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Microscopy
1.
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Pearson Education Inc. Units of Measurement Table 4.1
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Pearson Education Inc. History of the Microscope •1590 –first compound microscope
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Pearson Education Inc. History of the Microscope • 1655 – Robert Hooke used a compound microscope to observe pores in cork – He called them “cells”
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Pearson Education Inc.
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Pearson Education Inc. History of the Microscope • Antonie van Leeuwenhoek –1st to see single-celled organisms in pond water
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Pearson Education Inc. Microscopy • General Principles of Microscopy – Wavelength of radiation – Magnification – Resolution – Contrast
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Pearson Education Inc. The electromagnetic spectrum Figure 4.1
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Pearson Education Inc. What is magnification? Magnification is defined by the magnification by the objective x the magnification by eyepiece BUT maximum magnification does not mean maximum resolution!
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Pearson Education Inc. wavelength of visible light – 400 nm detail smaller than 200nm (approximately half the wavelength of light) cannot be resolved by the light microscope 400 nm 200 nm 25 nm Rule: limit of resolution is half the wavelength 800nm 220 nm
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Pearson Education Inc. Light refraction and image magnification Figure 4.2
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Pearson Education Inc. The limits of resolution Figure 4.3
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Pearson Education Inc. Microscope Resolution • ability of a lens to separate or distinguish small objects that are close together • wavelength of light used is major factor in resolution shorter wavelength ⇒ γρεατερ ρεσολυτιον
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Pearson Education Inc. •working distance — distance between the front surface of lens and surface of cover glass or specimen
14.
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Pearson Education Inc. Microscopy • General Principles of Microscopy – Contrast – Differences in intensity between two objects, or between an object and background – Important in determining resolution – Staining increases contrast – Use of light that is in phase increases contrast
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Pearson Education Inc. Contrasting techniques Brightfield Darkfield Phase contrast DIC Taken from: http://fig.cox.miami.edu/~cmallery/150/Fallsyll.htm
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Pearson Education Inc. Microscopy • Light Microscopy – Bright-field microscopes – Simple – Contain a single magnifying lens – Similar to magnifying glass – Leeuwenhoek used simple microscope to observe microorganisms
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Pearson Education Inc.
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Pearson Education Inc. Microscopy • Light Microscopy – Bright-field microscopes – Compound – Series of lenses for magnification – Light passes through specimen into objective lens – Oil immersion lens increases resolution – Have one or two ocular lenses – Total magnification = magnification of objective lens X magnification of ocular lens – Most have condenser lens (direct light through specimen)
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Pearson Education Inc. A bright-field, compound light microscope Figure 4.4
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Pearson Education Inc. The effects of immersion oil on resolution Figure 4.5
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Pearson Education Inc. Microscopy • Light Microscopy – Dark-field microscopes – Best for observing pale objects – Only light rays scattered by specimen enter objective lens – Specimen appears light against dark background – Increases contrast and enables observation of more details
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Pearson Education Inc. The light path in a dark-field microscope Figure 4.6
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Pearson Education Inc. Four kinds of light microscopy Figure 4.8
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Pearson Education Inc. Microscopy • Electron Microscopy – Light microscopes cannot resolve structures closer than 200 nm – Electron microscopes have greater resolving power and magnification – Magnifies objects 10,000X to 100,000X – Detailed views of bacteria, viruses, internal cellular structures, molecules, and large atoms – Two types – Transmission electron microscopes – Scanning electron microscopes
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Pearson Education Inc. A transmission electron microscope (TEM) Figure 4.11
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Pearson Education Inc. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) Figure 4.12
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Pearson Education Inc. SEM images Figure 4.13
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Pearson Education Inc. Microscopy • Probe Microscopy – Magnifies more than 100,000,000 times – Two types – Scanning tunneling microscopes – Atomic force microscopes
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Pearson Education Inc. Probe microscopy Figure 4.14
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Pearson Education Inc. Staining • Increases contrast and resolution by coloring specimens with stains/dyes • Smear of microorganisms (thin film) made prior to staining • Microbiological stains contain chromophore • Acidic dyes stain alkaline structures; more commonly, basic dyes stain acidic structures
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Pearson Education Inc. Preparing a specimen for staining Figure 4.15
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Pearson Education Inc. Staining • Simple stains • Differential stains – Gram stain – Acid-fast stain – Endospore stain • Special stains – Negative (capsule) stain – Flagellar stain
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Pearson Education Inc. Simple stains Figure 4.16
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Pearson Education Inc. The Gram staining procedure Figure 4.17
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Pearson Education Inc. Ziehl-Neelsen acid-fast stain Figure 4.18
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Pearson Education Inc. Schaeffer-Fulton endospore stain Figure 4.19
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Pearson Education Inc. Negative (capsule) stain Figure 4.20
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Pearson Education Inc. Flagellar stain Figure 4.21
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Pearson Education Inc. Staining • Staining for Electron Microscopy – Chemicals containing heavy metals used for transmission electron microscopy – Stains may bind molecules in specimens or the background
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Pearson Education Inc. Staining Animation: Staining
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Pearson Education Inc. Classification and Identification of Microorganisms • Taxonomy consists of classification, nomenclature, and identification • Organize large amounts of information about organisms • Make predictions based on knowledge of similar organisms
42.
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Pearson Education Inc. Classification and Identification of Microorganisms • Linnaeus, Whittaker, and Taxonomic Categories – Linnaeus – System classified organisms based on characteristics in common – Grouped organisms that can successfully interbreed into categories called species – Used binomial nomenclature in his system
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Pearson Education Inc. Levels in Linnaean taxonomic scheme Figure 4.22
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Pearson Education Inc. Classification and Identification of Microorganisms • Linnaeus, Whittaker, and Taxonomic Categories – Whittaker – Linnaeus proposed only two kingdoms – Whittaker proposed taxonomic approach based on five kingdoms – Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista, and Prokaryotae
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Pearson Education Inc. Whittaker’s five-kingdom taxonomic scheme Figure 4.23
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Pearson Education Inc. Classification and Identification of Microorganisms • Linnaeus, Whittaker, and Taxonomic Categories – Linnaeus’s goal was classifying organisms to catalogue them – Modern goal is understanding relationships among groups of organisms – Goal of modern taxonomy is to reflect phylogenetic hierarchy – Greater emphasis on comparisons of organisms’ genetic material led to proposal to add domain
47.
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Pearson Education Inc. Classification and Identification of Microorganisms • Domains – Carl Woese compared nucleotide sequences of rRNA subunits – Proposal of three domains as determined by ribosomal nucleotide sequences – Eukarya, Bacteria, and Archaea – Cells in the three domains also differ with respect to many other characteristics
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Pearson Education Inc. Classification and Identification of Microorganisms • Taxonomic and Identifying Characteristics – Physical characteristics – Biochemical tests – Serological tests – Phage typing – Analysis of nucleic acids
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Pearson Education Inc. Two biochemical tests for identifying bacteria Figure 4.24
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Pearson Education Inc. One tool for the rapid identification of bacteria Figure 4.25
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Pearson Education Inc. An agglutination test, one type of serological test Figure 4.26
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Pearson Education Inc. Phage typing Figure 4.27
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Pearson Education Inc. Classification and Identification of Microorganisms • Taxonomic Keys – Dichotomous keys – Series of paired statements where only one of two “either/or” choices applies to any particular organism – Key directs user to another pair of statements, or provides name of organism
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Pearson Education Inc. Use of dichotomous taxonomic key Figure 4.28
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Pearson Education Inc. Classification and Identification of Microorganisms Animation: Dichotomous Keys: Overview
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