1. B1: Poultry Booklet
Listen to your birds at night, the noises they make will tell you whether they are well or sick.
Reduced Appetite: Treatment
Use any of the remedies below. All dosages are given for 10 adult birds and should be mixed fresh each
day. If there is no improvement after 3 days, call the Vet, or AHA.
1) Give 3-4 cloves of crushed Garlic (Allium sativum) in the feed.
2) Blend or boil a handful of leaves Zebapique (Neurolaena lobata). Put blend in drinkers, or put the
boiled extract in a barrel.
3) Give young Coconut water (Cocos nucifera) as the source of drinking water.
4) Deprive the birds of water for a few hours. Boil vine of Caraaili (Momordica charantia) for 1 hour to
make a syrup. Use 4 to 5 lbs of leaves in 3/11.4 litres gallons of water. Add the syrup to the drinkers
directly.
5) Blend Wonder of the World leaves (Bryophyllum pinnatum) [70 leaves for 2000 birds]. Extract the
juice, add to the water, put the residue in the feed. Continue for 14 days.
6) N.B. 8 lbs of Caraaili leaves boiled to 1 litre of syrup has been found to be toxic.
Poisoning: Treatment
If you suspect poisoning from Cedar bark (Cedrela odorata) shavings in the litter use one of the
following:
1) Molasses will cause diarrhea and flush out the birds.
2) Charcoal pills absorb poisons.
3) Let the birds get thirsty, put ground sap from aloes (Aloe vera) in water and put in drinker. Switch
back to plain water after a few hours.
Deworming
Draw the worm grass (Chenopodium ambrosioides) and give the birds the infusion to drink. One
informant combined the worm grass with epsom salts and soft candle (whale oil), made into a little ball
and pushed down the throat of the bird. The worm grass or pharamceuticals were given when the
informants saw worms or brown stool. Aloe vera is used to purge birds after deworming them. Some
informants take the green skin off of the Aloe leaf, others just cut off the end. Birds are also purged with
salt, lemon or egg whites.
Respiratory problems are treated with honey and citrus (Citrus spp.).
Coughs and Colds: Treatment
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2. Proper water sanitation will prevent rolling infections. Contaminated water interferes with the immune
response to the vaccine. Some farms in Trinidad have Pseudomonas bacteria in their water.
1) Use 50 fluid ounces of bleach to 400 gallons of water or 3 to 4 ounces of chlorine crystals to 400
gallons of water.
2) Vinegar changes the pH of the water. Low pH improves feed conversion and improves gut absorption.
Use 3-600 ml of 5% acetic acid per 50 imperial gallons of water.
Colds and Respiratory ills: Treatment
1) Garlic works better for bacterial than viral infections
2) Make enough of the following extracts so that the birds drink all of it in 24 hours:
3) Blend Wonder of the World leaves (Bryophyllum pinnatum) [70 leaves for 2000 birds]. Extract the
juice, add to the water, put the residue in the feed. Continue for 7 days, or 14 days.
4) Make Garlic extract by blending 1 lb or 4 to 5 heads of Garlic. All 1 litre of lime to 1 litre of
the Garlic extract. Add Molasses for palatability. Use for 5 days, observe birds for their response.
5) Put citrus (Citrus aurantifolia, Citrus aurantium, Citrus limetta) peels in a stocking in the birds
water.
6) For mild infections prepare the following in 4 litre of water: Boil stems and leaves of wild Caraaili
(Momordica charantia), [2 lbs of Caaraili and 20 Bay leaves (Pimenta racemosa) for 10,000 birds],
add bayleaf, plus a little molasses for improved palatability. Put the mixture in the drinking water
[100 gal/ 250 l] for 3-5 days. Change the water every day. Then give plain water for a few days. Start
over if necessary.
7) Put Garlic and Sour Orange (Citrus sinensis) in water for 5 days. Then use lime alone for 7 days.
8) Chadron bénée leaves (Eryngium foetidum) can be boiled and added to the drinking water.
9)
Eye injuries
Plantago major leaves are also used for eye injuries.
Diarrhea: Prevention
Keep the housing, water, and feed clean.
The yellow sap from the aloe leaf (Aloe vera) can cause diarrhea.
