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IJPDLM
37,2                                             Participant observation in
                                                     logistics research
                                                            Experiences from an RFID
148                                                           implementation study
                                                                                        ˚
                                                                                Henrik Palsson
                                               Division of Packaging Logistics, Department of Design Sciences,
                                                               Lund University, Lund, Sweden

                                      Abstract
                                      Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to describe the advantages, challenges and uncertainties of
                                      collecting and analyzing data using participant observation in logistics research.
                                      Design/methodology/approach – Experiences from a participant observation study of an
                                      interorganizational radio frequency identification (RFID) implementation in an international
                                      environment are presented and reflected on. The RFID implementation included complex
                                      interactions between three leading companies.
                                      Findings – The results appear to support an increased use of participant observation in qualitative
                                      logistics research, particularly when investigating interorganizational aspects. The analysis
                                      highlights values, general limitations and challenges of using participant observation in logistics.
                                      The paper illustrates that using participant observation results in significant and detailed findings,
                                      which would be difficult to achieve with other methods. Suggestions on how to take advantage of the
                                      method’s benefits and overcome methodological challenges are provided.
                                      Research limitations/implications – Future research may address experiences from other studies
                                      regarding how to analyze and report data from a participant observation study. It may also clarify the
                                      role the method is given in case studies and extend the analysis of epistemological aspects conducted
                                      in this paper.
                                      Practical implications – This paper may inspire logistics researchers to consider participant
                                      observation, either as sole method or as part of a multi-methodical case study, in order to make use of
                                      its benefits and thus broaden the dimensions of logistics research.
                                      Originality/value – A broad literature review indicates that participant observation studies are
                                      rather uncommon in logistics research. This paper thus highlights the potential of using this method in
                                      logistics research, particularly when investigating the overlooked, but essential, interorganizational
                                      aspects of logistics and SCM.
                                      Keywords Quality, Research, Participative management, Logistics data processing
                                      Paper type Research paper


                                      Introduction
                                      When writing a paper considering a participant observation study on a radio
                                      frequency identification (RFID) implementation project, the author was going through
                                      leading journals within the field of logistics to gain inspiration from other participant
International Journal of Physical     observation studies. Surprisingly, only a limited number of logistics studies using
Distribution & Logistics Management   participant observation were found. In addition, examination by Mentzer and Kahn
Vol. 37 No. 2, 2007
pp. 148-163                           (1995) and by Sachan and Datta (2005) confirmed the author’s suspicion that
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0960-0035
                                      participant observation studies within logistics are rare. In the comprehensive analysis
DOI 10.1108/09600030710734857         by Mentzer and Kahn, participant observation is not even a category. Perhaps, it is
included as a part in some of the case studies reviewed, but only about 3 percent of the           Participant
articles published in the Journal of Business Logistics 1978-1995 were case studies.           observation in
Sachan and Datta (2005, p. 666) pointed out that existing reviews show that direct
observation methods are rather unpopular and that “researchers are mainly using             logistics research
peoples (sic) perception (survey and interview) or artificial methods (simulation and
mathematical modeling) for research in the discipline.”
   To further examine this issue, the author conducted a general search in our internal                  149
library navigator, which contains most of the logistics journals relevant to this area
and a considerable number of conference proceedings. A search for participant
observation or ethnographic studies in logistics or supply chain management resulted
in only a handful of matches. This apparent lack of participant observation research is
confirmed in a review of case study research (Seuring, 2006). Only five of 68 case
studies employed participant observation in any way. Thus, it would not be
exaggerating to say that participant observation is a rarely used method in logistics
research.
                                               ¨
   However, Sachan and Datta, as well as Naslund (2002), clearly state that logistics
needs more qualitative research. Sachan and Datta (2005, p. 669) point out the need
for movement toward direct observation via case, action, and field studies, as
                                                                                  ¨
“the methods are accessible, their legitimacy is proven, and the need is great.” Naslund
emphasizes the need for more ethnographic studies and action research.
   This paper is thus designed to strike a blow for an increased use of participant
observation in logistics research. Therefore, a study on RFID implementation using
this method is offered to illustrate the potential of the method in logistics.
   The purpose of this paper is to describe the advantages, challenges, and
uncertainties of collecting and analyzing data using participant observation in logistics
research. Experiences from the interorganizational RFID implementation study in an
international environment are presented and reflected on. The paper also briefly
discusses whether existing epistemological settings in logistics support or are
obstacles for participant observation.
   The outline of the paper is the following. It begins with a review of participant
observation and positioning of the method compared to other qualitative methods.
Then the interorganizational RFID implementation study is summarized, with a focus
on methodological aspects. Thereafter, the study is reflected on. Subsequently,
participant observation in logistics is discussed from a more general perspective, but
with connections to the study carried out. Finally, future research is suggested.

Participant observation
Characteristics of participant observation
Different authors seem to include various aspects when they address participant
observation. Some literature (Jackson, 1983; Park, 1999) regards it as a rather broad
research strategy, including observations, interviews, and sampling from documents.
These authors almost place it on a par with ethnography, while other literature
(Merriam, 1994; Yin, 2003) has a narrower view of it. Yin considers it as more of a data
collection technique which can be used within case studies. Merriam, on the other hand,
regards it as a method and he claims it to be one of the most important methods in case
studies. Bryman (2002) also considers it to be a method, while he addresses
ethnography as a wider term. In logistics research, Yin’s approach of regarding
IJPDLM   participant observation as a data collection technique, often as a part of a case study,
37,2     appears to be common. However, participant observation as the main research method
         in logistics is also available (Ellram, 1996), which is the view adopted in this paper.
             Participant observation is defined by Bryman (2002). He states that a
         participant observer is engaged in a group for a considerable period of time. The
         behavior of the group is explored by observing conversations within the group
150      and with the researcher. Bryman also points out that it is common that participant
         observation also incorporates supplementary interviews and written material.
             To distinguish participant observation from other qualitative methods, it is
         compared to five related methods. Ethnography may refer to either a method or a
                                         ¨
         philosophical paradigm (Naslund, 2002). This method is close to participant
         observation, but it is often more culturally focused (Bryman, 2002).
             Participatory action research has similarities to participant observation, as a group
         is investigated over a period of time. It does, however, significantly differ from this
         method on the point that “some of the people in the organization or community under
         study participate actively with the professional researcher throughout the research
         process” (Foote Whyte, 1991, p. 20).
             Case studies may be defined as an investigation of “a contemporary phenomenon
         within its real-life context” (Yin, 2003, p. 13) or as the study of the complexity and nature
         of a specific case (Stake in Bryman, 2002). A case may, for instance, be a program, an
         event, a process, an institution, or a social group (Creswell, 1994). According to Ragin
         and Becker (Ragin, 1992, p. 225) it is “a way station in the process of producing empirical
         social evidence.” In a case study this evidence may be produced from data collected by
         using various methods, both qualitative and quantitative ones (Ellram, 1996); hence,
         participant observation may be one of them. Accordingly, case study research may have
         overlapping parts with participant observation, for instance, collecting empirical
         evidence from a contemporary phenomenon, interviewing, and observation. Participant
         observation as viewed in this paper, however, is more distinct, focusing on spending
         time in a studied group, and if interviews are used, they are complementary or less
         formal. This means that interviews are mainly conducted for unobservable parts of the
         studied phenomenon, while a case study may use them as the main method.
             Interview studies are a stand-alone method. Compared to participant observation,
         one basic and essential difference is that participant observation mainly results in
         first-hand data from a contemporary phenomenon, while interviews result in data
         interpreted by the respondent from a historical event. A thorough comparison
         is provided by Bryman (2002). Participant observation offers better opportunities to
         reveal tacit knowledge and unexpected behavior and is thus able to adapt to changed
         situations. It also has advantages in being able to uncover hidden activities and
         highlight contextual sensitivity. Interview studies, on the other hand, are better at
         explaining certain types of emotions and underlying causes for some actions, for
         example, why a person has become a vegetarian. Participant observations are suitable
         for in-depth longitudinal studies of a limited period of time, but for practical reasons
         interview studies are more suitable for long, longitudinal investigations and historical
         events. Another practical advantage of interviews is that they often require
         considerably less time. Interview studies also offer a wider scope of the study as they
         may include people from various parts of an organization, while participant
         observation is often limited to a small part of an organization.
Focus groups represent a certain type of interview where several respondents                       Participant
discuss questions asked by the researcher. Consequently, the comparisons between                   observation in
interview studies and participant observation are, to a large extent, also valid for focus
groups. However, there are some characteristics which put focus groups in another               logistics research
position than interviews compared to participant observation. In accordance with
participant observation, focus groups result in large amounts of data which may be
challenging to analyze. Compared to interviews, focus groups offer slightly less                             151
control, but not to the extent that is typical in participant observation. While
participant observation reveals the first-hand data of a phenomenon, Bryman (2002)
states that a focus group may come to consensus when an issue is being discussed.
A risk of this course of action is that people in a group stop thinking critically. Another
risk put forward by Bryman is that group effects may limit the results of a focus group,
as some participants may be loud and some very quiet. These risks are considered to
be less apparent in participant observation because the researcher studies the group in
its natural context.

