles.
Fact Box: Cross-section of a Coastal Intertidal Wetland Showing the Main Habitat Types (Richmond, 2002)
g. Salt Marsh: In the upper tidal reaches and seepage zones, salt concentration in the sols can be high, and the
area is categorized by salt tolerant grasses and bushes known as “salt marshes”.
h. Seagrass Beds: These are terrestrial plants adapted to a marine life, at least 10 species occur in Tanzania.
They prefer sandy substrates of intertidal zones and mud flats to about 20 m depth, limited by light
penetration (ie less in dirty, turbid waters. By trapping sediments, seagasses play a vital role to stabilize
sandy areas, protecting shores from erosion and home to hundreds of invertebrates, of several 1000/m2
, and
algae. Numerous fish species find food and shelter here.

9
i. Rocky Shores/Cliffs: Most are of fossil coral outcrops of Pleistocene age, common in strong wave or wind
action areas, often interspersed with sandy beaches and characterized by being water retentive, thus creating
habitats for many plants and epifauna.
j. Coastal Lagoons: Stretches of sea water partly separated from the sea by low, narrow elongated strips of
land, coral reef or sand bars, covered in seagrass beds, coral patches. Numerous attached benthic life-forms
and invertebrates find food and shelter here, in addition to hundreds of species of fish who come in at high
tide and leave when it becomes shallow. The fringe reef also forms a reef flat dominated by coralline algae,
brittle stars, anemones and a host of life forms and a rich fishery for octopus and sea cucumbers. Coastal
lagoons are a rich source of food for coastal communities.
Fact Box: Cross-section of a Typical Intertidal Zone, with Fringe Reef and Lagoon (Richmond, 2002)
Coral Reefs: Perhaps some of the most diverse ecosystems on the planet, a 3 dimensional living
structure of thousands of benthic plants and animals living in amongst the hard and soft coral
communities encrusted with algae. Home to may fish, invertebrates and other aquatic fauna, corals
produce a hard calcareous skeleton to protect their soft tissues and deposit limestone in a symbiotic
relationship with a zooxanthellae alga. Growing at 0.5-0.7 cm/year, corals are very sensitive to light,
high temperatures, or exposure to air, and coral bleaching (ie a die out) can occur if the water
temperatures get to hot, a feature of “el nino” or climate change. These habitats provide a very
important breeding and feeding ground for aquatic organisms harvested by local beach communities.
2.3. Characteristics of Wetlands
Three conditions must be satisfied before an area will be classified as a wetland. The area must exhibit:
a. Characteristically wet: (ie. Hydric or water-logged) soils, sediment or substrate, characterized by high nutrient loads
and often a low level of oxygen available for biological purposes within the root zone;
b. Permanent or periodic inundation: or water saturation of the soil or substrate; and
c. A predominance (made up of) of characteristic plants and animals: that are adapted to live, breed and grow under
these conditions.
Water-logged soils are characterized by:
a. Wetland soils are water saturated or water logged (and this occurs when enough water is present amongst the soil
particles to limit the possibility of any diffusion of air into the soil).
b. Decomposition is where bacteria and other micro-organisms break down organic matter and this can result in
accumulation of a layer of decomposing (rotting) organic matter on or in the water-logged soils of wetlands.
c. Soil reduction or de-oxygenation occurs when, due to water-logging, oxygen is not available to soil microbes (eg
bacteria, fungi, etc), and they cease to decompose (breakdown) the organic matter or substitute oxygen contained in
iron compounds in their respiratory process.
d. Re-doximorphic includes grey or mottled layers (mixed colours) which occur when iron compounds, in the absence of
oxygen, are reduced by microbes in anaerobic soils and carried away, leaving bare grey mineral soils. The iron tends to
be oxidized elsewhere, leaving orange stains (ferric oxide compounds), usually at the seasonal high-water table.