Treatment
1) Vinegar can clear up diarrhea caused by yeast and bacteria, since it lowers the pH of the water, and
makes it harder for these organisms to survive.
2) Give the water left after cooking rice (Mar in Trinidad), instead of drinking water. This helps bind the
stomach and is used to rehydrate the sick birds. Unpolished rice is best.
Constipation
Breeders can become constipated.
2

3. Treatment
1) Take the gel and yellow film from the inside of 2 or 3 Aloe vera leaves. Mix with a pint of
vinegar to help spread this film in the drinking water. Put all of this in a stocking in the water barrel
so that the valves of the system do not become clogged.
Ectoparasites (ticks, lice and mites): Treatment
2) Cut up whole plant of Mardi gras (Renealmia alpinia). Put in nest boxes and sprinkle around the pen.
3) Put leaves of Kojo root (Petiveria alliacea) in nest boxes.
4) Put Caraaili (Momordica charantia) leaves in nest boxes. Or make a spray out of the fruit seeds and
spray the boxes.
5) Put 2 or 3 green Cedar (Cedrela odorata) leaves in nest boxes. In 2 or 3 days all the lice are gone and
you can remove the leaves.
6) Black sage (Cordia curassavica) leaves are put in the nest boxes or litter
7) Neem (Azadirachta indica) leaves are put in the nest boxes or litter
Fungal Diseases: Treatment for Aspergillosis
1) Boil Caraili (Momordica charantia) down to a syrup. Add syrup to drinking water. Use for 7
days. Change water every day. For 10,000 birds use 5 lbs caraaili leaves in a 5 gallon pot. Add 1 litre
of the resulting syrup to a barrel of water.
2) For Candida, 3-600 ml. vinegar in the water will lower the pH and kill the organisms. Citrus juice
will also serve the same purpose.
Chicken Pox: Treatment
1) These treatment help relieve the symptoms only.
2) Ashes.
3) Washing blue, salt butter and lime.
4) Dab milk from Mango (Mangifera indica) leaves on blisters.
5) Dab gentian violet on blisters
Enhance livability
These treatments are used in the first two weeks of the chicks' life in an attempt to enhance livability or
To achieve better performance based on weight/age
1) Take 0.5 large Aloe Vera leaf, peel, cut in pieces, put in a perforated bag in water for 1 day only prior
to or after vaccinations for 4000 chickens. Or the aloe gel is blended and added directly to the water
tank
2) Grind Wonder of the World, (Bryophyllum pinnatum) extract juice, add to drinking water for 5 days
after the vaccination.
3

4. 3) Give garlic in feed, blend the cloves of garlic, extract the juice and dry it in the sun or in the oven
before adding to the feed. Or use 454 g of garlic blended in water to produce a liter of liquid and
combine with 1 liter of lime juice. This mixture was put in the drinking water with molasses for
increased palatability.
4) Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum)
Wounds: Treatment
1) Use juice from wonder of the world leaves.
2) Use scrapings from young cocoa (Theobroma cocoa) pods on wound.
3) Use sap from the banana (Musa paradisiaca) tree to coat wound.
Heat Stress: Treatment
1) Give water from young coconuts (Cocos nucifera) as drinking water
2) Encourage water consumption by mixing 4 teaspoons of sugar in 1 liter of water and giving as
drinking water.
3) Put ice in the drinking water
4) Put juice of Limes (Citrus aurantifolia) in drinking water. Also put rind, pulp and Lime skin in
stocking and put in drinking water. Change daily for 3 days, skip for 2 days. If feather loss
occurs due to long-term use of lime juice, compensate with milk in the drinking water. Lime juice
adds Vit C, helps birds drink more water, stops bacterial growth in water tanks and improves eggshell
quality.
5) Put no more than 1 pint of molasses in a barrel of drinking water.
Nutrition
1) Any green plant material like kudzu and bhaji (Amaranthus dubius) will make yolks yellower,
however Wonder of the World (Bryophyllum pinnatum) leaves may increase the percentage of fertile
eggs.
2) Ducks need more niacin than chickens which can be found in molasses.
Taste
In backyard systems chickens are kept housed for two to three weeks before being slaughtered and
eaten. This is done so that they can be fed commercial feeds instead of picking up anything from the yard.