Four phases
Four phases (preparation, data collection, analysis, and writing) which could be
identified in ethnographic studies are also valid to some extent in participant
observation studies. They are referred to below.
   The preparation phase includes, similar to other research methods, research design.
An essential element is gaining access to the objects to be investigated. This often includes
seeking the permission of gatekeepers and the support of sponsors. However, access is not
only a question of physical presence or absence (Hammersley and Atkinson, 1995, p. 55).
Private boundaries may, for example, be difficult to break through, as they “may be
policed by gatekeepers” (Hammersley and Atkinson, 1995, p. 63).
   Further, in the field relations it is essential to gain the trust of the group being
researched. Thus, Hammersley and Atkinson (1995) observe that it may be necessary
to dress similarly to the group and to clearly explain the intentions of the study. They
also recommend a researcher not to become too involved in a group if it prevents
him/her from gaining access to other groups.
   After preparation, the data collection phase may begin. Various authors offer
practical advice on how to ensure accurate and trustworthy information. Glaser (1996),
for instance, claims that it is essential to:
    .
      Schedule strategically – be flexible, take advantage of “snowballing”
      (one respondent may suggest and facilitate access to other respondents).
    .
      Adjust the interview request to the situation – for example, taking advantage of
      time in between events to conduct short interviews.
    . Obtain multiple perspectives.
    .
      Establish trust and gain access.
    .
      Reveal your purpose, suppress your opinion – be clear, but do not reveal your
      opinions on different issues.
    .
      Do not overlook detail in the rush of activity – it is impossible to know
      beforehand which details are critical in the investigation.
    .
      Be a pack rat – it is impossible to know beforehand what is important.
IJPDLM   Jackson (1983), on the other hand, identified six challenges:
37,2        (1) Problems of data handling – for example, sorting very comprehensive
                information.
            (2) Significant time gap between the occurrence of an event and its being recorded
                as data.
152         (3) Lengthy delay between research and writing.
            (4) Problems of systematic analysis and convincing presentation of infinite
                amounts of data.
            (5) Too heavy reliance on informants involves the dangers of an elite bias.
            (6) Ethical and moral questions.

         Atkinson et al. (2001) put emphasis on field notes. They state that field notes may be
         either jotted down or merely mental. The jotted notes may work as reminders for
         certain situations or may be the initial steps of the writing process. Mental notes are to
         be conducted while the researcher is observing in detail, with the aim of writing
         or participating in ongoing events in order to gain experience of certain situations or
         processes.
            The phase of analysis and reflection in participant observation studies is typically
         ongoing throughout the investigation. Hammersley and Atkinson (1995, p. 210) offer
         some advice on how to conduct the analysis in ethnography, which is useful in
         participant observation too; “The first step in the process of analysis is, of course,
         a careful reading of the corpus of data, in order to become thoroughly familiar with it.”
         They point out that the aim of the first step is to identify patterns, seek relationships
         across the whole data or see whether anything stands out. They further explain that
         concepts may also be observed. The initial analysis is expected to generate fairly trivial
         concepts which, further on in the analysis, become more abstract. A more in-depth
         analysis strategy, suggested by Hammersley and Atkinson (1995, p. 216), is constant
         comparison (Glaser and Strauss, 1967). Another strategy they propose is typology
         development, where “an initial set of categories differentiating a particular range of
         phenomena can be developed into a systematic typology.” Irrespective of the strategy
         chosen, the interpretations in the study depend on several aspects:
             .
               Social context. Since, the participant observer interacts in a social context, the
               audience “to which the actions or accounts being used as data were directed”
               (p. 220) should be considered, as this may affect what is being said. It should be
               taken into account that the people being studied may have something to gain by
               not telling the truth. The audience may be the researcher, for instance, in
               interviews and some observation situations.
             .
               Time. What is said and done depends on time, i.e. what has already occurred is
               relevant to decisions and actions.
             .
               Personnel. Actions and perspectives of people depend on their identity and their
               social relationships. For example, the position a person holds in a company
               determines which information is accessible to them.
             .
               Respondent validation. The respondent may have more knowledge than the
               researcher, but the respondent’s knowledge may be false or there may be a
               motive behind an incorrect description or a misinterpretation. If the investigation
may be interpreted as critical or negative, respondent validation may also be                 Participant
       problematic.                                                                              observation in
   .
       Triangulation. Checking findings with different sources.                                logistics research
Another way of analyzing data in a participant observation study is to use coding
techniques from grounded theory. Strauss and Corbin (1998) emphasize the need to
carefully scrutinize data. Accordingly, they describe how to break down data with                          153
extensive coding procedures. They also promote the writing of memos and notes to
gain analytical distance from data.
   An essential part of any analysis is how data are interpreted. Alvesson and
   ¨
Skoldberg (1994, p. 12) put the emphasis on reflection, which they define as
“interpretation of an interpretation.” This means that reflection aims to critically
evaluate interpretations of empirical material conducted by a researcher. Thus, the
connection between interpreted data, for example, models, and reality in data may be
strengthened.
   Finally, the phase of writing may be divided into two parts; writing field notes
and writing the finished texts. This phase is more extensive in ethnographic studies
and thus only briefly mentioned here. Atkinson et al. (2001) point out that writing field
notes often is a first analytic step. It may facilitate new insights into the research area
and give rise to new ideas. In the final text in a participant observation study, the field
notes are reported together with other empirical data, for example, interviews.

Participant observation in the RFID implementation study
A brief overview of RFID technology in logistics
Before highlighting methodological issues of the participant observation study
conducted, RFID technology in logistics, its potential advantages and challenges are
briefly presented. Without visual contact RFID technology captures data from an
object. In a typical RFID system, a reader transmits and registers radio waves which
are modified by a tag (antenna) applied to an object.
   The potential of using RFID technology in logistics has attracted a great deal of
attention recently (Sheffi, 2004). Current literature has, to a great extent, focused on the
potential opportunities this technology offers in logistics. Potential advantages
reported are reduced labor hours (Jones et al., 2004; McFarlane and Sheffi, 2003), less
             ¨   ¨
spoilage (Karkkainen, 2003), and a reduction in shrinkage in the supply chain (Jones
et al., 2004; Rutner et al., 2004). Other potential advantages identified are increased
process efficiency (Angeles, 2005; Rutner et al., 2004), improved sales due to reduced
out-of-stock situations (Jones et al., 2004; Prater et al., 2005), improved track and trace
opportunities (Angeles, 2005; Jones et al., 2004), improved accuracy of product control
(Angeles, 2005; Rutner et al., 2004), and improved inventory management in vendor
                                    ˚                  ¨
managed inventory settings (Smaros and Holmstrom, 2000).
   Two generic types of logistics systems using RFID exist. First, RFID may be
implemented in a closed loop, which means that the same RFID tag is used over and over
again in a closed loop. Since, the tag is used many times, its purchase price is relatively
unimportant. Consequently, rather expensive high-performing tags may be used in such
loops. Second, RFID may be implemented in an open system, for example, in a supply
chain. In this context, several challenges arise. There are technological challenges
(McFarlane and Sheffi, 2003); the tags are disposable and must be inexpensive. Thus, it is
IJPDLM   challenging to produce tags which are inexpensive but still reliable and durable.
37,2     In addition, implementation in a supply chain should also consider the technological
         requirements of several actors; the RFID system chosen should work for all actors
         involved. Furthermore, this interorganizational character of RFID implementation in a
         supply chain results in other challenges. Interorganizational barriers are associated with
         cost/benefit sharing, collaboration, information sharing, and technology transfer issues
154        ˚
         (Palsson, 2006).
            Nonetheless, RFID initiatives are currently being mandated by large retailers, for
         example, Wal-Mart, Tesco, and Metro. Therefore, their top suppliers are more or less
         required to implement RFID technology to be used in the supply chain.