10
2.4. Wetlands and the Hydrological Cycle (Water Cycle)
To manage wetlands it is first important to understand the “water cycle”.
Whereas it is high ground and forest micro-climates that bring rainfall, it is wetlands that catch and store the
water on land! This process is described as the water cycle.
a. Water Catchment: Where water is concerned, we all live in a river basin. It is really a part of your address – your
house, street, village, town, province, region and basin! So how our river basins are being managed concerns all of us.
What happened upstream could affect those living downstream. Wastes dumped upstream (eg sewage) could harm
downstream communities, and any dams, or excessive water use upstream (eg irrigation) or damage to catchment forests
(eg deforestation for timber) or due to overgrazing (ie pastoralism) could limit water available to downstream users.
b. Water Cycle: Heat from the sun causes water vapour (= moisture) to rise (= evaporation) from oceans, seas, lakes,
wetlands, land and glaciers. Plants also release moisture into the air though trans-evaporation from their leaves, and so
do animals when they breathe. This water vapour rises, and cools, and condenses (reforms as water droplets) into clouds,
and when the moisture in the clouds becomes too heavy, it falls as rain (= precipitation). Rain fall gathers as droplets at
first, then into puddles, forming streams and rivers, and runs down to the lowest point (to wetlands), either a floodplain,
lake or sea.
c. Groundwater: When water sits on land, in a wetland, it will also percolate (or seep) through the soil and ends up stored
in underground aquifers or groundwater reservoirs. Underground aquifers store around 97% of the worlds unfrozen fresh
water and provide safe drinking water for between 25-50% of the global population who tap this through wells and
boreholes – and they play an important role in irrigated agriculture.
d. River Basin: A river basin, watershed, catchment and drainage basin are all interchangeable terms to describe an area of
land that is drained by a river. It includes all the connected land surfaces that drain from many streams and tributaries, to
associated lakes, reservoirs, marshes, swamps, as well as the under-ground aquifers. The final destination is usually
through an estuary to the sea (eg Rufiji River Basin rises in Mbeya, flows through Usangu floodplain, through Mtera
dam is joined by Kilombero floodplain, and drains through the Selous to the Rufiji estuary which is lined with
mangroves).
A river basin includes many inhabitants, and its biodiversity – humans and other animals, plants, bacteria, etc, are
characterized by its degree of water saturation. Imagine it like a giant bath tub that catches all the water that falls within
its sides and sends it all out towards the bath-plug, the sea! River basins are usually separated from adjacent basins by a
ridge, a hill or a mountain, and this is known as its catchment, or watershed.
Fact Box 11: Wetlands and the Water Cycle (Ramsar WWD 2011)
(Seepage)

11
Some basins however, are inland basins that do not drain into an ocean – rather, water is recycled entirely through
evaporation or seepage. These are called “endorheic basin”, and around the world, make up about 18% of all land (e.g.
in Tanzania the soda lakes are endorheic, like Lake Natron, Lake Eyasi, etc).
e. Interconnected Water: What is important to appreciate, is that the wetlands within the basin – rivers, lakes, swamps,
reservoirs, etc. – are interconnected. They act like a series of major arteries and minor capillaries that keep us alive,
and all the other living things in the basin, too. Surface waters in wetlands are closely associated to most underground
aquifers (eg an underground lake), and this groundwater is exchanged between them in both directions. Some aquifers
depend for recharge (re-filling) almost entirely on the downward seepage (percolation) of water from a wetland, while
conversely some wetlands may depend on the outflow from an aquifer (a spring) as their water source.
Just as there are limits to using or pumping water from rivers or lakes, the extraction possibilities for groundwater are
not limitless, and over-exploitation leads to a similar impairment of the water cycle and often to salt water intrusion
(entry) into underground aquifers near the sea. Likewise, wastes or sewage dumped above or underground will
eventually seep and find its way into contaminating ground water, therefore placement of waste dumps and latrines near
water tables must be carefully regulated.
2.5. Hydrology and Nature of the Wetland
Wetlands may support both terrestrial and aquatic plant and animal biodiversity. However, the level and duration
of water inundation (ie duration and severity of flooding) largely determines the degree of surface water, soil or
substrate saturation. This influences the type of ecosystem niches that develop and the type of plant or animal
communities living in, on or adjacent to the water, the water/subsurface interface and in the subsurface layers,
generally water logged soils. Therefore, the most important factor that determines the overall nature of a wetland
is it hydrology cycle and associated water and soil chemistry. The timing, quantity, and duration of water flow
strongly influences both abiotic (non-living, eg hydro-chemistry.) and biotic (living, eg. Flora and fauna) factors
within a wetland.
a. Abiotic factors that are determined by hydrology in a wetland could include soil texture, water quality, or topography,
whereas
b. Biotic factors influenced by the hydrology in a wetland would be plant and animal types, biodiversity or quantity.
The prolonged presence of water creates conditions that favor the growth of specifically adapted plants and
animals, and promote the development of characteristic wetland soil. Hydrology alone, does not always affect
biology, as animals such as beavers (and man) can change the nature of a stream by constructing a dam, or
vegetation can build up over time in an area and reduce available surface water through increasing evapo-
transpiration or accumulation of silt and organic debris.