During this housed period chickens can be fed with chadron bénée (Eryngium foetidum) to improve the
meat quality and taste.
Table 14. Medicinal plants used by poultry farmers and poultry keepers
Latin name Family Common name Part Use
Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Crassulaceae Wonder of the Leaves Reduced appetite
Pers. world
Momordica charantia Cucurbitaceae Caraaili Vine Reduced appetite
4

5. Neurolaena lobata Compositae Z'herbe à pique Leaves Reduced appetite
Allium sativum Liliaceae Garlic Bulb Reduced appetite
Hippobroma longiflora (L.) Campanulaceae Ipecak Pox
G. Don
Citrus aurantifolia Rutaceae Lime Yaws
Coffee arabica L. / robusta Rutaceae Coffee Respiratory
conditions
Citrus aurantifolia, Citrus Rutaceae Citrus spp. Juice, Respiratory
limonia, Citrus aurantium peel conditions, heat
stress
Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae Castor bean, Respiratory
Corape, conditions
Carapate
Momordica charantia L. Cucurbitaceae Caraaili Vine Respiratory
conditions
Pimenta racemosa var. Myrtaceae West Indian Leaves Respiratory
racemosa (P.mill) J.W. Bay / Bay rum conditions
Moore
Aloe vera Liliaceae Aloe Gel Enhance
livability
Ocimum sanctum Labiatae Tulsi Leaves Enhance
livability
Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Crassulaceae Wonder of the Leaves Enhance
Pers. world livability
Petiveria alliacea Phytolaccaceae Kojo root, Leaves Ectoparasite
kudjuruk control
Momordica charantia Cucurbitaceae Caraaili Vine Ectoparasite
control
Azadirachta indica Meliaceae Neem Leaves Ectoparasite
control
Cordia curassavica Boraginaceae Black sage Leaves Ectoparasite
control
Renealmia alpinia Zingiberaceae Mardi gras Leaves Ectoparasite
control
Cedrela odorata Meliaceae Cedar Leaves Ectoparasite
control
Citrus aurantium Sour Juice, pulp Toughen skin,
orange clean
Not yet identified Eyebright* Leaves Eye injuries
Plantago major Plantaginaceae Planten Leaves Eye injuries
Chenopodium ambrosioides Chenopodiaceae Worm grass Plant tops Anthelmintic
Gossypium spp. Malvaceae Cotton Plant tops Anthelmintic
bush
Aloe vera Liliaceae Aloes Gel Internal injuries
Aloe vera Liliaceae Aloes Yellow Purge
exudate
from cut
leaf
Citrus limonia Lemon Juice Purge
Mtambo et al. (1999) evaluated the prophylactic and therapeutic efficacy of a combination of Capsicum
frutescens (red pepper), Citrus limon (lemon) and Opuntia vulgaris (prickly pear) against Newcastle
5

6. disease in domestic fowl. The results indicated that there was no prophylactic or therapeutic value of the
plant extract against Newcastle Disease. The plant extract also showed a negative effect on body weights
in domestic birds with Newcastle Disease (Mtambo et al., 1999).
Momordica charantia contains the phytosterin glucoside, leurosine, vindoline and vendolinine alkaloids
and organic sulphur compounds (Bakhiet and Adam, 1995). Aerial parts have the triterpenes
momordicines I,II, and III (Robineau, 1991). Alpha-eleostearic acid, lineolenic acid and palmitic acid are
present, and the plant contains nutritionally useful quantities of iron, calcium, vitamin B, phosphorus and
amino acids (Yuwai et al., 1991; Robineau, 1991). Lal jawahar et al. (1990) extracted beta-sitosterol,
glucose and potassium chloride from the whole plant excluding the roots. The ether insoluble fractions
showed dose-related anti-inflammatory activity.
Studies found that the petroleum ether and alcoholic extracts of Cordia francisci, Cordia myxa and
Cordia serratifolia leaves had a significant analgesic, anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic activity in the
rat. Four flavonoid glycosides, robinin, rutin, datiscoside and hesperidin, one flavonoid aglycone,
dihydrorobinetin, two phenolic derivatives, chlorogenic and caffeic acid, were present (Ficarra et al.,
(1995).