         Overall description of the RFID implementation study
         To substantiate the methodological analysis, a brief description of the RFID study
         conducted is offered. The description reveals social context and personnel aspects
         which influenced the interpretations of the study. The investigation examined an
         interorganizational implementation project of RFID technology in disposable
         secondary packaging; the project was mandated by a large retailer. The study
         focused on interorganizational supply chain relationships and emphasized the
         implications of an RFID implementation project. It highlighted the interactions of a
         project group consisting of representatives from a packaging supplier, a food
         manufacturer, and a technology provider.
            The unit of analysis was thus the packaging company with the focus on its
         interactions with the participants in a working group aiming at implementing RFID
         tags in disposable secondary packaging. This case was chosen because it represents a
         leading packaging supplier and a leading food manufacturer with high levels of
         technological development. Both companies aim to be at the forefront of new
         technological concepts and tools in their industry.
            The nature of the companies involved varied somewhat. Those investigated at the
         packaging company were head office representatives. This company is ranked as one
         of the top companies in Europe regarding sales and market shares. The packaging
         company’s customer who was involved in the study was a very large food
         manufacturer. Representatives were located at the head office. The representatives of
         the third company in the study, the technology provider, were part of the company’s
         European subsidiary. This company is much smaller than the other companies.
            The relationship in the working group was interorganizational, which added
         complexity to the study. As the relationship was interorganizational, power was
         identified as impacting the collaboration substantially, both in terms of coercive and
         reward power (French and Raven, 1958). It was possible to initiate the project due to
         the power wielded by both the retailer and the food manufacturer. The main reason for
         the packaging supplier to enter the project was fear of reprisals, but while participating
         in the project the company also realized the potential of RFID technology for added
         business opportunities. The complexity of the study was also affected by four essential
         links between the collaborating parties. The links expressed mutuality (Dubois and
         Gadde, 2000). There were activity links between the companies both operationally
         and strategically, resource ties in terms of shared resources in testing and conducting
         the project, continuous interaction in a working group and, finally, economic links
         regarding implementation costs. Another complexity enhancer was the fact that the
collaborating companies had varying goals for participating. Finally, complexity was                  Participant
also added by a need to share costs in the interorganizational collaboration.                     observation in
   However, besides being interorganizational, the study dealt with RFID technology
which was an unproven technology interorganizationally. This made the complexity in            logistics research
the study even more evident.
   The investigation identified a number of characteristics of the relationship, and
essential issues which needed to be considered in implementing RFID technology in a                             155
supply chain. It revealed a need for knowledge of both packaging and the RFID
technology. Moreover, it demonstrated the impact of power on the relationship in the
interorganizational RFID implementation project as well as reasons for uncertainty in
the implementation project. It was suggested that uncertainty could be reduced with a
proactive approach, timely reporting, assigning clear roles, and early agreement of cost
sharing. The study also identified a lack of and a need for both a common goal and a
cost-sharing strategy. An agreed common goal appeared to improve project efficiency.

Preparation
The preparation phase included two main elements; designing the study and gaining
access. Participant observation was selected as the main research method for several
reasons. It made it possible to study a contemporary phenomenon and thus gain
otherwise inaccessible information (Yin, 2003) as well as to receive firsthand, detailed
information about the phenomenon. It also facilitated a holistic interpretation of the
situation. The research design further included elements such as definitions of period
of time, purpose and scope of the study, and key people and organizations in the study.
Gaining access needed particular attention. For initial skepticism to be overcome four
components were identified as helpful. First, the author had initial contact with one of
the organizations to be investigated. Thus, it was decided to first come to an agreement
with this organization to use its staff as sponsors later on. This proved to be important
as the sponsors had a key role in convincing the most skeptical project group members.
Second, a thorough description of the background of the author led to both a better
working relationship and helped convince the investigated group that the author could
contribute to the implementation process. Third, once the purpose of the study was
clearly revealed, it was easier for it to be accepted. Finally, making clear that the author
would contribute to the progress of the implementation also facilitated the project
group’s acceptance of a researcher as a member.

The process of data collection and data analysis
Participant observation was the main element of a single case study on implementation
of RFID technology in a German retail supply chain (Figure 1). The participant
observation was mainly conducted in a working group and in an experiment.



                                        Participant
                                        observation
                          Case                                                                                Figure 1.
                                       Working group     Interviews
                          study                                                                     Methods used in the
                                        Experiment
                                        Study visit                                            interorganizational RFID
                                                                                                  implementation study
IJPDLM                   The phase of data collection began when an interorganizational project regarding
37,2                     implementation of RFID technology in the supply chain (Figure 2) was started.
                         The main part of the project was an active working group, consisting of six permanent
                         members, including the author, originating from the packaging supplier, the food
                         manufacturer, the technology provider, and academia. Temporary members were
                         represented as knowledge resources when needed. The working group had an
156                      international character as the permanent members represented three nationalities and
                         the temporary members another two. The role of the author was mainly to document
                         and observe the progress of the project and secondarily to participate in discussions
                         and some project tasks.
                             The overall goal of the implementation project was somewhat unclear. Given the
                         complexity of the study, this is unsurprising. However, the goal was interpreted by
                         the working group as making an RFID system work on secondary packaging, i.e. all
                         secondary packages should be labeled individually with RFID tags and all tags should
                         be read simultaneously on several places in the supply chain. Thus, in order to further
                         evaluate the new technology, the working group identified two vaguely defined tasks.
                         First, a working, robust RFID system should be chosen, including both technological
                         choices such as RFID tags, positioning of tags on packages, readers, effects, etc. and
                         logistical effects such as supply chain design, efficiency improvement, reading locations,
                         etc. Second, a financial evaluation of introducing RFID technology was needed.
                             The working group existed for approximately six months. After a kick-off in
                         September 2005 the group operated on a regular basis until February 2006. The closing
                         of the working group was rather turbulent and abrupt as one of the project leaders left
                         the packaging company due to downsizing. This led to a hiatus in the project.
                             One type of knowledge resource used in the project was study visits at companies
                         with knowledge of RFID technology. This facilitated the working group’s
                         understanding of the technological requirements and limitations of RFID
                         technology. It also served as inspiration in the process of considering future
                         opportunities of RFID technology.
                             Another knowledge resource utilized was that of experiments conducted at the
                         technology provider’s. Together with the technology manager, the author carried
                         out technology tests of RFID technology. The goal was to reach a high read-rate for
                         RFID tags in packaging. Each transportation package on a pallet had a unique RFID
                         tag, and as the pallet was pulled between two readers all tags should be read. To obtain
                         a 100 percent accurate read rate we had to find a good combination of type (brand) and
                         position of tag, as well as type, frequency, and effect of readers.
                             Data were thus collected using participant observation in three general types of
                         environments. In these environments the level of participation/observation varied
                         (Figure 3). During the working group meetings the focus of the researcher was

                                                  Knowledge
                                                  resources

                                     Packaging                     Food
                                                                                              Retailer
                                      supplier                  manufacturer
Figure 2.
Actors involved in the                            Technology
RFID project                                        provider
primarily to observe, and secondarily to participate. The observation regarded                      Participant
documentation and interpretation of the project progress reported and discussions               observation in
carried out in the meetings. To fully make use of these events the author complemented
the observations with informal interviews or discussions with the participants.              logistics research
The second type of environment for data collection was that of experiments. Here, the
situation required the author to take a fairly active role due to lack of resources in the
field of RFID knowledge. The RFID testing was carried out by the technology manager                              157
at the technology provider’s and the author. The final environment for data collection
was that of study visits. Since, the overall aim of the whole working group was to
observe, the observer role of the author was quite natural. To gather even more data,
semistructured interviews were conducted. Thus, it was possible to obtain reflections
from both working group members and external interested parties.
   The phase of analysis was to some extent ongoing throughout the investigation.
The aspects which would influence data interpretation were applied in various degrees.
Most data were written in documents and were continuously interpreted and analyzed.
The information was analyzed through coding, inspired by grounded theory (Glaser
and Strauss, 1967; Strauss and Corbin, 1998). The information was structured and
analyzed both chronologically, to take the time aspect into account, and according to
content. To emphasize the need for variation and width in the interpretations,
                                            ¨
interpretative reflection (Alvesson and Skoldberg, 1994) was applied in the analysis.
Conducting a reflexive analysis required a careful, detailed use of, and reflection on, the
empirical material involved (Thomsson, 2002). Thus, the interpretations were
compared to theories and the author’s prior understanding of the subject. It was also
possible to take into account the aspects of social context and personnel. Respondent
validation was only considered to a limited extent, because the study was slightly
negative and hence this aspect is judged to be problematic. Instead, another reflection
was applied using triangulation, i.e. one part of the empirical material was
strengthened in other parts of the empirical material.

Reflections on the study – pragmatic issues
Reflections on pragmatic issues from the RFID implementation study are presented
here to illustrate the real effects of the methodological choice. This illustration
facilitates a concrete evaluation of the advantages, challenges, and uncertainties of
participant observation in logistics. Thus, the methodological aspects of participant
observation in logistics investigated are firmly tied to empirical data on a pragmatic
level. The reflections are mainly directed at the phases where the current study
identified the main challenges, which were in data collection and analysis. These
phases are not explicitly pointed out in this reflection as they interacted throughout
most of the study.


