1. LIVING LEGACIES: A PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY OF SEVEN AFRICAN
AMERICAN MALE EDUCATIONAL LEADERS FROM A SOUTHWESTERN
HISTORIALLY BLACK COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY IN TEXAS
A Dissertation
Submitted to the Whitlowe R. Green College of Education
Prairie View A&M University
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
By
Mary Ann Springs
July 2011
Prairie View A&M University

2. Abstract
The purpose of this study was to conduct a phenomenological investigation that gave
voice to seven African American male leaders. The study examined the emergence of
educational leadership and its impact on African American males as perceived, experienced, and
exercised by African American male administrators of a Historically Black College and
University HBCU in Southwest Texas.
The analysis of the data yielded six common themes that were identified as protective
factors to the success of the seven participants of the study: (a) recognition of and opportunities
for leadership, (b) recognition of the negative and positive impacts of segregation and
integration, (c) community, family, and national leaders as mentors, (d) negative risk factors not
acknowledged as roadblocks, (e) African American males continued service to impact youth, and
(f) influence inside and outside of the school community.
iii

3. Dedication
To Michael, my darling husband of 20 years…you have stood by my side from the
beginning of our union to the present. Through your leadership and God‘s guidance, God
commanded the steps I should take from the beginning of this process to the finish. I never
would have made it without the two of you. While striving to obtain my doctoral degree, God
was my guiding light. Your loving support was the ―pot of gold‖ at the end of the rainbow. I love
you…with every beat of my heart.
iv

4. Acknowledgements
Along life‘s highway, God sends special individuals in one‘s life that will have an
everlasting impact. Such was my dissertation chair, Dr. William Allan Kritsonis. He was
predestined to serve as an integral part of my life. You have been more than a mentor; you have
been like a father to me. I‘m searching deep to find the words to humbly express my gratitude to
you and Dr. Mary Alice Kritsonis, who wanted my success just as much as I did. Mother Mary
Alice, I can‘t thank you enough for the endless hours you devoted to the formatting of this
historical document, your commitment to academic excellence, and your example of strong work
ethics and teamwork. Thank you for giving yourselves to us, the doctoral students.
I cannot truly express my sincere gratitude to my parents, who were my first mentors and
role models. Mom and dad, I thank God for you because you brought seven children into the
world and kept us together as a family through hard work and integrity.
To my dynamic committee: Dr. Douglas Hermond, Dr. Patricia Hoffman-Miller, Dr. Carl
Gardiner, and Dr. Solomon Osho…thank you for your encouragement and guidance during this
process. You‘re timely feedback was instrumental in filling-in the missing pieces of the puzzle.
To Dr. Teresa Hughes, my dissertation coach, mentor, and friend...you were with me
from the beginning to the end. Thank you for believing I had what it took to make it to this point.
Much gratitude to you, Mr. Grundy and Patrice, for your constructive feedback in helping
me edit my dissertation. I appreciate your hard work.
Finally, to the participants of the study…thank you for sharing precious moments in your
life that were the embodiment of the powerful icons you represent today. May all who read this
dissertation, extract not only your timeless words of wisdom, but absorb the essence of an
African American male leader.
v

5. Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iii
Dedication ...................................................................................................................................... iv
Acknowledgements ..........................................................................................................................v
Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................... vi
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ xii
List of Figures .............................................................................................................................. xiii
Chapter I Introduction ......................................................................................................................1
Barriers to African American Male Leadership at Predominately White Institutions...............3
Critical Race Theory ..................................................................................................................4
Resiliency Theory ......................................................................................................................5
Mentorship .................................................................................................................................5
Background of the Problem .......................................................................................................6
The History of African American Education .......................................................................6
The Significance of HBCUs and African American Male Leadership................................8
Research Questions ..................................................................................................................10
Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................................11
Significance of the Study .........................................................................................................11
Personal Statement ...................................................................................................................12
Delimitations of the Study .......................................................................................................22
Limitations ...............................................................................................................................22
Definition of Terms..................................................................................................................23
Organization of the Study ........................................................................................................24
vi

6. Chapter II Literature Review .........................................................................................................25
History of Black Education in the South .................................................................................25
Rise and Significance of the HBCU ........................................................................................26
Critical Moments in African American History ......................................................................28
Black Leaders and Politics .................................................................................................28
The Jim Crow Laws and Segregation ................................................................................29
The Black Power and Civil Rights Movements .................................................................29
The Black Family and Community ....................................................................................30
The Rise of African American Leadership and National Leaders ...........................................31
Leadership Styles of African American Men ..........................................................................33
Frederick Douglass ............................................................................................................33
Henry Highland Garnet ......................................................................................................34
Marcus Garvey ...................................................................................................................34
Booker T. Washington .......................................................................................................35
William Edward Burghardt DuBois...................................................................................36
Malcolm X .........................................................................................................................37
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. ................................................................................................38
Educational Leaders of African American HBCUs .................................................................39
Black Faculty in Higher Education ....................................................................................39
African American Male Administrators in Higher Education ...........................................40
A Brief History of HBCU Educational Leaders ................................................................41
Leadership Demands ................................................................................................................44
The Significance of Mentorship for African American Males ................................................46
vii

7. Critical Race Theory ................................................................................................................48
Resiliency Theory ....................................................................................................................49
Risk Factors that Threaten African American Male Youth .....................................................53
Chapter III Methodology ...............................................................................................................55
Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................................55
Methodology ............................................................................................................................56
Research Design.......................................................................................................................58
Subjects of the Study ...............................................................................................................60
Instrumentation ........................................................................................................................60
Validity and Reliability of the Data .........................................................................................64
Procedures ................................................................................................................................65
Data Analysis ...........................................................................................................................69
Summary ..................................................................................................................................72
Chapter IV Data Analysis ..............................................................................................................73
The Purpose of the Study .........................................................................................................74
Data Analysis ...........................................................................................................................75
The Participants .......................................................................................................................76
Research Participants: Individual/Participant Profiles……………………………………….78
Participant A ......................................................................................................................78
Participant B.......................................................................................................................80
Participant C.......................................................................................................................81
Participant D ......................................................................................................................84
Participant E .......................................................................................................................85
viii