Compounds in Petiveria alliacea include triterpenes and free sulphur and derivatives of sulphur
trithiolaniacin (a trithiolane derivative), benzaldehyde, benzoic acid, trans-stilbeen and
benzylhydroxyethyltrisulphide (Robineau, 1991; Hegnuaer, 1990, p. 223). Sitosterol, allantoin and fatty
acids have also been identified (Sousa, 1987). Active compounds in the root extract are coumarins (Rocha
and Silva, 1969).
Neurolaena lobata contains sesquiterpenoid lactones of the neurolenin and furanoheliangolide type that
are active in vitro against Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium berghei (Passreiter et al., 1995;
Passreiter and Medinilla Aldana, 1998; Francois et al., 1996). Hexane and ethanol extracts of
Neurolaena lobata were tested in vitro against the trypomastigote form of Trypanosomoa cruzi and were
found to be active (Berger et al., 1998). Neurolaena lobata extracts were evaluated against bacteria,
fungi and a protozoal infection (Cáceres et al., 1998; Lentz et al., 1998). The hexane, chloroform and
aqueous fractions of a hydroalcoholic extract of Neurolaena lobata aerial parts produced a significant
reduction of induced gastric lesions (Gracioso et al., 2000). The mechanism of this antiulcerogenic effects
may be related to an increased activity of the defensive mechanisms of the stomach such as prostaglandin
synthesis and mucus production (Gracioso et al., 2000).
The insecticidal activity of the four plants (except Neem) used for ectoparasite control may be similar to
that of the grasses investigated by Hassan et al. (1994) and Mwangi et al. (1995). Hassan et al. (1994)
found that Rhipicephalus appendiculatus tick larvae are attracted to Acalypha fruticosa leaves. They
concluded that it was possible that the odor from the leaves contained a chemical that mimics
pheromones. Mwangi et al. (1995) found total repellence of all instars of R.. appendiculatus on green
6

7. Melinis minutiflora. Olfactometer experiments suggested the presence of a strong volatile chemical which
is repulsive to the ticks (see also Thompson et al., 1978).
Eugenol was discovered in Pimenta racemosa leaves (Seaforth, 1991).
Kalanchoe pinnata leaves are used in India and Brazil or treatment of bruises, wounds, boils and insect
bites (Nassis et al., 1992). The phenols coumaric, ferulic, syringic, caffeic and p-hyroxybenzoic acids are
found in Kalanchoe pinnata (Robineau, 1991). Some phenols are anti-inflammatory (Wagner, 1993).
Also found were the flavonoids diarabinoside-3-quercetol and glucoside-3-kaempferol (Robineau, 1991).
The latter is an anti-asthma compound (Wagner, 1993). A flavonoid fraction obtained by partitioning the
juice between n-butanol and water contained a substance responsible for antihistamine activity (Nassis et
al., 2000). The antagonistic activity of the components of the juice is probably due to blockade of H 1
receptors (Nassis et al., 2000). Acetic, malic, citric, iso-citric, lactic, fumaric, oxalic and succinic acids
are also present, as are calcium, chlorine, potassium, beta-sitosterol and mucilage (Robineau, 1991).
Costa et al., (1994) fractionated the juice of fresh stems and leaves of Kalanchoe brasiliensis and
identified seven patuletin rhamnoside derivatives. Three of them were novel, and four were known.
Morton (1990) claims that water-rich plant mucilages with high polysaccharide content may be protective
of normal cells, stimulating regeneration when attacked, whether or not there are identifiable agents
present that may have supportive action. Kalanchoe pinnata has in vitro anti-fungal, antibiotic,
anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory and immunostimulatory activity (Robineau, 1991; Pal et al., 1989; Pal
et al., 1991; Silva et al., 1995). The methanolic fraction of Kalanchoe pinnata had significant analgesic
activity and possesses a potent CNS depressant action (Pal et al., 1999).