                                         Working
                          Study visit     group       Experiment                                             Figure 3.
                                         meeting                                              Role of the researcher in
                                                                                                 different parts of the
                                                                                                               research
                       Observation                     Participation
IJPDLM   Methodological pros in the RFID implementation study
37,2     A critical issue in participant observation is gaining access. Access to the working
         group was difficult to obtain, but once gained new opportunities arose. It provided
         opportunities to gather information from busy people through informal interviews.
         The relationship between the working group members also gave insight into sensitive
         occurrences behind the scenes. For example, it was found that internally at the
158      packaging supplier’s, nobody was really interested in the project. Once this had been
         realized, its effect on the project could be observed. A lack of goals, for instance, was
         recognized and investigated further. Another occurrence behind the scenes which
         would have been tricky to identify without observation was how the cost-sharing
         strategy was carried out by one of the companies in the project. By consistently
         ignoring the issue of cost sharing, one of the participating companies postponed this
         issue. On occasions, when the matter was brought up, the company hushed it up.
            By gaining access to a group, participant observation can give insight into
         otherwise inaccessible firsthand information. In the RFID study, it was found that the
         participant organizations in the working group had different goals. As a result, this
         diversity and its effect were studied and analyzed. Detailed firsthand information
         regarding a minor conflict which arose regarding cost sharing was also accessed.
         By participating and observing it was possible to directly discover several areas of
         uncertainty in the project. Part of the uncertainty, for example, unstructured
         experiments, an ad hoc approach, and vague responsibilities, would not have been
         recognized through using another method.
            Comprehensive amounts of data may improve the quality of a study. Here, an
         in-depth understanding of the implementation process was offered, as the method
         facilitated detailed data collection. Interesting information was, for example, gained by
         the author studying mail correspondence in the working group, discussions, and
         working group meetings. This information facilitated an analysis of the relationship in
         the working group identifying, for example, what was lacking for an effective
         relationship to be assured. Furthermore, in-depth data also gave insight into power
         balance in the relationship. Hereby, follow-up interviews could be based on experiences
         which took the investigation further.

         Methodological cons in the RFID implementation study
         During the research process several challenges arose. In the following paragraphs
         these will be reflected on.
            As a consequence, of close cooperation, a risk of a lack of distance between the
         researcher and the researched group may appear. At best, this is a major advantage as
         “the true” picture is revealed. However, the current study also indicated that it is easy
         to adopt an internal perspective without critically examining taken-for-granted
         information and accepting it as fact. Put another way, a researcher may adopt the
         blindness to defects of the researched object and thus lack an outside perspective
         which often is claimed to result in fresh inputs.
            Being an active part in the process investigated, it may be difficult to set
         the boundaries between participating and observing. It was a balance to decide to what
         extent the researcher should affect the process and still not conduct action research.
         For instance, with the author being one of two participants in an experiment, where one
         crucial element was to brainstorm about how to solve problems, the line between
participant observation and action research was rather thin. This issue was dealt with             Participant
by actively discussing problems, but still letting the company representative come to          observation in
the final decisions. However, the boundaries between participating and observing must
be reflected on in every single case and the choice of boundary is of a subjective nature.   logistics research
    It may be difficult to question the researched group’s behavior without affecting it.
The researcher needs to scrutinize the researched group, but critical questions might
affect the group’s forthcoming behavior. This might not necessarily be wrong, but                        159
needs to be taken into consideration when reporting the investigation. It was a delicate
and tricky issue to analyze.
    Six pragmatic challenges, previously identified by Jackson (1983), are likely to
appear in participant observation. In the RFID study, these challenges were tackled in
various ways. First, the extensive amount of data was sorted and analyzed with a great
deal of effort and reflection. Second, to avoid the negative impact of a time gap between
the occurrence of the event and its being recorded as data, which might result in vital
details being omitted, the author tried to take detailed notes during the whole study.
Third, to minimize the risk of the negative influence of a lengthy delay between
research and writing, recording and analysis of data were carried out continuously
during the investigation. Furthermore, follow-up interviews were conducted after
participant observation. Fourth, the difficulties of analyzing infinite amounts of data
were overcome by systematic analysis using analysis techniques inspired by grounded
theory (Glaser and Strauss, 1967; Strauss and Corbin, 1998), for example, coding and
continuous comparison. Fifth, to try to avoid bias from key informants, triangulation
was conducted. Thus, several data sources for similar events were sought, for instance,
follow-up interviews of observed findings, or documents and observations which
provided similar results. Finally, ethical challenges, such as, how to report disputes,
lack of management support, and protect against intrusion on personal privacy, were
dealt with by the author. He explained the intentions of the study to the observed group
and assured them that their anonymity was guaranteed in the report.

Participation vs observation
The degree of participation, and consequently the effect of a researcher may vary in
different parts of an investigation. This was relevant in the progress of the project
studied. The study visits were thoroughly objective as they mainly comprised
observation, while the experiment was fairly subjective because participation was
emphasized. The working group meetings were somewhere in between. The author’s
main stance was to observe, but his role was also to contribute with knowledge which
may have moved the project in certain directions.
   However, to be able to further reflect on the implication of degree of
participation/observation in the different data collection methods used in the project,
the meaning of subjective and objective needs to be clarified. According to Longman
Dictionary of Contemporary English (2005), “a statement, report, attitude, etc. that is
subjective is influenced by personal opinion and can therefore be unfair.” Objective, on
the other hand, is “based on facts, or making a decision that is based on facts rather
than on your feelings or beliefs.”
   This discrepancy between the characteristics of subjective and objective, which to
some extent is associated with participation and observation, did not lead to obvious
difficulties in the study but may have affected the outcome. Theoretically, the
IJPDLM   researcher could have had a less active participative role in the experiment, but due to
37,2     pragmatic reasons this was not feasible because the researcher was needed as a
         resource. Furthermore, the interaction between researcher and practitioner in the
         experiment was fruitful and accordingly the participatory approach probably
         improved the outcome. The interaction certainly increased the researcher’s
         understanding of the project.
160         It was found that access could be divided into two types. First, in the preparation
         phase there was a rather formal basic access which means obtaining permission to
         conduct the study and then collect data. The second type is slightly more difficult
         to describe, but we can call it fresh access. It was more informal and needed to be
         maintained on a regular basis in the data collection phase. It may be assured by
         gaining trust and continuously showing contribution. In the working group the
         researcher was involved in discussions and tried to contribute with knowledge.
         Consequently, it was possible to ask questions, which also facilitated the researcher’s
         understanding. Additionally, the author found that active engagement in the project
         resulted in greater trust from the group and thus more access was gained.

         Discussion and conclusion
         The interorganizational RFID implementation study
         Even though relationships are commonly studied in logistics and that SCM has received
         increased attention, a recent study reveals that there are very few interorganizational
         studies and that “the current research has failed to look at that perspective of the SCM”
         (Sachan and Datta, 2005, p. 674). The RFID investigation discussed in this paper
         highlighted opportunities to conduct research on interorganizational settings with
         participant observation, and it proved to be beneficial. Accordingly, it indicated that this
         method was suitable to investigate this essential perspective of SCM.
            The fact that direct observation methods, such as, participant observation, appear
         to be rather uncommon in logistics research may contribute to the lack of
         interorganizational studies. Therefore, in order to fill the increased need for
         interorganizational research, in the form of, for example, SCM and collaboration, the
         author suggests that more logistics researchers would benefit from considering
         participant observation in their studies.
            The interorganizational RFID implementation offered an example of the value and
         challenges of participant observation in logistics. First, it demonstrated that access may be
         difficult to obtain, but when this has been achieved a whole new world of detailed
         information may be discovered. Second, it presented the opportunity for researchers to
         acquire an in-depth understanding of a studied phenomenon, which in this case was an
         interorganizational relationship in an implementation project. Third, the in-depth
         information gained served as a frame of reference, which facilitated reflection. Fourth, the
         study identified a challenge regarding how to avoid internal prejudices. The challenge is to
         be able to take a step back. Fifth, this challenge is connected to the previous point and
         considered a difficulty in setting boundaries between participating and observing. Sixth, it
         was also found that investigating the group without affecting it too much was a delicate
         balance to achieve. Finally, the paper identified a number of pragmatic challenges in data
         collection and handling which have been previously reported.
            Based on the RFID implementation study presented in this paper, a proposition is
         that more logistics research would benefit from participant observation with a slight
¨
influence from ethnography. This view supports Naslund (2002, p. 332), who puts                              Participant
emphasis on the need for logistics researchers “to gain extreme relevance by spending                   observation in
more time in organizations . . . by ‘hanging out.’” Thus, the currently overlooked
interorganizational perspective in SCM would be more likely to be researched.                        logistics research
   The opportunities presented by participant observation are also found elsewhere.
Ellram (1996, Table 3) highlighted the usefulness of this method in qualitative
research. She claimed that it could be used for research aiming to explore, explain,                              161
describe, or even predict. By “hanging out” in organizations, participant observation
combined with other methods could result in more thorough logistics studies.
   The dominance of the positivistic paradigm in logistics research (Mentzer and
                ¨
Kahn, 1995; Naslund, 2002; Nilsson, 2005) may affect how participant observation
research is valued in the logistics field. Considering paradigm, Easton (1995, p. 381)
claims that in positivism “cases are only useful as exploratory devices,” but for a realist
one case is enough as realists are “not generalizing to any population but to a real
world that has been discovered.” These quotes indicate two essential issues. First, it
might be challenging to generalize from a participant observation study in logistics.
Second, it might be important to reason about epistemological standpoints when
making an analytical generalization in logistics.
                  ¨
   In addition, Naslund (2002, p. 332) points out that:
   . . . to some extent, ethnography is based on the rejection of positivism, and particularly the
   rejection of the view that (social) research should adopt scientific methods consisting of
   rigorous testing of hypotheses utilizing quantitative measurements.
This comment is valid for participant observation too, as it bears similarities to
ethnography. Obviously, rejecting positivism or at least keeping an open mind to other
epistemological positions to make use of participant observation might be a major
challenge, but previous studies appear to call for such a stance. Moreover, the quote
also indicates that the dominance of positivism plays down the value of participant
observation research. Therefore, the author suggests that it may be essential to discuss
and argue for the significance of results obtained with this method. Another issue to
examine further is epistemological obstacles for participant observation in logistics.
   In summary, this paper showed different views of participant observation in
traditional logistics research (Ellram, 1996; Yin, 2003) and more socially focused
research (Atkinson et al., 2001; Hammersley and Atkinson, 1995). In addition, it
presented an overview of the characteristics of participant observation and compared
it with other qualitative methods. It also demonstrated the usefulness of participant
observation in logistics and particularly when investigating interorganizational
aspects. This usefulness was illustrated with an RFID implementation study, which
revealed concrete methodological issues. The study also served as input to a more
overall discussion of participant observation in logistics. Future research should report
experiences from other participant observation studies regarding, for example,
opportunities and obstacles, and to what extent a participant observation study should
be subjective and objective. It may also be directed at a deeper investigation of how to
analyze and report data from a participant observation study, and the role of this
method in a case study. In addition, the brief analysis of epistemological aspects in this
paper needs to be extended.
IJPDLM   References
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About the author
          ˚
Henrik Palsson is a PhD Candidate in Logistics at Lund University, where he also received his
MSc in Mechanical Engineering. His doctoral thesis is focused on interorganizational
collaboration in logistics. Prior to his PhD studies, he has worked at a logistics consultancy firm
for four years and at a manufacturing company for one year. Henrik has published in conference
proceedings and he was awarded for best paper at the Nofoma Conference 2006. Henrik Palsson  ˚
can be contacted at: henrik.palsson@plog.lth.se