8. Participant F .......................................................................................................................86
Participant G ......................................................................................................................88
Participant Observations ..........................................................................................................90
Participant A ......................................................................................................................90
Participant B.......................................................................................................................91
Participant C.......................................................................................................................93
Participant D ......................................................................................................................94
Participant E .......................................................................................................................95
Participant F .......................................................................................................................96
Participant G ......................................................................................................................97
Narrative Responses.................................................................................................................97
Research Question 1 ..........................................................................................................99
Research Question 2 ........................................................................................................106
Research Question 3 ........................................................................................................119
Research Question 4 ........................................................................................................128
Research Question 5 ........................................................................................................134
Research Question 5 ........................................................................................................139
Research Question 6 ........................................................................................................142
Research Question 6 ........................................................................................................147
Conceptual Frameworks ........................................................................................................154
Summary ................................................................................................................................156
Mentorship .............................................................................................................................157
Conclusion .............................................................................................................................158
ix

9. Chapter 5 Findings, Implications and Recommendations ...........................................................159
Interview Process ...................................................................................................................161
Data Analysis .........................................................................................................................161
Common Themes ...................................................................................................................162
Recognition and Opportunities for Leadership ................................................................162
Recognized Negative and Positive Impacts of Segregation and Integration ...................165
Community, Family, and National Leaders as Mentors ..................................................167
Negative Risk Factors Not Acknowledged as Roadblocks..............................................170
African American Males Continued Service to Impact Youth ........................................171
Influence Inside and Outside of the School Community .................................................172
Theoretical Frameworks ........................................................................................................174
HBCUs Helped Prepare Students for Success .................................................................174
Dedication to Excellence and Strong Work Ethics ..........................................................175
Injustice Gave Birth to the Demand to be Successful......................................................176
Taking Risks for What One Believes is Fair and Just .....................................................176
Faith in God, Education and Role Models .......................................................................177
Summary ................................................................................................................................177
Conclusions/ Impact on Researcher .................................................................................177
Implications for Practice ........................................................................................................179
Opportunities to Demonstrate Leadership .......................................................................179
African American Mentorship Program ..........................................................................179
Impact and Influence/ ―Dual Role in Education‖ ............................................................180
Reflection .........................................................................................................................180
x

10. Revisiting the Mission of HBCUs ...................................................................................181
Recommendations for Further Study .....................................................................................181
References ....................................................................................................................................183
Appendices...................................................................................................................................193
Appendix A: Demographic Instrument ..................................................................................194
Appendix B: Interview Questions Instrument .......................................................................198
Appendix C: Interview Protocol ............................................................................................201
Appendix D: Observational Protocol .....................................................................................204
Appendix E: IRB Approval for Research Study ....................................................................206
Appendix F: Consent Form....................................................................................................208
Appendix G: Informed Consent Permission to Audio Tape Interview..................................212
Appendix H: Revised Interview Instrument ..........................................................................214
Appendix I: Interview Transcription .....................................................................................216
Interview with Participant A ............................................................................................217
Interview with Participant B ............................................................................................241
Interview with Participant C ............................................................................................264
Interview with Participant D ............................................................................................294
Interview with Participant E ............................................................................................321
Interview with Participant F.............................................................................................335
Interview with Participant G ............................................................................................348
Vita...............................................................................................................................................360
xi

11. List of Tables
Table 1 Data Collection ................................................................................................................71
Table 2 Demographic Information................................................................................................77
xii

12. List of Figures
Figure 1 Common Themes...........................................................................................................163
Figure 2 Resilience Factors ..........................................................................................................174
xiii

13. Chapter I
Introduction
For centuries, African American males have had a history of fighting for their basic rights
afforded by the American Constitution which were life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.
Since the arrival of African American slaves to the shores of North America during the 18th/19th
Century, they were forced to deny the existence and practice of their culture in exchange for
thinking, working, and living like a slave until their death. This life of servitude was inescapable
and, inevitably passed down from generation to generation (DuBois, 1903/2003).
Life for African Americans, especially African American males, has continued to look
dismal. According to DuBois (1903/2003), the American society has stereotyped African
Americans as lazy, insolent, aggressive, and unintelligent as compared to the dominant race.
While these views are often opinionated and over-rated, such speculation has caused a negative
view of African American males to permeate throughout society. This negative aura has left
African American males marginalized, criminalized, and dehumanized (DuBois).
According to the African American Initiative statistical report published by Child‘s Aid
Society (2006), more than 29% of African American male youth 15 years and older were
incarcerated as compared to 4.4% Anglo American boys. In this report, African American males
represented 49% of the inmate population, while only 4% of African American males attended
college, and 3% actually graduated. Less than one-half of African American males were
employed and 50% who attended metropolitan schools did not finish.
The report also revealed that homicide was the number one killer among African
American male youth. In lieu of the research on the societal, political, and educational
displacement of African American males (Bashi, 1991; DuBois, 1903/2003; Smith, 2004; &
1

14. 2
Woodson, 1933/2005), it was not surprising that the statistics describing this group were
alarming and contributed to perpetuating the stereotype.
In the area of education, the Child‘s Aid Society (2006) report showed that African
American males were over-represented in areas of suspension, discipline referrals, and special
education programs. Conversely, African American male representation in Gifted and Talented
or Advanced Placement programs were minimal in the literature. The report further indicated
that African American male‘s failure in these areas served as a precursor to other societal
problems such as incarceration, homicide, drugs, gang violence, and persistent drop-out rates in
education.
In Tillman‘s (2004) study of African American males enrolled in community colleges,
many males contended that their educational experience was one in which they experienced
isolation, little support, and resources, which included an underrepresentation of role-models and
a lack of mentorship programs. College environments which were non-supportive and failed to
meet the needs of African American males may have contributed to their transferring or
dropping- out of the program (Tillman). Cuyjet (2006) postulated that the low performance and
underrepresentation of African American males has become a growing concern for Historically
Black Colleges and Universities (HBCU) as well. Factors that prevented African American
males from attending college were the obligation of being the provider for the family, the
negative influence of pop culture, and the lack of educated role models (Cuyjet).
While these problems held true for a plethora of African American male youth, African
American males who succeeded at the collegiate and leadership levels in higher education faced
similar race-related barriers (Frazier, 2009). According to Jackson (2008), African American
males lagged behind Anglo American males economically and are less likely to receive