Two insecticidal bufadienolides (1 and 2) were isolated from a methanol extract of the leaves of
Kalanchoe pinnata by bioassay-guided fractionation. Compound 1 was identified as known bryophyllin
A (bryotoxin C). A new bufadienolide 2 was found named bryophyllin C. Compounds 1 and 2 showed
strong insecticidal activity against third instar larvae of the silkworm (Bombyx mori), their LD50 values
being evaluated as 3 and 5 microg/g of diet, respectively (Supratman et al., 2000).
Isolation and chemical analysis of a fatty acid fraction of Kalanchoe pinnata with a potent lymphocyte
suppressive activity. Almeida et al., (2000) demonstrated that Kalanchoe pinnata (KP) leaf extracts
inhibited in vitro lymphocyte proliferation and showed in vivo immunosuppressive activity. From the
ethanolic extract a fraction (KP12SA) was purified that had a twenty-fold more potent action to block
murine lymphocyte proliferation than the crude extract. This study provides evidence that fatty acids
present in Kalanchoe pinnata (palmitic acid , stearic acid and traces of arachidic and behenic acids may
be responsible, at least in part, for its immunosuppressive effect in vivo.
Research indicates that Aloe vera contains mannose-6-phosphate, phospatidyl choline and arachidonate,
which have wound healing and anti-inflammatory properties (Davis et al., 1994; Serrame et al., 1995; Lal
jawahar et al., 1990; Afzal et al., 1991). Acemannan, a polydispersed (1-4)-linked acetylated mannan,
is an extract of Aloe vera (Karaca et al., 1995). Chinnah et al. (1992) showed that the immune response
7

8. of chickens to Newcastle disease virus was enhanced by the addition of acemannan to the vaccine.
Nordgren et al. (1992) showed that acemannan enhances the protective efficiency of a Marek's disease
vaccine. Karaca et al. (1995) used cultures of normal chicken spleen cells and HD 11 cell lines to show
that acemannan-induced nitric oxide synthesis may be mediated through macrophage mannose receptors
in vitro. The authors suggested that macrophage activation may be accountable for some of the
immunomodulatory effects of acemannan in vivo.
Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum) ethanolic extract showed a stress alleviating effect (Archana and Namasivayam,
2000). Anabolic, hypotensive, smooth muscle relaxant and hypoglycemic effects of Ocimum sanctum
plant extract have been observed (Chattopadhyay, 1993). The plant enhanced the physical endurance and
survival time of swimming mice, prevented stress-induced gastric ulcers in rats and protected rats and
mice against the hepatotoxicity induced by carbon tetrachloride (Sakina et al., 1990). The plants also
causes prolongation of sleeping time in mice due to pentobarbital which suggests CNS activity that may
involve dopaminergic neurones (Sakina et al., 1990). The antiulcerogenic property of Ocimum sanctum
Linn was confirmed against experimental ulcers; and the plant's activity is due to its ability to reduce acid
secretion and increase mucous secretion (Mandal et al., 1993). The extract has also shown inhibition of
skin papillomas in mice and blocks or suppresses the events associated with chemical carcinogenesis by
inhibiting activation of the carcinogen (Prashar et al., 1998).
Eryngium foetidum is used against colds and fevers in Bolivia and Jamaica (Michie, 1992; Muñoz et al.,
2000). Chadron bénée (Eryngium foetidum) leaves are rich in calcium, iron, riboflavin and carotene
(Robineau, 1991). This plant is used in the Caribbean for the treatment of several anti-inflammatory
disorders. The hexane extract is rich in terpenic compounds, alpha-cholesterol, brassicasterol,
campesterol, stigmasterol (the main component 95% ), beta-sitosterol, delta 5-avenasterol, delta (5)24-
stigmastadienol and delta 7-avenasterol (Garcia et al., 1999). The anti-inflammatory effects of the leaves
were confirmed (Garcia et al., 1999).
Citrus pulp contains citric and malic acids, pectin and flavonoids (Robineau, 1991). Bakhiet and Adam
(1995) report that citrus species contain hesperidoside, naringoside and eryodictyoside which play a role
in vascular resistance. The essential oils from citrus peels show in vitro broad-spectrum anti-bacterial
activity (Robineau, 1991). Aqueous decoctions of citrus species have shown antimycotic, antihemorrhagic
and antibacterial activity (Robineau, 1991). Lime and sour orange have more Vitamin A than the other
species. Vitamins A, C and E play a role in immune response (Latshaw, 1991).