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Participant observation

  • 1. The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at www.emeraldinsight.com/0960-0035.htm IJPDLM 37,2 Participant observation in logistics research Experiences from an RFID 148 implementation study ˚ Henrik Palsson Division of Packaging Logistics, Department of Design Sciences, Lund University, Lund, Sweden Abstract Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to describe the advantages, challenges and uncertainties of collecting and analyzing data using participant observation in logistics research. Design/methodology/approach – Experiences from a participant observation study of an interorganizational radio frequency identification (RFID) implementation in an international environment are presented and reflected on. The RFID implementation included complex interactions between three leading companies. Findings – The results appear to support an increased use of participant observation in qualitative logistics research, particularly when investigating interorganizational aspects. The analysis highlights values, general limitations and challenges of using participant observation in logistics. The paper illustrates that using participant observation results in significant and detailed findings, which would be difficult to achieve with other methods. Suggestions on how to take advantage of the method’s benefits and overcome methodological challenges are provided. Research limitations/implications – Future research may address experiences from other studies regarding how to analyze and report data from a participant observation study. It may also clarify the role the method is given in case studies and extend the analysis of epistemological aspects conducted in this paper. Practical implications – This paper may inspire logistics researchers to consider participant observation, either as sole method or as part of a multi-methodical case study, in order to make use of its benefits and thus broaden the dimensions of logistics research. Originality/value – A broad literature review indicates that participant observation studies are rather uncommon in logistics research. This paper thus highlights the potential of using this method in logistics research, particularly when investigating the overlooked, but essential, interorganizational aspects of logistics and SCM. Keywords Quality, Research, Participative management, Logistics data processing Paper type Research paper Introduction When writing a paper considering a participant observation study on a radio frequency identification (RFID) implementation project, the author was going through leading journals within the field of logistics to gain inspiration from other participant International Journal of Physical observation studies. Surprisingly, only a limited number of logistics studies using Distribution & Logistics Management participant observation were found. In addition, examination by Mentzer and Kahn Vol. 37 No. 2, 2007 pp. 148-163 (1995) and by Sachan and Datta (2005) confirmed the author’s suspicion that q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0960-0035 participant observation studies within logistics are rare. In the comprehensive analysis DOI 10.1108/09600030710734857 by Mentzer and Kahn, participant observation is not even a category. Perhaps, it is
  • 2. included as a part in some of the case studies reviewed, but only about 3 percent of the Participant articles published in the Journal of Business Logistics 1978-1995 were case studies. observation in Sachan and Datta (2005, p. 666) pointed out that existing reviews show that direct observation methods are rather unpopular and that “researchers are mainly using logistics research peoples (sic) perception (survey and interview) or artificial methods (simulation and mathematical modeling) for research in the discipline.” To further examine this issue, the author conducted a general search in our internal 149 library navigator, which contains most of the logistics journals relevant to this area and a considerable number of conference proceedings. A search for participant observation or ethnographic studies in logistics or supply chain management resulted in only a handful of matches. This apparent lack of participant observation research is confirmed in a review of case study research (Seuring, 2006). Only five of 68 case studies employed participant observation in any way. Thus, it would not be exaggerating to say that participant observation is a rarely used method in logistics research. ¨ However, Sachan and Datta, as well as Naslund (2002), clearly state that logistics needs more qualitative research. Sachan and Datta (2005, p. 669) point out the need for movement toward direct observation via case, action, and field studies, as ¨ “the methods are accessible, their legitimacy is proven, and the need is great.” Naslund emphasizes the need for more ethnographic studies and action research. This paper is thus designed to strike a blow for an increased use of participant observation in logistics research. Therefore, a study on RFID implementation using this method is offered to illustrate the potential of the method in logistics. The purpose of this paper is to describe the advantages, challenges, and uncertainties of collecting and analyzing data using participant observation in logistics research. Experiences from the interorganizational RFID implementation study in an international environment are presented and reflected on. The paper also briefly discusses whether existing epistemological settings in logistics support or are obstacles for participant observation. The outline of the paper is the following. It begins with a review of participant observation and positioning of the method compared to other qualitative methods. Then the interorganizational RFID implementation study is summarized, with a focus on methodological aspects. Thereafter, the study is reflected on. Subsequently, participant observation in logistics is discussed from a more general perspective, but with connections to the study carried out. Finally, future research is suggested. Participant observation Characteristics of participant observation Different authors seem to include various aspects when they address participant observation. Some literature (Jackson, 1983; Park, 1999) regards it as a rather broad research strategy, including observations, interviews, and sampling from documents. These authors almost place it on a par with ethnography, while other literature (Merriam, 1994; Yin, 2003) has a narrower view of it. Yin considers it as more of a data collection technique which can be used within case studies. Merriam, on the other hand, regards it as a method and he claims it to be one of the most important methods in case studies. Bryman (2002) also considers it to be a method, while he addresses ethnography as a wider term. In logistics research, Yin’s approach of regarding
  • 3. IJPDLM participant observation as a data collection technique, often as a part of a case study, 37,2 appears to be common. However, participant observation as the main research method in logistics is also available (Ellram, 1996), which is the view adopted in this paper. Participant observation is defined by Bryman (2002). He states that a participant observer is engaged in a group for a considerable period of time. The behavior of the group is explored by observing conversations within the group 150 and with the researcher. Bryman also points out that it is common that participant observation also incorporates supplementary interviews and written material. To distinguish participant observation from other qualitative methods, it is compared to five related methods. Ethnography may refer to either a method or a ¨ philosophical paradigm (Naslund, 2002). This method is close to participant observation, but it is often more culturally focused (Bryman, 2002). Participatory action research has similarities to participant observation, as a group is investigated over a period of time. It does, however, significantly differ from this method on the point that “some of the people in the organization or community under study participate actively with the professional researcher throughout the research process” (Foote Whyte, 1991, p. 20). Case studies may be defined as an investigation of “a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context” (Yin, 2003, p. 13) or as the study of the complexity and nature of a specific case (Stake in Bryman, 2002). A case may, for instance, be a program, an event, a process, an institution, or a social group (Creswell, 1994). According to Ragin and Becker (Ragin, 1992, p. 225) it is “a way station in the process of producing empirical social evidence.” In a case study this evidence may be produced from data collected by using various methods, both qualitative and quantitative ones (Ellram, 1996); hence, participant observation may be one of them. Accordingly, case study research may have overlapping parts with participant observation, for instance, collecting empirical evidence from a contemporary phenomenon, interviewing, and observation. Participant observation as viewed in this paper, however, is more distinct, focusing on spending time in a studied group, and if interviews are used, they are complementary or less formal. This means that interviews are mainly conducted for unobservable parts of the studied phenomenon, while a case study may use them as the main method. Interview studies are a stand-alone method. Compared to participant observation, one basic and essential difference is that participant observation mainly results in first-hand data from a contemporary phenomenon, while interviews result in data interpreted by the respondent from a historical event. A thorough comparison is provided by Bryman (2002). Participant observation offers better opportunities to reveal tacit knowledge and unexpected behavior and is thus able to adapt to changed situations. It also has advantages in being able to uncover hidden activities and highlight contextual sensitivity. Interview studies, on the other hand, are better at explaining certain types of emotions and underlying causes for some actions, for example, why a person has become a vegetarian. Participant observations are suitable for in-depth longitudinal studies of a limited period of time, but for practical reasons interview studies are more suitable for long, longitudinal investigations and historical events. Another practical advantage of interviews is that they often require considerably less time. Interview studies also offer a wider scope of the study as they may include people from various parts of an organization, while participant observation is often limited to a small part of an organization.