15. 3
opportunities for promotions. This malady is related to hiring selections for executive positions
where Anglo American males are more likely to be selected over African American males in
leadership positions (Jackson).
Barriers to African American Male Leadership at Predominately White Institutions
As Smith, Turner, Kofi, and Richards (2004) assert, African American males in
leadership roles at Predominantly White Institutions (PWI) experienced similar many challenges.
Risk factors that impacted these leaders included voicelessness, tokenism, isolation from one‘s
culture, and stress when forced to adopt mainstream ideals that were inconsistent with their
values. In addition, African American faculty at PWIs experienced fewer opportunities for
tenure, promotions, and scholarships. In some cases, exploration of studies regarding African
American phenomenon was not considered scholarship worthy and was scarce in mainstream
review of literature (Smith et al.). These negative factors spoke to the relevance of HBCUs in the
development of African American male leadership (King & Watts, 2004).
One study was conducted on African American educational leadership at an HBCU,
however, all participants of the study were female (Green, 2009). Relatively few studies
purported the experiences of African American male educational leaders at PWIs, who became
successful in spite of barriers such as racism, discrimination, and inequality (Daniel, 2006;
Ellison, 2007; Frazier, 2009). While there are many African American males in leadership
positions at HBCUs, their voice is absent in the literature. Therefore, the purpose of this study
was to give voice to seven African American male educational leaders, by conducting a
phenomenological research study that examined the emergence of educational leadership as
perceived, experienced, and exercised by African American male administrators of an HBCU in
Southwest Texas.

16. 4
The conceptual frameworks used for this study were based on Critical Race Theory
(CRT), Resiliency Theory, and Mentorship. CRT seeks to counter traditional theories and
practices that marginalize people of color. It attempts to give voice to the oppressed through
stories concerning experiences related to racial discrimination and inequality that have served as
contributing factors to their lack of life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness (Creswell, 2007).
The study sought to establish the background for the participants experience with and
exposure to inequality and/or discrimination in society through the lens of CRT (Lee 2008).
Resiliency was used to determine if protective factors contributed to the overcoming of barriers
and led to the success of seven African American male educational leaders at a Southwestern
HBCU in Texas (Daniel, 2006; Frazier, 2009). The significance of mentorship by African
American males has gained recognition as a viable solution to societal problems that face
African American students and administrators (Bacon (2002); Scott (2011).
Critical Race Theory
According to Delgado (1999) and Bell (1995), much of one‘s own reality is socially
constructed and that reliving the experience can be medicinal to the wounds caused by
oppression and racism. Through the understanding of how race and discrimination negatively
impact marginalized groups, oppressors are challenged to reflect on their practices and behavior
toward the oppressed.
In Delgado‘s model of CRT, as cited by Lee (2008), the central tenets of CRT involve
five elements: the centrality of race and racism in society, the challenge to dominant ideology,
the centrality of experimental knowledge, interdisciplinary, and the commitment to social justice.
Lee (2008) asserts that race and racism are ideals that have historically identified and
characterized the American society. Racism has had a negative impact on minorities individually

17. 5
and collectively. The researcher utilized the centrality of race component of the theory to
examine the impact of racism among seven African American male educational leaders, through
the re-telling of their lived experiences.
Resiliency Theory
While CRT exposes racial and discriminatory practices through lived experiences of the
victim, Resiliency Theory seeks to identify factors that contributed to the rise and success of
individuals experiencing oppression (Zimmerman, Ramirez-Valles, & Maton, 1999). According
to Fergus and Zimmerman (2005), researchers have developed three models of resilience
(compensatory, protective, and challenge) to analyze how promotive or protective factors help
off-set the individual from risk factors that have negative outcomes. For the purpose of the study,
the researcher utilized the protective-stabilizing model. The protective stabilizing model is
applied when protective factors help neutralize the impact of the risk and the negative outcome;
when the protective factor is absent, the greater the relationship between the level of risk and the
negative outcome. The researcher examined protective factors that helped seven African
American male educational leaders develop the resilience to overcome political, social, and
cultural barriers throughout their journey toward leadership (Fergus & Zimmermann, 2005).
Mentorship
According to Bashi (1991), mentoring first began as a tool used by corporate executives
to successfully navigate the journey up the corporate ladder. The research of mentoring in
business settings indicated that two-thirds of successful corporate executives had a mentor.
These same executives with mentors were more likely to earn more and experience higher job
satisfaction. The author further implies that mentoring expanded into the academic settings in K-
12 schools and college programs. It was ignited by the ―I Have a Dream‖ (IHAD) program in

18. 6
1981 where a multimillionaire, Eugene Lang, promised to pay for the college education of a
group of sixth graders (in an inner-city school) if they graduated from high school. This program
mentored the students in addition to paying for their college tuition.
Bashi further asserts that mentoring is incorporated into every aspect of the academic
journey: K-12 schools, colleges & universities, graduate and professional schools. Many
programs are incorporated to work with diverse students: gifted, disadvantaged, at-risk, and
underrepresented minorities. The effectiveness of mentoring programs for at-risk or
disadvantaged students, however, is unclear in the field of educational.
Background of the Problem
The History of African American Education
African Americans, historically, have had a difficult journey navigating through the
social, political, economical, and educational systems of America. These systems were in place
and controlled by the dominate culture during the Southern Antebellum; as such, the benefits of
these systems were not privileged to people held as slaves. As it pertains to education, slaves
were usually taught by the mistress or children of slave owners who went to school, though such
acts were prohibited by law (―Slavery and the Civil War,‖ 2009). At the sunset of slavery and the
dawn of public education in the South, newly freed slaves sought education as a means of access
to these systems which they felt could enhance their lives and the lives of their families.
(DuBois, 1903/2003; Woodson, 1933/2005; Woolfolk, 1986).
According to Palmer (2010), HBCUs emerged as a social contract between freedmen and
the American society that would reflect a number of people working together for mutual gain.
The contract was designed to decrease racial tension and inequality by created laws,
amendments, and HBCUs. The mission of HBCUs was to provide education and a successful