Garlic and its component allicine have anti-bacterial and anti-fungal activity (Robineau, 1991). Allicine
acts as a bactericide up to dilutions of 1/100,000 against gram+ and gram- bacteria (Robineau 1991).
Ziegler and Stichler (1989) found that alliin was an antibiotic precursor. Garlic showed anti-inflammatory
activity comparable to certain steroid and non-steroid anti-inflammatory drugs according to Khobragade
and Jangde (1996). Weber et al. (1992) found virucidal activity of fresh garlic extract and four garlic
compounds against six selected viruses.
8

9. Aloe vera Tourn. ex Linn (syn: Aloe barbadensis Miller) fresh leaves are used to obtain two components:
(1) a bitter yellow juice (exudate) with high content of 1,8 dihydroxyanthraquinone derivatives (aloe
emodin) and their glycosides (aloins), which are used for their cathartic effects and a mucilaginous gel
from the parenchymatous tissue, which has been used for topical treatment of skin burns and wounds
(Vázquez et al., 1996). The gel has antiinflammatory activity similar to the antiinflammatory agents
indomethacin and dexamethasone (Vázquez et al., 1996). Wound healing is a highly complex, but
coordinated flow of events which can be roughly divided into three overlapping phases - inflammation,
granulation tissue formation and remodelling of the extracellular matrix. These events involve several
cellular phenomena such as migration, proliferation, adhesion, phenotypic differentiation, etc (Chitra et
al., 1998). Immediately after injury there is clot formation and the earlier phases of wound repair involves
inflammation and synthesis of ground substance (Chitra et al., 1998). The ground substance consists
mainly of proteoglycans (PGs), which are the heterogeneous, non-fibrillar components of the extracellular
matrix. These complex macromolecules are made up of a protein core linked covalently to linear
heteropolysaccharides, the glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) (Chitra et al., 1998). GAGs are the first
components of the extracellular matrix to be synthesized during wound healing, and form the scaffold for
collagen and elastin deposition. Aloe vera has a significant influence on the PGs and GAGs in healing
wounds and this healing may be related to the gel polysaccharides, for example mannose-6-phosphate and
acemannan (Chitra et al., 1998). Aloe vera gel also increased the amount of hyaluronic acid and dermatan
sulphate in the wound which may result in the formation of a more stable scar and faster healing (Chitra et
al., 1998).
Chemical groups identified in Aloe vera gel extract with antiinflammatory activity are sterols,
anthraquinones, anthraglycosides, reductor sugars, cardiotonic glycosides, mucilagus and pectins,
carbohydrates, naftoquinones, saponins and triterpenoids (Vázquez et al., 1996). Cinnamoyl-C-
glucosylchromone in Aloe barbadensis also contributes to its topical antiinflammatory activity (Hutter et
al., 1996).
An infusion of the fresh juice of Aloe barbadensis Mill. is used for urinary and bladder conditions and for
cleaning the blood (Nicholson and Arzeni, 1993).
The ethnoveterinary use of Psidium guajava for diarrhoea has transferred directly from the human use.
Psidium guajava has been so well studied it is recommended for human use in diarrhoaeal cases
(Robineau, 1991). Crataegolic, ursolic and oleanic acids have an activating effect on the human
complement system which plays a role in the immune defense system (Wagner, 1990). Oleanolic and
ursolic acid were shown to have antiinflammatory properties in laboratory animals (Liu, 1995). Ursolic
acid inhibits the human leukocyte elastase enzyme through the C-28 carboxy group. Oleanolic and ursolic
acids have a protective effect against lipid peroxidation and have anti-oxidant potency (Recio et al.,
1995).
9

10. Smith (1974) reported that weekly grooming of cattle with leaves of Cordia curassavica reduced tick
populations. Cordia spp. contains phenolic compounds (Ficarra et al., 1995) and terpenoid quinones
(Lachman-White et al., 1992). Branches are reported to be resinous and leaves are aromatic and have stiff
hairs on their upper sides (Morton, 1981).
Chenopodium ambrosioides is considered an effective and well-known antiparasitic remedy (Duke,
1989; Heinrich et al., 1992; Guarrera, 1999).