  • 4. Focus groups represent a certain type of interview where several respondents Participant discuss questions asked by the researcher. Consequently, the comparisons between observation in interview studies and participant observation are, to a large extent, also valid for focus groups. However, there are some characteristics which put focus groups in another logistics research position than interviews compared to participant observation. In accordance with participant observation, focus groups result in large amounts of data which may be challenging to analyze. Compared to interviews, focus groups offer slightly less 151 control, but not to the extent that is typical in participant observation. While participant observation reveals the first-hand data of a phenomenon, Bryman (2002) states that a focus group may come to consensus when an issue is being discussed. A risk of this course of action is that people in a group stop thinking critically. Another risk put forward by Bryman is that group effects may limit the results of a focus group, as some participants may be loud and some very quiet. These risks are considered to be less apparent in participant observation because the researcher studies the group in its natural context. Four phases Four phases (preparation, data collection, analysis, and writing) which could be identified in ethnographic studies are also valid to some extent in participant observation studies. They are referred to below. The preparation phase includes, similar to other research methods, research design. An essential element is gaining access to the objects to be investigated. This often includes seeking the permission of gatekeepers and the support of sponsors. However, access is not only a question of physical presence or absence (Hammersley and Atkinson, 1995, p. 55). Private boundaries may, for example, be difficult to break through, as they “may be policed by gatekeepers” (Hammersley and Atkinson, 1995, p. 63). Further, in the field relations it is essential to gain the trust of the group being researched. Thus, Hammersley and Atkinson (1995) observe that it may be necessary to dress similarly to the group and to clearly explain the intentions of the study. They also recommend a researcher not to become too involved in a group if it prevents him/her from gaining access to other groups. After preparation, the data collection phase may begin. Various authors offer practical advice on how to ensure accurate and trustworthy information. Glaser (1996), for instance, claims that it is essential to: . Schedule strategically – be flexible, take advantage of “snowballing” (one respondent may suggest and facilitate access to other respondents). . Adjust the interview request to the situation – for example, taking advantage of time in between events to conduct short interviews. . Obtain multiple perspectives. . Establish trust and gain access. . Reveal your purpose, suppress your opinion – be clear, but do not reveal your opinions on different issues. . Do not overlook detail in the rush of activity – it is impossible to know beforehand which details are critical in the investigation. . Be a pack rat – it is impossible to know beforehand what is important.
  • 5. IJPDLM Jackson (1983), on the other hand, identified six challenges: 37,2 (1) Problems of data handling – for example, sorting very comprehensive information. (2) Significant time gap between the occurrence of an event and its being recorded as data. 152 (3) Lengthy delay between research and writing. (4) Problems of systematic analysis and convincing presentation of infinite amounts of data. (5) Too heavy reliance on informants involves the dangers of an elite bias. (6) Ethical and moral questions. Atkinson et al. (2001) put emphasis on field notes. They state that field notes may be either jotted down or merely mental. The jotted notes may work as reminders for certain situations or may be the initial steps of the writing process. Mental notes are to be conducted while the researcher is observing in detail, with the aim of writing or participating in ongoing events in order to gain experience of certain situations or processes. The phase of analysis and reflection in participant observation studies is typically ongoing throughout the investigation. Hammersley and Atkinson (1995, p. 210) offer some advice on how to conduct the analysis in ethnography, which is useful in participant observation too; “The first step in the process of analysis is, of course, a careful reading of the corpus of data, in order to become thoroughly familiar with it.” They point out that the aim of the first step is to identify patterns, seek relationships across the whole data or see whether anything stands out. They further explain that concepts may also be observed. The initial analysis is expected to generate fairly trivial concepts which, further on in the analysis, become more abstract. A more in-depth analysis strategy, suggested by Hammersley and Atkinson (1995, p. 216), is constant comparison (Glaser and Strauss, 1967). Another strategy they propose is typology development, where “an initial set of categories differentiating a particular range of phenomena can be developed into a systematic typology.” Irrespective of the strategy chosen, the interpretations in the study depend on several aspects: . Social context. Since, the participant observer interacts in a social context, the audience “to which the actions or accounts being used as data were directed” (p. 220) should be considered, as this may affect what is being said. It should be taken into account that the people being studied may have something to gain by not telling the truth. The audience may be the researcher, for instance, in interviews and some observation situations. . Time. What is said and done depends on time, i.e. what has already occurred is relevant to decisions and actions. . Personnel. Actions and perspectives of people depend on their identity and their social relationships. For example, the position a person holds in a company determines which information is accessible to them. . Respondent validation. The respondent may have more knowledge than the researcher, but the respondent’s knowledge may be false or there may be a motive behind an incorrect description or a misinterpretation. If the investigation
  • 6. may be interpreted as critical or negative, respondent validation may also be Participant problematic. observation in . Triangulation. Checking findings with different sources. logistics research Another way of analyzing data in a participant observation study is to use coding techniques from grounded theory. Strauss and Corbin (1998) emphasize the need to carefully scrutinize data. Accordingly, they describe how to break down data with 153 extensive coding procedures. They also promote the writing of memos and notes to gain analytical distance from data. An essential part of any analysis is how data are interpreted. Alvesson and ¨ Skoldberg (1994, p. 12) put the emphasis on reflection, which they define as “interpretation of an interpretation.” This means that reflection aims to critically evaluate interpretations of empirical material conducted by a researcher. Thus, the connection between interpreted data, for example, models, and reality in data may be strengthened. Finally, the phase of writing may be divided into two parts; writing field notes and writing the finished texts. This phase is more extensive in ethnographic studies and thus only briefly mentioned here. Atkinson et al. (2001) point out that writing field notes often is a first analytic step. It may facilitate new insights into the research area and give rise to new ideas. In the final text in a participant observation study, the field notes are reported together with other empirical data, for example, interviews. Participant observation in the RFID implementation study A brief overview of RFID technology in logistics Before highlighting methodological issues of the participant observation study conducted, RFID technology in logistics, its potential advantages and challenges are briefly presented. Without visual contact RFID technology captures data from an object. In a typical RFID system, a reader transmits and registers radio waves which are modified by a tag (antenna) applied to an object. The potential of using RFID technology in logistics has attracted a great deal of attention recently (Sheffi, 2004). Current literature has, to a great extent, focused on the potential opportunities this technology offers in logistics. Potential advantages reported are reduced labor hours (Jones et al., 2004; McFarlane and Sheffi, 2003), less ¨ ¨ spoilage (Karkkainen, 2003), and a reduction in shrinkage in the supply chain (Jones et al., 2004; Rutner et al., 2004). Other potential advantages identified are increased process efficiency (Angeles, 2005; Rutner et al., 2004), improved sales due to reduced out-of-stock situations (Jones et al., 2004; Prater et al., 2005), improved track and trace opportunities (Angeles, 2005; Jones et al., 2004), improved accuracy of product control (Angeles, 2005; Rutner et al., 2004), and improved inventory management in vendor ˚ ¨ managed inventory settings (Smaros and Holmstrom, 2000). Two generic types of logistics systems using RFID exist. First, RFID may be implemented in a closed loop, which means that the same RFID tag is used over and over again in a closed loop. Since, the tag is used many times, its purchase price is relatively unimportant. Consequently, rather expensive high-performing tags may be used in such loops. Second, RFID may be implemented in an open system, for example, in a supply chain. In this context, several challenges arise. There are technological challenges (McFarlane and Sheffi, 2003); the tags are disposable and must be inexpensive. Thus, it is
  • 7. IJPDLM challenging to produce tags which are inexpensive but still reliable and durable. 37,2 In addition, implementation in a supply chain should also consider the technological requirements of several actors; the RFID system chosen should work for all actors involved. Furthermore, this interorganizational character of RFID implementation in a supply chain results in other challenges. Interorganizational barriers are associated with cost/benefit sharing, collaboration, information sharing, and technology transfer issues 154 ˚ (Palsson, 2006). Nonetheless, RFID initiatives are currently being mandated by large retailers, for example, Wal-Mart, Tesco, and Metro. Therefore, their top suppliers are more or less required to implement RFID technology to be used in the supply chain. Overall description of the RFID implementation study To substantiate the methodological analysis, a brief description of the RFID study conducted is offered. The description reveals social context and personnel aspects which influenced the interpretations of the study. The investigation examined an interorganizational implementation project of RFID technology in disposable secondary packaging; the project was mandated by a large retailer. The study focused on interorganizational supply chain relationships and emphasized the implications of an RFID implementation project. It highlighted the interactions of a project group consisting of representatives from a packaging supplier, a food manufacturer, and a technology provider. The unit of analysis was thus the packaging company with the focus on its interactions with the participants in a working group aiming at implementing RFID tags in disposable secondary packaging. This case was chosen because it represents a leading packaging supplier and a leading food manufacturer with high levels of technological development. Both companies aim to be at the forefront of new technological concepts and tools in their industry. The nature of the companies involved varied somewhat. Those investigated at the packaging company were head office representatives. This company is ranked as one of the top companies in Europe regarding sales and market shares. The packaging company’s customer who was involved in the study was a very large food manufacturer. Representatives were located at the head office. The representatives of the third company in the study, the technology provider, were part of the company’s European subsidiary. This company is much smaller than the other companies. The relationship in the working group was interorganizational, which added complexity to the study. As the relationship was interorganizational, power was identified as impacting the collaboration substantially, both in terms of coercive and reward power (French and Raven, 1958). It was possible to initiate the project due to the power wielded by both the retailer and the food manufacturer. The main reason for the packaging supplier to enter the project was fear of reprisals, but while participating in the project the company also realized the potential of RFID technology for added business opportunities. The complexity of the study was also affected by four essential links between the collaborating parties. The links expressed mutuality (Dubois and Gadde, 2000). There were activity links between the companies both operationally and strategically, resource ties in terms of shared resources in testing and conducting the project, continuous interaction in a working group and, finally, economic links regarding implementation costs. Another complexity enhancer was the fact that the