19. 7
transition into society for youths who were ex-slaves. The demand for education of African
American youth created a void for African American teachers, thus, HBCUs added teacher
preparation and missionary education (service to the community) to their missions.
With the rise of institutions of higher education for Negroes, it was clear to the African
American community that education played a critical role in the entrance into public education
with their White counterparts. The dream was often challenging due to the lack of funding and
inadequate facilities at Black colleges. With the aid of the Freedman‘s Bureau, White
philanthropy, missionaries, and personal savings of the Black community, African Americans
colleges survived a turbulent beginning. It wasn‘t until the Morrill Land Grant Act that states in
the South actually began funding public schools of Higher Education (Allen & Jewel, 2002;
DuBois, 1903/2003; Woolfolk, 1986). African American leaders such as W. E. B. DuBois and
his contemporary, Booker T. Washington, emerged this time to add voice to the development of
Higher education institutions for African American students.
For many decades, a remnant of African American male leaders began to surface as their
right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness were challenged by the status quo. Although the
efforts of DuBois and Washington were noble, equity of education between Blacks and Whites
was not reached. The nation‘s leaders sought to equalize the playing field of education through
the efforts of the Freedman‘s Bureau (1865), desegregation through the Supreme Court‘s ruling
of Brown vs. the Board of Education (1954), and the rise of the Civil Rights Movement (1955-
1968), yet the nation‘s schools were still segregated (Allen & Jewel, 2002; DuBois, 1903/2003).
As a result of Plessy v Ferguson in 1896, separate but equal included the establishment of
separate educational institutions for African Americans from Anglo American institutions. Most
HBCUs were poorly funded and underdeveloped, but leaders of HBCUs and the African

20. 8
American community fought to keep school doors open for African American youth. As
education among HBCU‘s was on the rise, by 1915 the majority of students in Black higher
education were males (Palmer 2010; Woolfolk, 1986).
The Significance of HBCUs and African American Male Leadership
Since the inception of HBCUs, many African American males were given the
opportunity to exercise leadership by serving as teachers/administrators. The birth of African
American males as academic and managerial leaders of institutions created a sense of self-
respect with their Anglo American counterparts who were overseeing the fiscal and maintenance
affairs of public schools (Woolfolk, 1986). Leaders of HBCUs and teachers were highly
respected and served as role models of success for the African American community (DuBois
1903/2003; Jackson, 2007; Woolfolk, 1986). Booker T. Washington and W.E.B. DuBois
influenced the leadership and educational direction of many HBCUs.
Although African American males were in the majority in the pursuit of education and
eventually leadership in the early 1900s, African American males of today have not continued
this legacy. Risk factors such as racism, inequality, single parent homes, and the lack of
mentorship contribute to the negative outcomes that confront African American male youth
(Daniel, 2006; Delgado, 1999). In order to cultivate and nurture African American male
educational leaders of the future, African American males can benefit by having access to and
communication with successful African American male educational leaders/teachers (Bacon,
2002; Boswell, 2010). The desire for autonomy in decision-making and the need to raise leaders
to continue the mission of HBCUs remains a critical issue. A growing body of research argues
that African American males are missing in action significantly at the public post-secondary
levels of education (Green, 2001; Jackson, 2001; Wiley, 2001).

21. 9
According to Green (2001), the escalation of African American male drop-out rates has
become a major concern for policy-makers and the educational community across the nation, yet
the problem continues to persist. All factors for this decline in graduation rates have not been
specifically identified, but some factors may include political, social, and cultural barriers. The
implication is that if drop-out rates among African American males continue to increase, the
critical presence of future leadership among Black men in public and higher education will
continue to remain marginal (DuBois, 1903/2003; Eatman, 2000; Green, 2001).
African American male leadership is crucial to the African American community because
of the rise of Black-on-Black crime, poor academic performance, the overrepresentation of Black
males in special education, and disproportionate numbers of African American male
incarceration in comparison to other races (Child‘s Aid Society, 2006; Ladson-Billings, 1999).
Without proper guidance programs and the necessary mentors and coaches to help young African
American males, this group may lack the resilience to work hard and become productive citizens
that will carry the legacy of African American male leadership (Child‘s Aid Society, 2006). The
consistent decline of African American male participation and contribution to the African
American community could lead to the absence of future leaders of HBCUs and public schools
in general (Jackson, 2001; Wiley, 2001; Woodson, 1933/2005).
Despite these social, political, and cultural barriers that impede African American males,
many do succeed. In fact, African American male educational leaders at HBCUs are successful
and have a significant influence on African American male students through mentorship. The
literature tells us little about the impact and influence of such men; therefore, the researcher
conducted a study that would describe the impact of the centrality of CRT, what made the
subjects of the study resilient in overcoming societal barriers, and the significance of mentorship

22. 10
on their journey toward leadership.
The researcher utilized search engines such as ProQuest, Sage Publications, and EBSCO
Host search engines to locate studies on the emergence, essence, and influence of African
American male educational leaders who survived societal barriers and became successful at an
HBCU in Texas. After an exhaustive search, no dissertation study or literature review was found
addressing the specificity of the type of institution and geographical location. Consequently, the
researcher decided to conduct a phenomenological study devoted to examining the emergence of
African American male educational leadership as perceived, experienced, and exercised by
African American male administrators of an HBCU in Southwest Texas
Research Questions
The following research questions guided the study. According to Marshall and Rossman,
as cited in Creswell (2007), the central question of a phenomenological study should be
explanatory in nature when little is known about a particular phenomenon and descriptive when
describing patterns related to the phenomenon. Therefore, the researcher developed the following
research questions for the study:
1. What is the evolution of leadership over the past three decades of seven African American
male educational leaders from a Southwest Historically Black College and University?
2. What critical moments in history have impacted the educational leadership style(s) of seven
African-American male educational leaders from a Southwest Historically Black College and
University?
3. Which leaders from the past have left an impression on seven African American male
educational leaders from a Southwestern Historically Black College and University?
4. In the face of social, political, or racial adversities, what influenced the decisions of seven

23. 11
African American male educational leaders from a Southwestern Historically Black College
and University?
5. What is the essence of the leadership of seven African American male educational leaders at
a Southwestern Historically Black College and University?
6. How has the leadership of seven senior African American male educational leaders
influenced policy over the years/ helped develop program, strategies, curriculum, or theories?
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to conduct a phenomenological investigation that gave
voice to the seven African American male leaders. The study examined the emergence of
educational leadership and its impact t on African American males as perceived, experienced and
exercised by African American male administrators of a Historically Black College and
University HBCU in Southwest Texas.
Significance of the Study
The constant decline of African American male drop-out rates in public and higher
education has posed a serious threat to the recruitment and retention of African American male
leadership (Cuyjet, 2006). With the internal and external pressure from policy makers to
diversify their student body, faculty, and staff, public institutions in higher education are
gradually acknowledging the low entrance college rates of African American males (Smith et al.,
2004). Diversity initiatives have been developed, yet appear to be futile when considering the
growth of academic marginalization and the impact of negative risk factors on the lives of
minorities (Wiley, 2001).
Absence of Black leadership and Black mentors will not only negatively impact public
and post-secondary schools that educate African American males but will impact these young