12
Fact Box: 12 Seasonal Variations with Water Cycle in a Typical Delta (Roggeri, 1995)
2.6. Wetland Habitats
A habitat is a place where an organism finds the food, water, shelter and space that it needs to live, grow,
reproduce and survive. In other words a habitat is a secure home for plants and animals. Wetlands are
characterized by a diversity of plants and animals specifically adapted to wetland conditions, as well as a variety
of “microhabitats” which offer very specific conditions for animals and plants.
A microhabitat is an area within the habitat that presents a different set of living conditions from the area right
next to it. In wetlands, some specific microhabitats include (See Fact Box 9):
a. The open water zone or permanently flooded,
b. the emergent zone, the zone partially flooded, where the soil is sometimes wet and sometimes dry and
c. the dry uplands.
There are plants and animals that are perhaps abundant in one of these areas but could not survive in an adjacent
zone. For example, typha (bullrushes), papyrus and phragmites (reeds) are found in shallow water at the edge of
the wetlands only, but cannot survive being inundated in deeper water or on dry land. Floating plants on the other
hand, need more open water. Most ducks can be found both in open water and along the shore of wetlands but
they rarely range to the dry uplands. Wetland plants and animals are uniquely adapted to life in one or more
particular microhabitat.
2.7. Adaptations to Life in the Wetlands
Even with its abundance of water and nutrients, the wetland environment is a challenging place to live. Survival
in the wetlands means adapting to periods of both flooding and drought. It means dealing with reduced oxygen in
both the soil and water. Organisms must often contend with accumulated salts or other pollutants. The day to day
tasks of finding food and shelter as well as reproducing must also be accomplished to ensure a species’ survival.
Wetland plants and animals have therefore evolved and developed a variety of physical and behavioral
adaptations to deal with the particular set of challenges presented by life in the wetlands. One of the biggest
challenges organisms face in some wetlands (eg floodplains) is surviving in an often oxygen-deprived
environment. Sediment and soil in a wetland are often anaerobic (– that is, there is very little available oxygen).

13
This is a big challenge for wetland plants that need oxygen for respiration and nutrient exchange. Wetland plants
have developed several strategies to deal with this condition. Many have developed air spaces throughout their
structures to move oxygen from the emergent parts of the plant (the part above water) to the roots. Other plants
have developed above-ground roots and other structures which enable them to literally “come up for air”(eg
mangroves have aerial roots to breath). Wetland bacteria have a unique way of dealing with anaerobic conditions.
Rather than using oxygen for respiration, they use sulfate. The by-product of their respiration is hydrogen sulfide,
which is what causes the rotten-egg smell in the muck of many wetlands, and is the result of decomposing actions
by anaerobic bacteria.
Fact Box: 13 Physical Adaptations of Different Plants in the Wetlands (Roggeri, 1995)
Wetland plants generally fall into three categories.
a. Emergent plants are those that are rooted in the soil but extend above the water’s surface.
b. Submergent plants are those that live completely underwater.
c. Floating plants are just that – they float on the water’s surface and may or may not have their roots in the soil.
Fact Box 14: Habitats of Typical Wetland Herbivours (Roggeri, 1995)
FloaƟng Plants
Emergent Plants

14
2.8. Webs of Life in Wetlands
Wetlands functions are very productive and provide great volumes of food or nutrients that attract many plant and
animal species. There is an abundance of water and nutrients in wetlands.
a. Wetlands Plant Species: With plenty of sunshine (the ultimate source of energy), plants thrive in this environment. As
plants grow, die and decompose, they become the basis of the wetland food chain.
b. Wetlands Bacteria, Fungi and other tiny organisms feed on these decomposing plants (also called detritus). In turn,
these microorganisms feed small invertebrates such as insect larvae, snails and worms.
c. Wetlands Animals such as frogs, small fish and birds consume these invertebrates. The small animals become food for
larger predatory fish, reptiles, amphibians, birds, and mammals.
d. Wetland Productivity: In this way energy from the sun travels through may food chains and food webs. The sheer
productivity of energy at the primary level makes wetlands unique. The constant growth of plants, which are the primary
level of the food chain, leads to an abundance of energy all the way up the food chain. Wetlands are literally teaming
with life.
Fact Box:15 Food Web Diagram for a Typical Antelope Wetland (Roggeri, 1995)
Wetland Productivity: In this way energy from the sun travels through may food chains and food webs. The sheer
productivity of energy at the primary level makes wetlands unique. The constant growth of plants, which are the primary
level of the food chain, leads to an abundance of energy all the way up the food chain. Wetlands are literally teaming with
life.
Typical Shallow-Water Coral Reef Wetland Showing Bio-diversity (Richmond, 2002)