  • 8. collaborating companies had varying goals for participating. Finally, complexity was Participant also added by a need to share costs in the interorganizational collaboration. observation in However, besides being interorganizational, the study dealt with RFID technology which was an unproven technology interorganizationally. This made the complexity in logistics research the study even more evident. The investigation identified a number of characteristics of the relationship, and essential issues which needed to be considered in implementing RFID technology in a 155 supply chain. It revealed a need for knowledge of both packaging and the RFID technology. Moreover, it demonstrated the impact of power on the relationship in the interorganizational RFID implementation project as well as reasons for uncertainty in the implementation project. It was suggested that uncertainty could be reduced with a proactive approach, timely reporting, assigning clear roles, and early agreement of cost sharing. The study also identified a lack of and a need for both a common goal and a cost-sharing strategy. An agreed common goal appeared to improve project efficiency. Preparation The preparation phase included two main elements; designing the study and gaining access. Participant observation was selected as the main research method for several reasons. It made it possible to study a contemporary phenomenon and thus gain otherwise inaccessible information (Yin, 2003) as well as to receive firsthand, detailed information about the phenomenon. It also facilitated a holistic interpretation of the situation. The research design further included elements such as definitions of period of time, purpose and scope of the study, and key people and organizations in the study. Gaining access needed particular attention. For initial skepticism to be overcome four components were identified as helpful. First, the author had initial contact with one of the organizations to be investigated. Thus, it was decided to first come to an agreement with this organization to use its staff as sponsors later on. This proved to be important as the sponsors had a key role in convincing the most skeptical project group members. Second, a thorough description of the background of the author led to both a better working relationship and helped convince the investigated group that the author could contribute to the implementation process. Third, once the purpose of the study was clearly revealed, it was easier for it to be accepted. Finally, making clear that the author would contribute to the progress of the implementation also facilitated the project group’s acceptance of a researcher as a member. The process of data collection and data analysis Participant observation was the main element of a single case study on implementation of RFID technology in a German retail supply chain (Figure 1). The participant observation was mainly conducted in a working group and in an experiment. Participant observation Case Figure 1. Working group Interviews study Methods used in the Experiment Study visit interorganizational RFID implementation study
  • 9. IJPDLM The phase of data collection began when an interorganizational project regarding 37,2 implementation of RFID technology in the supply chain (Figure 2) was started. The main part of the project was an active working group, consisting of six permanent members, including the author, originating from the packaging supplier, the food manufacturer, the technology provider, and academia. Temporary members were represented as knowledge resources when needed. The working group had an 156 international character as the permanent members represented three nationalities and the temporary members another two. The role of the author was mainly to document and observe the progress of the project and secondarily to participate in discussions and some project tasks. The overall goal of the implementation project was somewhat unclear. Given the complexity of the study, this is unsurprising. However, the goal was interpreted by the working group as making an RFID system work on secondary packaging, i.e. all secondary packages should be labeled individually with RFID tags and all tags should be read simultaneously on several places in the supply chain. Thus, in order to further evaluate the new technology, the working group identified two vaguely defined tasks. First, a working, robust RFID system should be chosen, including both technological choices such as RFID tags, positioning of tags on packages, readers, effects, etc. and logistical effects such as supply chain design, efficiency improvement, reading locations, etc. Second, a financial evaluation of introducing RFID technology was needed. The working group existed for approximately six months. After a kick-off in September 2005 the group operated on a regular basis until February 2006. The closing of the working group was rather turbulent and abrupt as one of the project leaders left the packaging company due to downsizing. This led to a hiatus in the project. One type of knowledge resource used in the project was study visits at companies with knowledge of RFID technology. This facilitated the working group’s understanding of the technological requirements and limitations of RFID technology. It also served as inspiration in the process of considering future opportunities of RFID technology. Another knowledge resource utilized was that of experiments conducted at the technology provider’s. Together with the technology manager, the author carried out technology tests of RFID technology. The goal was to reach a high read-rate for RFID tags in packaging. Each transportation package on a pallet had a unique RFID tag, and as the pallet was pulled between two readers all tags should be read. To obtain a 100 percent accurate read rate we had to find a good combination of type (brand) and position of tag, as well as type, frequency, and effect of readers. Data were thus collected using participant observation in three general types of environments. In these environments the level of participation/observation varied (Figure 3). During the working group meetings the focus of the researcher was Knowledge resources Packaging Food Retailer supplier manufacturer Figure 2. Actors involved in the Technology RFID project provider
  • 10. primarily to observe, and secondarily to participate. The observation regarded Participant documentation and interpretation of the project progress reported and discussions observation in carried out in the meetings. To fully make use of these events the author complemented the observations with informal interviews or discussions with the participants. logistics research The second type of environment for data collection was that of experiments. Here, the situation required the author to take a fairly active role due to lack of resources in the field of RFID knowledge. The RFID testing was carried out by the technology manager 157 at the technology provider’s and the author. The final environment for data collection was that of study visits. Since, the overall aim of the whole working group was to observe, the observer role of the author was quite natural. To gather even more data, semistructured interviews were conducted. Thus, it was possible to obtain reflections from both working group members and external interested parties. The phase of analysis was to some extent ongoing throughout the investigation. The aspects which would influence data interpretation were applied in various degrees. Most data were written in documents and were continuously interpreted and analyzed. The information was analyzed through coding, inspired by grounded theory (Glaser and Strauss, 1967; Strauss and Corbin, 1998). The information was structured and analyzed both chronologically, to take the time aspect into account, and according to content. To emphasize the need for variation and width in the interpretations, ¨ interpretative reflection (Alvesson and Skoldberg, 1994) was applied in the analysis. Conducting a reflexive analysis required a careful, detailed use of, and reflection on, the empirical material involved (Thomsson, 2002). Thus, the interpretations were compared to theories and the author’s prior understanding of the subject. It was also possible to take into account the aspects of social context and personnel. Respondent validation was only considered to a limited extent, because the study was slightly negative and hence this aspect is judged to be problematic. Instead, another reflection was applied using triangulation, i.e. one part of the empirical material was strengthened in other parts of the empirical material. Reflections on the study – pragmatic issues Reflections on pragmatic issues from the RFID implementation study are presented here to illustrate the real effects of the methodological choice. This illustration facilitates a concrete evaluation of the advantages, challenges, and uncertainties of participant observation in logistics. Thus, the methodological aspects of participant observation in logistics investigated are firmly tied to empirical data on a pragmatic level. The reflections are mainly directed at the phases where the current study identified the main challenges, which were in data collection and analysis. These phases are not explicitly pointed out in this reflection as they interacted throughout most of the study. Working Study visit group Experiment Figure 3. meeting Role of the researcher in different parts of the research Observation Participation
  • 11. IJPDLM Methodological pros in the RFID implementation study 37,2 A critical issue in participant observation is gaining access. Access to the working group was difficult to obtain, but once gained new opportunities arose. It provided opportunities to gather information from busy people through informal interviews. The relationship between the working group members also gave insight into sensitive occurrences behind the scenes. For example, it was found that internally at the 158 packaging supplier’s, nobody was really interested in the project. Once this had been realized, its effect on the project could be observed. A lack of goals, for instance, was recognized and investigated further. Another occurrence behind the scenes which would have been tricky to identify without observation was how the cost-sharing strategy was carried out by one of the companies in the project. By consistently ignoring the issue of cost sharing, one of the participating companies postponed this issue. On occasions, when the matter was brought up, the company hushed it up. By gaining access to a group, participant observation can give insight into otherwise inaccessible firsthand information. In the RFID study, it was found that the participant organizations in the working group had different goals. As a result, this diversity and its effect were studied and analyzed. Detailed firsthand information regarding a minor conflict which arose regarding cost sharing was also accessed. By participating and observing it was possible to directly discover several areas of uncertainty in the project. Part of the uncertainty, for example, unstructured experiments, an ad hoc approach, and vague responsibilities, would not have been recognized through using another method. Comprehensive amounts of data may improve the quality of a study. Here, an in-depth understanding of the implementation process was offered, as the method facilitated detailed data collection. Interesting information was, for example, gained by the author studying mail correspondence in the working group, discussions, and working group meetings. This information facilitated an analysis of the relationship in the working group identifying, for example, what was lacking for an effective relationship to be assured. Furthermore, in-depth data also gave insight into power balance in the relationship. Hereby, follow-up interviews could be based on experiences which took the investigation further. Methodological cons in the RFID implementation study During the research process several challenges arose. In the following paragraphs these will be reflected on. As a consequence, of close cooperation, a risk of a lack of distance between the researcher and the researched group may appear. At best, this is a major advantage as “the true” picture is revealed. However, the current study also indicated that it is easy to adopt an internal perspective without critically examining taken-for-granted information and accepting it as fact. Put another way, a researcher may adopt the blindness to defects of the researched object and thus lack an outside perspective which often is claimed to result in fresh inputs. Being an active part in the process investigated, it may be difficult to set the boundaries between participating and observing. It was a balance to decide to what extent the researcher should affect the process and still not conduct action research. For instance, with the author being one of two participants in an experiment, where one crucial element was to brainstorm about how to solve problems, the line between