24. 12
men by decreasing their influence and visibility at the social, political, economical, and
educational levels (Stupak, 2008). Failure in these areas could ultimately affect the nation as a
whole when considering true and timely reformation.
Designing a hermeneutical phenomenological study that focuses on the life experiences
of seven senior African American male educational leaders at an HBCU may serve as a tool to
restore what ―excellence in action‖ looked like in the form of phenomenology. Data collection
included interviews, documents, and artifacts designed to capture the essence of each participant.
The desired outcome was four-fold: (1) to foster the meaningful paternal relationships
from senior educational leaders to succeeding generations; (2) to teach and share leadership
characteristics with young male youth of all backgrounds; (3) to encourage African American
males to graduate; and (4) to inspire and motivate African American males aspiring leadership
positions in public and higher education.
The study highlighted seven African American male educational leaders and gave them
opportunity to be heard with minimal interpretation from the researcher. This study did not
reflect the thoughts and opinions of the entire African American male educational leadership
population; neither was the narrative experiences of the participants germane to all African
American male educational leaders but included the unique experiences of the seven participants
of the study. Essentially, the study added to the limited body of research on African American
male educational leadership among HBCUs in the Southwest region of the United States.
Personal Statement
According to Moustakas, as cited by Creswell (2007), ―the first step toward
―phenomenological reduction‖ in the analysis of the data is for the researcher to set aside all
preconceived ideas or experiences in order to best understand the experiences of the participants‖

25. 13
(p. 235). The researcher therefore shared her experiences with risk and protective factors that
have framed her interpretation of leadership.
While growing-up in Bellville, Texas, a small town with a population of less than ten
thousand residents, I learned to appreciate my father as the leader of our family. His outstanding
work ethic served as a model that helped me cope with discrimination, inequality, and a negative
self-concept that I would have to overcome in order to take my place in society and serve
humanity. I am the second product of the union of a 13 year old Black female, Dorothy Gilmore
and a 17 year old Black male, Howard Palmer. Although they were relatively young, my mother
and father made the commitment to stay together and raise a family.
My father‘s life set the stage for my quest for strong leadership as a guide in overcoming
pre-existing barriers I would face and continue to face in the ―game of life‖ in America. As the
second oldest of seven children, I loved my father because he was my hero, the person I looked
to for strength within the fragile world of my imagination. My father became my first point of
reference as I began to frame my definition of leadership.
He often shared stories and experiences of how hard life was for African Americans
during his adolescent years. He told me about his job as a young share-cropper picking a hundred
pounds of cotton a day to help provide food for the family. While he had an eighth grade
education and my mother a third, the owners of the crop fields made it clear (to the principals of
the colored school) that education was secondary to the planting and picking of cotton. Black
students spent half the school year in the cotton fields.
Daddy‘s family prided themselves on strong work ethics. A few years later, when his
father decided to desert his wife and eight children, my dad and his siblings became the bread
winners for the family. Dad told me of many occasions in which a ―good‖ family name caused

26. 14
White people to help them buy food when they only had little for survival. The separation of my
dad‘s mother and father hurt him as a child, so he vowed that if he ever had a family, he would
not repeat the decision his father made.
It was in the cotton plantation that my dad met my mother. The two formed a union and
started their family. My parents had no home of their own, so they resided with my grandmother
and step-father. My mother had her first child, Shirley, and I was born a year and a half later.
Due to my mother‘s step-father‘s attempt to sexually molest Shirley, my parents were kicked-out
of the house and forced to find shelter in an old abandoned car until they could find a place to
live.
Although his education was limited, dad found odd jobs by utilizing his ability to work
hard to support his young family. One day an affluent White cattle owner by the name of Calvert
Mewis (whom my dad worked for on a few occasions), saw my dad walking on the road and
asked him where he was going. My dad told him that he and his family had no place to stay and
were hungry. Mr. Mewis had empathy for his situation and made a deal that if my dad would
faithfully serve him, he would provide land, a home, and food for the rest of his life. With the
desire to show his appreciation, dad became the ―John Henry‖ of cattle wrestling for Mr. C.A.
Mewis‘ Livestock business.
Dad spoke of how at the young age of 18, he would throw 200 to 300 pound cows and
bulls with his bare hands. While his strong inner-drive and undaunted work ethic won the favor
of Mr. Mewis, it created animosity among the sons of Mr. Mewis and his other hired hands. Mr.
Mewis often referred to my dad as his ―Black‖ son. There wasn‘t a need that my dad had that
Mr. Mewis did not meet. Because of his strong determination, unwavering courage, and moral
code of ethics, my dad emerged as an outstanding African American male leader in my eyes. The

27. 15
lack of black-owned gas stations, convenience stores, and Blacks in public offices at the time,
left me few examples of African American male leadership.
As the years passed, my mom had five more children where she remained a stay-at-home
mom until our teenage years. It was during middle school at Bellville where I began to see the
deadly blow of the lack of empowerment of African Americans at the social, political, and
economical levels. There was an understood divide that existed between the Black and White
residents of Bellville. This divide was apparent in the types of housing available to Blacks,
which were mostly the ―Projects.‖ Other homes owned by Blacks looked like run-down shacks,
compared to the nice brick houses that many of my non-Black peers resided.
In lieu of embedded racism, the social structure of the town was fragmented with Whites
and Blacks perpetuating the values of their respective race. Economically, I saw more Blacks
working for Whites or White-owned businesses than working for themselves. Occasionally, my
mother would clean houses for White women, which I detested. I attempted to show my disdain
by referring to her type of work as ―slavery.‖ Observing my parents constant subjection and
dependence on White people served as my motivation to pursue a singing career in
Country/Western music.
Blacks and Whites were divided educationally. Black families that lacked the home
structure and educational tools to help their children with academics were prone to teacher
referrals that placed Black children in special education programs, services in which I received.
None of the Palmer children (including myself) have attended Bellville schools without being
retained. Almost 95% of my siblings‘ children that attend schools in Bellville have been retained,
and 100% of boys in our family who attended these schools were retained and placed in special
education. This stigmatism placed upon my family by Bellville I.S.D. still exists today.