Anti-inflammatory agents have been classified into two types: cyclooxygenase inhibitors and lipoxygenase
inhibitors. The former are more effective during the early phase of inflammation but are less effective in
the late phase. Lipoxygenase inhibitors are more effective in the late phase of inflammation. Curcumin
has been reported to inhibit both lipoxygenase and cyclooxygenase and to be effective in acute and
chronic models of inflammation. It has also been reported to be a potent scavenger of oxygen free radicals
(Anto et al., 1998). Curcumin is a potent scavenger of free radicals including nitrogen centred free
radicals, nitrogen dioxide and nitric oxide. Its therapeutic properties in inflammation and cancer might be
partly explained by its free-radical scavenging properties. Some curcuminoids have antioxidant activity
and there is strong correlation between this activity and the anti-inflammatory activity of curcuminoids
(Anto et al., 1998). Rhizomes of Curcuma longa Linn. Yielded 3 curcuminoids which displayed
topoisomerase I and II enzyme inhibition activity (Roth et al., 1998). Turmeric has been used as a fever
alleviator and it has potential in cancer prevention (Roth et al., 1998). Curcumin has antiviral potential
(Roth et al., 1998).
In India the mucilaginous joints of Nopalea cochenillifera are split open and applied as a poultice to
relieve burns, skin diseases, earacches and toothaches (Morton, 1990). In Italy and the Canary Islands
fleshy joints of other cacti called Opuntia ficus-indica and Opuntia dillenii are used as poultices (Uncini
Manganelli, Tomei, 1999; Loro et al., 1999). Intraperitoneal administration of the lyophilized aqueous
extract of Opuntia dillenii exhibits central analgesic properties, associated with anti-inflammatory effects
on acute inflammatory processes similar to the action of morphine (Loro et al., 1999).
Kalanchoe pinnata leaf juice exhibited histamine-blocking activity. The juice contains flavonoid
compounds, carbohydrates and mineral salts. Flavonoid glycosides, alkanes, alkanols, sterols, phenolic
compounds, bufadienolides isolated from the plant. Antiallergic activity of the plant due to presence of a
quercetin derivative. There are one or more compounds in the juice of the leaves which selectively block
H1 receptors apparently in a competitive fashion (Nassis et al., 1992). These findings provide
experimental support for the folk medicine use for allergic skin diseases of allergic origin that can be
related to the presence of an H1 antagonist in the leaf juice (Nassis et al., 1992). Antiinflammatory and
hypotensive properties of Kalanchoe brasiliensis have been confirmed (Souza Brito and Souza Brito,
1993; Morton, 1990). Kalanchoe pinnata aerial part has moderate in vivo antimalarial activity (Muñoz
et al., 2000). Plant also has antibacterial properties and significant CNS-depressant activity (Pal and Nag
Chaudhuri, 1989). Kalanchoe spp. contain bufadienolides, terpenoids and flavonoids (Costa et al., 1994).
10

11. The crude lyophilized juice inhibited the lymphocyte proliferative response indicating curative properties
of the plants associated with action on the immune system (Costa et al., 1994). The bufadienolide
(bryophyllin B) showed anti-tumour activity (Costa et al., 1994). Seven flavonoids found in Kalanchoe
spp. (rhamnoside derivatives) have low, moderate and potent immunomodulatory activity (Costa et al.,
1994). The methnolic extract of the leaves showed significant enhancement of the healing process in
acetic acid-induced chronic gastric lesions in rats (Pal and Nag-Chaudhuri, 1991).
Goda et al., (1999) found histamine release inhibitors in watercress (Nasturtium officinale) which were
isolated using a monitoring system with antigen-stimulated RBL-2H3 cells. Of the 15 compounds
isolated, flavonols and megastigmanes significantly inhibited histamine release (Goda et al., 1999).