15
2.9. Wetlands Productivity
Fact Box16: Wetlands are some of the most Productive Ecosystems on the Planet (Roggeri, 1995)
Wetlands constitute some of the most productive and valuable natural habitats on Earth. They provide many
important functions and services for society but are ecologically very sensitive and fragile systems which are
being threatened by human overuse, and very prone to climate change (See Chapter 5for explanation). Climate
change is due to mankind’s influence on the planet’s temperature, which is rising due to waste emissions called
greenhouse gases (GHG), including carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), etc.
The aims and responsibilities of different levels of management organizations (from community to State) are to
protect and ensure wise use of wetland areas, at the same time ensuring that the ecological balance is maintained,
so that wetlands do not become damaged, and can continue to support life. This is particularly vital when
wetlands are in close proximity to local communities. Here, the establishment of mutually beneficial ways of
utilizing such areas is crucial to ensure their continued existence.
Incomplete information on the ecological role and the functions of wetlands, combined with the lack of
recognized property rights has led to their uncontrolled, over-exploitation, conversion (eg encroachment for
agriculture) and degradation. This Resource Book aims to enlighten more on these perspectives so as to try and
halt the current, destructive path.
2.10. Wetland Functions Support Life:
Tanzania is richly endowed with wetlands which cover 10% of land area, and their functions provide the bulk of
life services that support mankind and all other forms of life.
Wetlands are the “liver and kidneys of the Earth” !
Wetlands act as sponges, they filter, clean and store water, recharging ground water. Without wetlands, rivers and
streams, which acts like veins and arteries, would simply bleed the land dry and life giving freshwater would be
lost after every rainfall. Wetlands hold back this water, store it on land, making it available for all forms of life.
All water mankind and animals use, comes from wetlands. This is known as the “Ecosystem Services or life
support services of a wetland”. Wetlands are a living ecosystem! If wetlands were damaged, waterways would
seasonally dry up, would not flush nor purify, and as a result, they would die and stink from the waste and rotting
organic materials.

16
Fact Box 17: Wetland Ecosystem Resources and Functions by Type (Roggeri, 1995)
During rainfall seasons without wetlands, rivers and streams, water would simply flow unimpeded (un-restricted)
into the lakes, seas and oceans, draining all life giving water from the land. Without wetlands there would be no
water storage on land (surface water), no perennial (all year round) water flows in rivers and streams. No water
would be stored without depressions like lakes, marshes, swamps, floodplains and inter-tidal zones. Without
water storage, no percolation (seepage) would take place, and there would be no re-charge of groundwater as a
result wells would also dry up!
Inter-tidal zones are some of the most productive ecosystems on the planet; they provide vital nurseries and
feeding areas for fish. Without tidal wetlands, and tidal flows, water exchange would not take place and these
coastal depressions would become clogged with wastes, rot, smell, de-oxygenate and die.
Wetlands are sponges, resembling living tissue, they hold water on land and in intertidal zones where “wetland
ecosystem services” become life support functions available for man, plants and animals to live and survive.
Water is the giver of life and wetlands are the main source of all freshwater on our planet. Wetlands are so
diverse in nature and function, that they perhaps contain and support almost 60-70% of all biodiversity in
Tanzania. Globally, 60-65% of mankind lives on, in, or near a wetland (MEA, 2005). Wetlands are also highly
susceptible to climate change. For example catastrophes such as floods, droughts, storms, ice melt, increased
evaporation and sea rise would adversely affect wetland’s ability to store water.
Wetlands also assist both in carbon sequestration (= carbon fixing) and local climate amelioration (to reduce
adverse effect on local micro-climates). Wetlands can fix carbon at 100tC/ha/yr and store carbon at a rate of 1000
Ct/ha with peat land and permafrost bogs contain 33% of all globally stored carbon. Wetlands can also produce
methane as a by-product of decomposition of organic matter.
Fact Box 18:
Key Life Services of Wetlands are:
a. Water for animal and human survival.
b. Water for human livelihood and domestic needs.
c. Water for mining, industry, energy (i.e. hydro-power), for cities.
d. Water for waste and sewage disposal.
e. Water for food production, fish and agriculture.
f. Water for dry and wet season grazing for livestock and wildlife.
g. Water percolation/seepage to re-charge groundwater supplies.