28. 16
While I attended Bellville High, Advanced Placement courses were geared towards
Whites, with one or two Black students. The staff was predominately White with two African
American female teachers, one who taught special education and the other taught Spanish.
Absent was the presence of any Black male leaders at Bellville High School during my years as a
student. These programs only reinforced the thought that gradually developed in my mind … that
White people were better than Black people. I wanted the life that Whites had, so I began to talk
like them, sing like them, and even attempted to date them. I became so obsessed in trying to
date White guys that Black boys began to call me ―White boy lover.‖ Consequently, White guys
were afraid to date Black girls because of the prejudice and racism that engulfed the town.
Politically, as I recollect, no Blacks held a political position in Bellville. I didn‘t see
Blacks gathering at voting booths or being solicited to vote for a particular political party. My
parents never exercised their right to vote because voting wasn‘t an important factor for them at
the time. Mom and dad didn‘t consider themselves intellects; they were laborers and didn‘t feel
the need to voice their political views. We spent the majority of our lives working for Mr. Mewis
by hauling-hay, picking pecans, raking leaves, and manicuring their lawns. Because I lacked the
awareness of the power of voting and the price that the Black community paid to acquire it, I
didn‘t practice voting until I became a student at an HBCU. Needless to say, while my family
learned the value of hard work, which was modeled by my father, I began to desire mentors and
role-models who could lead me beyond the dismal life that I saw un-educated African Americans
become victims.
I was determined not to fall prey to the poverty and hopelessness that permeated
throughout the African American community. The only solace I could find was my relationship
with Christ. When I obeyed the Gospel at 17 years of age, the word of God became my hope of a

29. 17
better life for me and my family. As a means of escape from my family‘s present condition, I
followed the advice of the African American special education teacher who not only encouraged
me to go to college but drove me there. My high school guidance counselor, on the other hand,
pushed me toward a trade school rather than college. I admit that I harbored distrust and hatred
toward Whites who mistreated Blacks while living in Bellville. It was at this point in my life that
I knew that only a relationship with God could free me from this pessimistic attitude I had
developed. Through prayer, attending church, and working-out my soul‘s salvation, my greatest
leader, Jesus took control of my life. Although the painful memories were still there, I was able
to forgive and move-on with my life.
When I stepped on campus of this particular HBCU, I had never seen so many African
Americans at one time. It was intimidating because I only remembered negative stories and
images about African American people and how they were prone to violence, especially among
each other. Upon my enrollment in the fall of 1987, I saw young people just like me striving for
the only equalizer for the Black community - education. My high school G.P.A. was a 2.7, and I
had no intentions of going to college; therefore, I took my grade point average for granted.
I had no knowledge of the SAT or ACT college entrance exams. In order to complete the
admissions process, I had to take the Texas Higher Education Assessment (THEA) and based
upon my scores in math, I needed some additional coursework. It didn‘t matter amount of
courses I needed to take because this university was giving me a chance to receive an education,
and I was grateful for the opportunity. The faculty at the university took me under their wings
and helped me navigate through the financial aid process and over time, I was the first and only
member of my immediate family who went to college and graduated.
As I took the educational route, I was happy to be free from the influence of the dominant

30. 18
culture. While attending the university, I saw African American males dressed in fine suits,
neatly groomed hair, articulating eloquent speech, and taking charge as leaders. Seeing Black
men in this light really excited me because I rarely saw such examples in my hometown and
definitely not in such abundance.
During my sophomore year in college, I entered and won a scholarship Pageant. This
event allowed me to represent my university on national television at The Miss Texas Pageant in
Fort Worth, Texas. My reign afforded me the opportunity to demonstrate my ability to lead and
serve the school community. My new role as one of the campus leaders meant the critical eye of
society would be upon me. This thought raised a level of self-awareness of the leader I was
attempting to become.
As previously mentioned, my strategy for overcoming social and economical oppression
was to become the first Black female ―Charley Pride‖ in Country/Western music. This was going
to be my ticket out of poverty and feelings of inferiority. So I began writing songs and recording
in studios with Mr. Fredrick V. Roberts, who later became my manager. While pursuing my
career and education, I served the university and various campus organizations with
performances for the next three years and still today. Mr. Roberts and I experienced racism in the
music industry whether in local country music and nationally-televised competitions.
My leadership opportunities were further advanced when I represented my university as
Miss Collegiate African American among twenty five HBCUs across the nation. Danny Glover
introduced my Country & Western performance who later invited me to perform for a celebrity
gala, where he offered me moral support. Danny Glover became a giant in my eyes on an
occasion in which he stepped-in to handle some miscommunication with my hotel reservations. I
was impressed at how expediently the situation was corrected; it was great witnessing Black

31. 19
leadership in action. That experience made me proud to see an African American man stand with
boldness and power in the midst of a Predominately White society. This encounter served as the
catalyst of my paradigm shift regarding African American male leadership.
These two pivotal moments of my history took me out of a small town which practiced
discrimination and racism, to a larger platform which instituted similar acts as well. I eventually
became discouraged in pursuing the music industry and focused my attention toward educating
young minds in the public education system and temporarily suspended my dreams of stardom.
During my educational pursuit at the doctoral level, I often wondered what obstacles or
racial barriers generations before me had to endure. If only I had a mentor who utilized certain
strategies in overcoming discrimination, perhaps I would have stood my ground in the pursuit of
my career goal. Providentially redirected from my goal as a Country/Western star, I chose to
enter the teaching profession. While working my way toward certification, I fell in love with the
idea of cultivating young minds and making a difference in the lives of children. By this time,
my husband and I started a network marketing business with about 100 business associates.
Although we didn‘t earn much money, we invested thousands of dollars into leadership
conferences, books, audio-tapes, and CDs on attitude, skills with people, and the art of
leadership. As a teacher, I was able to take the success principles from great authors such as
Napoleon Hill, Dale Carnegie, Les Giblin, Dennis Kimbro, Robert Schuller, Mason Weaver,
John Maxwell, and Frederick K. Price and transform my students from having a ―negative‖ self-
concept to having a ―positive‖ self-concept.
We rubbed shoulders with multi-millionaires who practiced the dynamics of leadership
within a network of thousands of people. The majority of the men who held the highest level of
leadership were White males and only few were African Americans. In fact, the majority of