Phenethyl isothiocyanate (PEITC) which is released upon chewing of watercress (Nasturtium officinale)
is a chemoprotective agent against lung cancer induced by smoking (Hecht et al., 1995). A study by Chen
et al., (1996), found that consumption of watercress causes a decrease in the levels of oxidative
metabolities of acetaminophen, probably due to inhibition of oxidative metabolism of this drug (Chen et
al., 1996). Chemicals found in the herb are alanine, arginine, ascorbic acid, aspartic acid, beta carotene,
biotin, copper, cystine, diastase, folacin, gluconasturtin, glutamic acid, glycine, histidine, iron, isoleucine,
leucine, magnesium, manganese, methionine, niacin, pantothenic acid, phenylalanine, phenylethyl-
isothiocyanate, phosphorus, potassium, proline, serine, protein, riboflavin, thiamin, threonine, tryptophan,
tyrosine, valine, vit B6, zinc (Duke, 2000).
Plantago major fresh leaf juice or bath is used for opthalmic reasons in Venezuela, France and Mauritius
(Novaretti and Lemordant, 1990; Jelager et al., 1998; Morton, 1975). Plantago major, according to
literature data, has expectorant, antiphlogistic, pain-relieving effects (Matev et al., 1982).
Plantago major contains biologically active compounds such as polysaccharides, lipids, caffeic acid
derivatives, flavonoids, iridoid glycosides, terpenoids, alkaloids and some organic acids (Samuelsen,
2000). Hriscu et al., (1990) studied the leaves and seeds of Plantago major, Plantago media and
Plantago lanceolata and separated a polyholozidic fraction. A statistically significant gastroprotective
action was found both in the case of the polyholozide obtained from seeds and leaves in two experimental
models. At higher doses a laxative action was also obtained (Hriscu et al., 1990).
Water extracts (infusions) from planten (Plantago lanceolata L. and Plantago major L.) was studied in
terms of its activity enhancing the uterine tonus in a series of experiments with a preparation of an isolated
rabbit and guinea pig uterine horn (Shipochliev, 1981).
The water extract of Plantago major and Plantago lanceolata showed activity at 4 mg/ml against Staph.
aureus. The water extract of Plantago major was active against Staph. aureus at 2 mg / ml and against
Salmonella typhi at 8 mg/ml. In vitro screening of Plantago major showed that the plant extract inhibited
three bacteria CDE Salmonella typhi, Shigella dysenteriae, Shigella flexneri and Staph. aureus
(Caceres et al., 1990; Navarro et al., 1996). Plantago major leaves in early spring Southern Ohio /
Northern Kentucky contained 10,000 Vit A units / 100g and 19 mg / 100g ascorbic acid. Ursolic acid
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12. isolated from a hexane extract of Plantago major showed a significant COX-2 inhibitory effect (Ringbom
et al., 1998). Oleanolic acid in Plantago major was less active than ursolic acid but showed a similar
COX-2/COX-1 selectivity ratio (0.6) (Ringbom et al., 1998). A range of biological activities has been
found from plant extracts including wound healing activity, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antioxidant,
weak antibiotic, immunomodulating and antiulcerogenic activity (Samuelsen, 2000). Karpilovskaia et al.,
(1989) administered Amidopyrine in combination with sodium nitrite to rats. This combination produces
the toxic damage of the liver and tumors in rats in long-term experiments, in connection with endogenic
synthesis of carcinogenic nitrosodimethylamine (Karpilovskaia et al., 1989). The inclusion into the
animal diet of the polyphenolic complex from Plantago major--plantastine as an inhibitor of the
carcinogen synthesis reduced the toxic damage of the liver. This was indicated by normalization of
biochemical parameters and also decreased tumor yield from 87.5% to 33.3%. The data obtained may be
indicate a role for the combined use of plantastine with nitrosated drugs that would contribute to
carcinogenesis prevention (Karpilovskaia et al., 1989).
A clinical trial of a Plantago major preparation in the treatment of chronic bronchitis confirmed a spastic
effect upon the smooth musculature of bronchi produced by Plantago major (Matev et al., 1982).
Hetland et al., 2000 examined the antibacterial effect of a soluble pectin polysaccharide, PMII, isolated
from the leaves of Plantago major, in inbred mice experimentally infected with Streptococcus
pneumoniae serotype 6B. Their data demonstrated that the polysaccharide fraction PMII from P. major
protects against pneumococcal infection in mice when administered systemically prechallenge, and
secondly that the protective effect is owing to stimulation of the innate and not the adaptive immune
system (Hetland et al., 2000).
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