  • 12. participant observation and action research was rather thin. This issue was dealt with Participant by actively discussing problems, but still letting the company representative come to observation in the final decisions. However, the boundaries between participating and observing must be reflected on in every single case and the choice of boundary is of a subjective nature. logistics research It may be difficult to question the researched group’s behavior without affecting it. The researcher needs to scrutinize the researched group, but critical questions might affect the group’s forthcoming behavior. This might not necessarily be wrong, but 159 needs to be taken into consideration when reporting the investigation. It was a delicate and tricky issue to analyze. Six pragmatic challenges, previously identified by Jackson (1983), are likely to appear in participant observation. In the RFID study, these challenges were tackled in various ways. First, the extensive amount of data was sorted and analyzed with a great deal of effort and reflection. Second, to avoid the negative impact of a time gap between the occurrence of the event and its being recorded as data, which might result in vital details being omitted, the author tried to take detailed notes during the whole study. Third, to minimize the risk of the negative influence of a lengthy delay between research and writing, recording and analysis of data were carried out continuously during the investigation. Furthermore, follow-up interviews were conducted after participant observation. Fourth, the difficulties of analyzing infinite amounts of data were overcome by systematic analysis using analysis techniques inspired by grounded theory (Glaser and Strauss, 1967; Strauss and Corbin, 1998), for example, coding and continuous comparison. Fifth, to try to avoid bias from key informants, triangulation was conducted. Thus, several data sources for similar events were sought, for instance, follow-up interviews of observed findings, or documents and observations which provided similar results. Finally, ethical challenges, such as, how to report disputes, lack of management support, and protect against intrusion on personal privacy, were dealt with by the author. He explained the intentions of the study to the observed group and assured them that their anonymity was guaranteed in the report. Participation vs observation The degree of participation, and consequently the effect of a researcher may vary in different parts of an investigation. This was relevant in the progress of the project studied. The study visits were thoroughly objective as they mainly comprised observation, while the experiment was fairly subjective because participation was emphasized. The working group meetings were somewhere in between. The author’s main stance was to observe, but his role was also to contribute with knowledge which may have moved the project in certain directions. However, to be able to further reflect on the implication of degree of participation/observation in the different data collection methods used in the project, the meaning of subjective and objective needs to be clarified. According to Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2005), “a statement, report, attitude, etc. that is subjective is influenced by personal opinion and can therefore be unfair.” Objective, on the other hand, is “based on facts, or making a decision that is based on facts rather than on your feelings or beliefs.” This discrepancy between the characteristics of subjective and objective, which to some extent is associated with participation and observation, did not lead to obvious difficulties in the study but may have affected the outcome. Theoretically, the
  • 13. IJPDLM researcher could have had a less active participative role in the experiment, but due to 37,2 pragmatic reasons this was not feasible because the researcher was needed as a resource. Furthermore, the interaction between researcher and practitioner in the experiment was fruitful and accordingly the participatory approach probably improved the outcome. The interaction certainly increased the researcher’s understanding of the project. 160 It was found that access could be divided into two types. First, in the preparation phase there was a rather formal basic access which means obtaining permission to conduct the study and then collect data. The second type is slightly more difficult to describe, but we can call it fresh access. It was more informal and needed to be maintained on a regular basis in the data collection phase. It may be assured by gaining trust and continuously showing contribution. In the working group the researcher was involved in discussions and tried to contribute with knowledge. Consequently, it was possible to ask questions, which also facilitated the researcher’s understanding. Additionally, the author found that active engagement in the project resulted in greater trust from the group and thus more access was gained. Discussion and conclusion The interorganizational RFID implementation study Even though relationships are commonly studied in logistics and that SCM has received increased attention, a recent study reveals that there are very few interorganizational studies and that “the current research has failed to look at that perspective of the SCM” (Sachan and Datta, 2005, p. 674). The RFID investigation discussed in this paper highlighted opportunities to conduct research on interorganizational settings with participant observation, and it proved to be beneficial. Accordingly, it indicated that this method was suitable to investigate this essential perspective of SCM. The fact that direct observation methods, such as, participant observation, appear to be rather uncommon in logistics research may contribute to the lack of interorganizational studies. Therefore, in order to fill the increased need for interorganizational research, in the form of, for example, SCM and collaboration, the author suggests that more logistics researchers would benefit from considering participant observation in their studies. The interorganizational RFID implementation offered an example of the value and challenges of participant observation in logistics. First, it demonstrated that access may be difficult to obtain, but when this has been achieved a whole new world of detailed information may be discovered. Second, it presented the opportunity for researchers to acquire an in-depth understanding of a studied phenomenon, which in this case was an interorganizational relationship in an implementation project. Third, the in-depth information gained served as a frame of reference, which facilitated reflection. Fourth, the study identified a challenge regarding how to avoid internal prejudices. The challenge is to be able to take a step back. Fifth, this challenge is connected to the previous point and considered a difficulty in setting boundaries between participating and observing. Sixth, it was also found that investigating the group without affecting it too much was a delicate balance to achieve. Finally, the paper identified a number of pragmatic challenges in data collection and handling which have been previously reported. Based on the RFID implementation study presented in this paper, a proposition is that more logistics research would benefit from participant observation with a slight
  • 14. ¨ influence from ethnography. This view supports Naslund (2002, p. 332), who puts Participant emphasis on the need for logistics researchers “to gain extreme relevance by spending observation in more time in organizations . . . by ‘hanging out.’” Thus, the currently overlooked interorganizational perspective in SCM would be more likely to be researched. logistics research The opportunities presented by participant observation are also found elsewhere. Ellram (1996, Table 3) highlighted the usefulness of this method in qualitative research. She claimed that it could be used for research aiming to explore, explain, 161 describe, or even predict. By “hanging out” in organizations, participant observation combined with other methods could result in more thorough logistics studies. The dominance of the positivistic paradigm in logistics research (Mentzer and ¨ Kahn, 1995; Naslund, 2002; Nilsson, 2005) may affect how participant observation research is valued in the logistics field. Considering paradigm, Easton (1995, p. 381) claims that in positivism “cases are only useful as exploratory devices,” but for a realist one case is enough as realists are “not generalizing to any population but to a real world that has been discovered.” These quotes indicate two essential issues. First, it might be challenging to generalize from a participant observation study in logistics. Second, it might be important to reason about epistemological standpoints when making an analytical generalization in logistics. ¨ In addition, Naslund (2002, p. 332) points out that: . . . to some extent, ethnography is based on the rejection of positivism, and particularly the rejection of the view that (social) research should adopt scientific methods consisting of rigorous testing of hypotheses utilizing quantitative measurements. This comment is valid for participant observation too, as it bears similarities to ethnography. Obviously, rejecting positivism or at least keeping an open mind to other epistemological positions to make use of participant observation might be a major challenge, but previous studies appear to call for such a stance. Moreover, the quote also indicates that the dominance of positivism plays down the value of participant observation research. Therefore, the author suggests that it may be essential to discuss and argue for the significance of results obtained with this method. Another issue to examine further is epistemological obstacles for participant observation in logistics. In summary, this paper showed different views of participant observation in traditional logistics research (Ellram, 1996; Yin, 2003) and more socially focused research (Atkinson et al., 2001; Hammersley and Atkinson, 1995). In addition, it presented an overview of the characteristics of participant observation and compared it with other qualitative methods. It also demonstrated the usefulness of participant observation in logistics and particularly when investigating interorganizational aspects. This usefulness was illustrated with an RFID implementation study, which revealed concrete methodological issues. The study also served as input to a more overall discussion of participant observation in logistics. Future research should report experiences from other participant observation studies regarding, for example, opportunities and obstacles, and to what extent a participant observation study should be subjective and objective. It may also be directed at a deeper investigation of how to analyze and report data from a participant observation study, and the role of this method in a case study. In addition, the brief analysis of epistemological aspects in this paper needs to be extended.
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