32. 20
African American representations at leadership conferences were members of the African
American major leader‘s organizations.
My up-line leaders were predominately African American; the experience of learning
how to train and develop leaders was invaluable. As I observed these men, I sensed their sincere
desire to pass the torch of leadership to our generation. They were not afraid to talk about their
challenges and triumphs that allowed them to accomplish their goals as leaders of mega
organizations.
Although our marketing business gradually dissolved, 10 years of leadership experience
helped me to form a concept of what servant leadership was about. After my business ownership
experience, I began to focus more on education. I have worked at three different school districts
and have become quite disturbed in the lack of African American male teachers and leader
representation. As I sat in data disaggregation meetings with the superintendent of schools, it was
clear that the African American male population performed the lowest among all groups on state
mandated tests. I felt like a failure as a teacher in 4th grade because they were the students who
filled the in-school suspension room daily. I knew that our African American boys were in
trouble.
Similar to my experiences of growing up in a segregated town, a study by Fraizer (2009)
speaks of her life, set-backs, and triumphs in overcoming racial and gender barriers. Like me, the
researcher‘s father was a critical role-model and mentor in the development of her life. Her
father instilled within her as well, the idea of strong work ethics and the faith that she could set
her mind to accomplish anything as a child. However, as she began attending public schools, she
too began to feel the negative effect of the lack of African American male teachers and
administrators. Due to the absence of African American male role models, the researcher began

33. 21
to sense the air of inferiority that the dominate race was attempting to inflict upon her. The
author decided to attend an HBCU as well and developed the desire to help improve the lives of
African American male youth through education. In Green‘s (2009) study on African American
female executive leaders at HBCUs, African American women have been victims of racism, as
well as, gender bias. The participants of the study found that while obstacles such as the glass
ceiling and social injustices at HBCUs had a negative impact on their rise to power, they became
examples of success through resilience. In addition to funding issues among, the study found that
the major challenge of HBCUs was the lack of leadership and models of effective leadership. As
I have gone back to my Alma Mata after 20 years, I have observed that the face of leadership
scarcely changed. It appears that senior educational leaders at HBCUs have a need and
responsibility to recruit and train new leaders to fill their positions.
In 2007, I witnessed the appointment of the first Black superintendent for Hempstead
Independent School District. He challenged the district to change the direction of its African
American male population. I accepted his challenge by desiring to conduct a research study on
men who have experienced the challenges of living as an African American male in the United
States of America. I knew that I needed to find men who were experts in leadership, who had
overcome even greater barriers than generations to follow could imagine. This quest led me back
to my university, where I could now study the lives of men who understood what leadership was
all about in the face of adversity. My intention was to conduct a study that would reveal factors
that made these men resilient and perhaps utilize the information gleaned from the study to help
develop African American male leadership and demonstrate the phenomenon‘s relevance to
society.
I knew such models existed because I had known and watched great leaders give back to

34. 22
the university with years of service and contribution. The challenge of obtaining this information
would be their accessibility and willingness to share their lived experiences. , so, I wanted to
conduct a study that would chronicle the lives of these men and their contributions and influence
as African American male educational leaders at an HBCU for over thirty years .
Delimitations of the Study
For the purpose of this study, the researcher chose the following criterion for participant
selection: This study looked at seven African American male administrators, therefore
eliminating the experiences and contributions of African American female administrators. The
participants of the study have all served as educational leaders at a Southwestern HBCU.
In addition, the participants of the study are currently serving as a professor or
administrator at the university chosen for the study. The participants of the study have served the
HBCU for 30 or more years in the College of Education. Based on the criterion, seven African
American male educational leaders emerged as participants for the study.
Limitations
The study may include the following limitations: First, the participant‘s narrative
expressions may be limited to the researcher‘s ability to use strong and descriptive language in
order to accurately report the experience. Second, since the study and experiences are specific to
the participants in question, the reproduction of this study for a larger population with different
demographic and racial make-up could change the outcome. Third, since participants shared
experiences from the past, their expressions may be limited to their capacity to recollect
information. Fourth, the study depended upon the honest responses of the participants while
sharing their experiences. Fifth, since the four participants are actively serving as leaders or as
teachers, their availability was limited when scheduling interviews. Finally, the observational

35. 23
protocol asks for occupational information that could potentially reveal the participants identity.
The participants were given the liberty to answer or not answer any portion of the questionnaire.
Definition of Terms
Creswell (2008) distinguishes between qualitative and quantitative research. Quantitative
research definition of key terms is listed as a critical component of the format, whereas with
qualitative research, key terms derive as the study progresses. A general definition of key terms
will be used until further terms develop throughout the study.
For the purpose of the study, the following terms will be used:
 African American-A person having origins in any of the Black racial groups of Africa. It
includes people who indicate their race as ―Black, African American, or Negro,‖ or provide
written entries such as African American, Afro American, Kenyan, Nigerian, or Haitian (U.S.
Census Bureau, 2001).
 Educational Leadership- the office or position of a leader (www.merriam-webster.com). An
operational definition (Creswell, 2008; Fraenkel & Wallen, 2006) would include the effective
use of human and financial resources by an educational administrator, through a spirit of
teamwork, toward the mission of the school.
 Historically Black College and University - any college or university that was established
prior to 1964, whose principal mission was, and is, the education of Black Americans
(Higher Education Act of 1965).
 Predominately White Institution (PWI) - ―the term used to describe institutions of higher
learning in which Whites account for 50% or greater of the student enrollment.‖ (Lomotey,
2009, p.523).
 Hermeneutic Phenomenology - ―a descriptive methodology attentive to how things appear

36. 24
and wants to let things speak for themselves; it is interpretive (hermeneutic) methodology
because lived experiences are always already meaningfully experienced‖ (Manen, 1990,
p.180).
 Leadership style - ―how a leader confronts himself or herself, perceives their environment,
and acts upon their worldview‖ (Barber, 1985, p. 37).
 Mentor - a trusted friend or guide (http://merriam-webster.com/dictionary/mentor).
Organization of the Study
Chapter one details the problem, need, and significance of the study; identifies Critical
Race, Resiliency, and Mentorship theories referenced in the study; and provides a summary of
the chapters. Chapter two provides a review of related literature. Chapter three describes the
methodology and rationale of the study. The researcher provides an analysis of the data, the
researcher‘s role, and a summary. Chapter four presents an analysis of the data. Chapter five
culminates with the summary, conclusions, and recommendations for further research.