17
h. Water storage to ensure perennial flows in streams and rivers.
Wetlands are life! No water, no wetlands, no life!
2.11. Wetlands are often Mistaken as Waste Lands
Wetlands are often mistaken as wastelands, and believed to be as a source of diseases!
Many people consider wetlands as dumping grounds, places to throw waste, places that smell bad, have
mosquito’s and are a sources of animal and human health problems.
Fact Box 19:
Why Wetlands are Misunderstood:
a. Dirty and polluted: There is a prevailing psychology that wetlands are sites where you throw waste, rubbish and sewage, and
because of pollution, you cannot drink the water (90% of wetlands are believed contaminated by human wastes).
b. Sources of diseases of man: Bilharzia, cholera, typhoid, diarrhea, malaria, intestinal parasites and skin infections, most of which are
a result of human waste dumping in wetlands or on land that’s washes into wetlands.
c. Sources of diseases of animals: Rift valley fever, anthrax, foot & mouth, avian flu, intestinal parasites, tick borne disease, liver fluke,
fungal infections, etc. generally are harboured as spores in wetlands, and become prevalent at time of drought or stress.
d. Habitats of dangerous animals: Such as spiders, buffalo, snakes, hippos, crocodiles and leeches in freshwater as well as poisonous
fish in intertidal zones (eg stone fish, lion fish, sea snakes, conus shells, urchins, etc).
e. Life threatening: Due to river bank erosion or flood risk to settlement, infrastructure and crops.
Because of the un-appreciation of the importance of wetlands to life, they are being undervalued, unappreciated,
exploited and slowly destroyed by unsustainable human activities. Researchers consider nearly 90% of wetlands
in Tanzania are contaminated with human wastes, and this is an explanation why water borne diseases are
amongst the most common ailments treated in health clinics (see Fact Box 19)(Wildlife Division, 2008 SWM
Research Agenda). In addition, the same report considers that 50% of wetlands have been encroached by
settlement, agriculture or pastoralism, thereby reducing nature’snatural storage of water on land, which could
have dire consequences when water in the future becomes more scarce due to climate change.
Wetlands are life, they need to be used wisely and managed sustainably.
Work Box 2:
Review Questions:
1. Define what is meant by a wetland…?
2. Explain the water cycle.?
3. Elaborate, why wetlands are the kidneys and liver of the earth?
4. List 3 reasons why wetlands are mis-understood as waste lands?
5.
Group Work:
1. Draw a wetland food web of a typical wetland in your area.
2. Show what are the importance of the wetlands to livelihoods?

18
CHAPTER THREE
WETLANDS OF TANZANIAAND CLASSIFICATION BY TYPES
This section describes the wetlands of Tanzania, their distribution, river basins, protected wetlands and the different types of wetland with
examples from Tanzania
a. Distribution of Wetlands.
b. River Basins.
c. Protected Wetlands (Ramsar Sites of Tanzania).
d. Ramsar Classifications of wetlands (Marine and Freshwater).
e. Definition of Natural and Man-made.
i. Major fresh water ecosystems
Riverine
Lacustrine
Marshes and swamps.
Floodplains
Bogs
Peatlands
Springs
Crater lakes.
ii. Major marine ecosystems
Coral reefs
Mangroves
Sea grasses
Estuaries
Beaches and shoreline
iii. Man-made Freshwater Wetlands
Dams (HEP, irrigation, water supply).
Agricultural.
Fish ponds.
Sewage systems.
Drainage channels and ditches.
Borrow pits and quarries.
Fish pond.
iv. Man-Made: Marine:
Salt works.
Salt pans,
Magadi (Soda lakes),
Waste water treatment,
Fish farming, etc.
3.1. Distribution of Wetlands in Tanzania
Wetland ecosystems occupy about 6% of the world’s land surface.Wetlands range from 1% to 16% of the total
land area in various countries in Africa, vary in type from saline coastal lagoons, to fresh and brackish water.
In Tanzania the Wildlife Policy (2007) estimated that:
10% of the country surface area, is wetlands.
7% are natural freshwater wetlands (79,450 km2
)
3% of freshwater wetlands (27,000 km2
) are freshwater swamps, marshes, deltas and seasonal floodplain.
3% is coastal shoreline, salt marshes, intertidal zones, sand islands, estuaries, mangroves, etc.

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