2. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
Bronchitis, emphysema, and asthma may
present alone or in combination.
AsthmaBronchitis
Emphysema
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3. Description
Characterized by presence of airflow
obstruction
Caused by emphysema or chronic bronchitis
Generally progressive
May be accompanied by airway hyperreactivity
May be partially reversible
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4. Emphysema
Abnormal permanent enlargement of the air
space distal to the terminal bronchioles
Accompanied by destruction of bronchioles
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7. COPD Causes
Infection
Major contributing factor to the
aggravation and progression of COPD
Heredity
-Antitrypsin (AAT) deficiency (produced
by liver and found in lungs); accounts for
< 1% of COPD cases
Emphysema results from lysis of lung tissues by
proteolytic enzymes from neutrophils and macrophages
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9. Chronic bronchitis
•Chronic bronchitis is
a chronic inflammation
of the bronchi (medium-size airways) in
the lungs.
• It is generally considered one of the two
forms of chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease (COPD), the other being emphysema.
•Chronic bronchitis It is defined clinically as a
persistent cough that produces sputum and
mucus, for at least three months per year in
two consecutive years.
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10. Signs and symptoms
Bronchitis may be indicated by –
Cough (also known as a productive
cough, i.E. One that produces sputum),
Shortness of breath and
Wheezing.
Occasionally ,
chest pains, fever, and fatigue or malaise may also occur.
Mucus is often green or yellowish green and also may be
orange or pink, depending on the pathogen causing the
inflammation.
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11. Causes:
Tobacco smoking is the most common cause.
Pneumoconiosis and long-term fume inhalation
are other causes.
Allergies can also cause mucus
hypersecretion, thus leading to symptoms
similar to asthma or bronchitis
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13. Chronic Bronchitis Pathophysiology
Pathologic lung changes are:
Hyperplasia of mucus-secreting glands
in trachea and bronchi
Increase in goblet cells
Disappearance of cilia
Chronic inflammatory changes and narrowing
of small airways
Altered function of alveolar macrophages
infections
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15. Chronic Bronchitis Pathophysiology
Greater resistance to airflow increases
work of breathing
Hypoxemia and hypercapnia develop more
frequently in chronic bronchitis than
emphysema
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16. Chronic Bronchitis Pathophysiology
Bronchioles are clogged with mucus and
pose a physical barrier to ventilation
Hypoxemia and hypercapnia , lack of
ventilation and O2 diffusion
Tendency to hypoventilate and retain CO2
Frequently patients require O2 both at rest
and during exercise
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17. Chronic Bronchitis Pathophysiology
Cough is often ineffective to remove secretions
because the person cannot breathe deeply enough to
cause air flow distal to the secretions
Bronchospasm frequently develops
More common with history of
smoking or asthma
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19. Chronic Bronchitis
Clinical Manifestations
Bronchospasm at end of paroxysms of
coughing
Cough
History of smoking
Normal weight or heavyset
Ruddy (bluish-red) appearance d/t
polycythemia (increased Hgb d/t chronic hypoxemia))
cyanosis
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20. Chronic Bronchitis Clinical Manifestations
Hypoxemia and hypercapnia
Results from hypoventilation and
airway resistance + problems with
alveolar gas exchange
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22. Diagnosis:
A variety of tests may be performed in patients
presenting with cough and shortness of breath:
•Pulmonary Function Tests (PFT)
(or spirometry)
•A chest X-ray
• chest radiography.
•A sputum sample showing neutrophil
granulocytes (inflammatory white blood cells)
and Check for pathogenic microorganisms such
as Streptococcus spp.
•A blood test would indicate inflammation
•High Resolution Computed Tomography (HRCT)
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24. Acute bronchitis
Acute bronchitis is an inflammation of the large bronchi (medium-
size airways) in the lungs that is
Usually caused by viruses or bacteria and may last
several days or weeks.
Characteristic symptoms :
• cough,
• sputum (phlegm) production,
• shortness of breath
• wheezing related to the obstruction of the inflamed airways.
Diagnosis is by clinical examination and
sometimes microbiological examination of the phlegm.
Treatment
For acute bronchitis is typically symptomatic. As viruses cause
most cases of acute bronchitis, antibiotics should not be used unless
microscopic examination of gram-stained sputum reveals large numbers of
bacteria.
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28. Anti-inflammatory drugs: steroids
Life-saving.
Take at least 12 h to work: so start early in
severe cases.
Systemic steriods: acute severe asthma.
Inhaled steroids: maintenance
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29. Anti-inflammatory drugs: steroids
Systemic steroid:
intolerance
‘Cushingoid’ features
Hypertension
Salt and water retention
Infection
Topical steroid
Hoarseness
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30. Anti-inflammatory drugs:
cromoglycate{mast cell stabilizer}
Prevent release of histamine from mast cells
By inhaler only.
Useful maintenance therapy.
No role in severe episodes.
Few, if any, adverse effects.
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35. 2-agonists.
Salbutamol, terbutiline
Inhalers (of various types).
Maintenance:
Regularly in more severe cases
Acute severe asthma
Tachycardia and tremor
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36. Aminophylline
Is not a catecholamine, but has analgous effects.
Narrow therapeutic range.
Given by mouth or by IV infusion.
Toxic:
Fatal if injected too fast.
Convulsions.
Tachyarrhythmia
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37. Antimuscarinics
Atropine is the classical antimuscarinic, and this
is b’dilator.
Atropine: too many diverse effects.
Ipratropium.
By inhaler.
Add to salbutamol.
Dry mouth.
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