37. Chapter II
Literature Review
In order to understand the phenomenon of African American male leadership, it is
important to understand their history as a people. The aftermath of slavery, racism, and
inequality has left a negative impact on the plight of African American males at the educational,
social, and political levels (Woodson, 2005). It is important to note that these risk factors have
significantly decreased the pool of African American males as future leaders in society (Eatman,
2000; Green, 2001; Wiley, 2001). Racism and inequality has had a major impact on African
Americans and continues to affect many aspects of their lives.
The literature review will begin with the history of Black education in the South. The rise
and significance of Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCU) have led to the
establishment of African American male leaders at the national level. Leadership styles of
African American men will be discussed in addition to their barriers in higher education. This
chapter will also discuss the significance of mentorship for future generations of African
American males and discuss critical race and resilience theories. The chapter will conclude by
identifying risk factors that potentially threaten African American males.
History of Black Education in the South
Unlike Predominately White Institutions (PWI) in the Northern region of America,
HBCUs grew out of the aftermath of the Civil War from 1860-1865 (Allen & Jewel, 2002). The
dawn of slavery gave rise to the birth of education for African Americans, who since their arrival
to southern plantations were denied access to education. From the freedman‘s perspective,
education held the keys to political, economical, and social mobility. Violation of the laws to
read and write resulted in negative and sometimes fatal consequences (―Slavery and the Civil
25

38. 26
War,‖ 2009).
No matter how challenging slave masters made the acquisition of education, slaves found
creative ways to possess the coveted ability to read and write. Before, and certainly after the
Civil War, slaves in the South demonstrated their bold desire for education by setting-up their
own churches and informal schools. Many slaves were educated through the telling of stories,
singing of songs, and gospel messages by religious leaders in the community (―Slavery and the
Civil War,‖ 2009).
The Rise and Significance of the HBCU
According to Woolfolk (1986), the fall of slavery led to the establishment of schools for
young newly freed slaves. In less than a decade, over 100 schools for people of color were
established. The majority were day schools, while some serviced students at night. These schools
were heavily underfunded and lacked adequate facilities for teaching, but nevertheless, African
American male leaders (with the help of state government, philanthropists, and White religious
groups) demonstrated resilience in managing to keep school doors open for business in the Black
community (Allen & Jewel, 2002). It was within the walls of HBCUs that African Americans
found a degree of solace. HBCUs focused on preparing young African Americans for education
and a successful transition into society.
In 1878, the first public HBCU was established in Southwest Texas. The Alta Vista
Normal College for Negroes became the first Black public school for freed slaves. The school
was built upon the ruins of a slave plantation owned by Jared and Helen Kirby in Waller County
in 1876. Many public schools of Higher Education in the South became training grounds for
teachers who served in the field teaching uneducated former slaves (Woolfolk, 1986). According
to Bennett and Xie (2003), HBCUs were an answer to the racial reprise that African Americans

39. 27
were inferior to Whites; therefore, Blacks were excluded from PWIs.
In Schexnider‘s (2008) article on the significance and survival of HBCUs, the sustaining
of African American male youth is critical in the pursuit of exceptional talent for further leaders
in education. The article stated the historical inequalities between PWIs and HBCUs. Although
Black schools were considered inferior in terms of building and financial support, school leaders
were diligent in keeping the doors open to the Black community (Jackson, 2007; Woolfolk,
1986). The Black community valued education and believed it served as a path to overcoming
political, economical, and social inequality.
HBCUs were responsible for the rise of national leaders such as W. E. B. DuBois,
Booker T. Washington, and Dr. Martin Luther King. In Benett and Xie‘s (2003) study on the role
of HBCUs in education, collective data showed that HBCUs accounted for a significant number
of college degrees awarded to African American students than other institutions. The research
further asserts that African American students preferred HBCUs over PWIs because Black
universities had a more nurturing environment, which made them to feel connected to the
university. Students also felt the faculty and staff were more supportive at HBCUs by providing
academic and financial assistance (Bennett & Xie, 2003).
Carter‘s (2010) study investigated the engagement of White undergraduate students at an
HBCU. The qualitative study explored the experiences of 22 White undergraduate students
attending two HBCUs in the southeastern and mid-Atlantic region of the United States. The
study revealed that staff-student interactions, faculty-student interactions, co-curricular
activities/university programs, and prior diversity experience were factors that contributed to
White students‘ growth and engagement at an HBCU.
Black Colleges and Universities have historically served as institutions that have

40. 28
recruited, nurtured, and retained African American students and leaders. Bennett and Xie (2003)
argue that HBCUs have greater success in nurturing students through race pride, the value of
African American history, and social interactions among the school community. HBCUs have
made contributions to American Education by producing a large professional workforce and
advocates for the cause of racial equity for minorities (Bennett & Xie, 2003).
Critical Moments in African American History
Black Leaders and Politics
In the late 1800s, the poor economical plight of Blacks in the South did not victimize all.
There were remnants of Blacks who rose to power and leadership in spite of laws that worked
against them. According to DuBois (1903/2003), leadership had to come from Blacks themselves
because they felt their White counterparts did not have their best interest in mind. During the
50s, emerging Black leaders needed the power of the ballot in order to make political changes for
their race.
DuBois (1903/2003) further purported that the Black vote became a threat to the North
and South, therefore, the ignorant, as well as many of the established Blacks, were deterred from
exercising their right to vote. In the final analysis, Blacks viewed politics as a vice for personal
gain by those who participated. As a result of non-participation in politics, Blacks became
victims of dehumanization with no protection under the law.
From 1876 to 1965, the Jim Crow Laws were mandated as local and state laws across the
United States. These laws were designed to create artificial separation between Blacks and
Whites, especially in the South. Blacks were disadvantaged at the political, economical,
educational, and social levels. Civil rights and civil liberties were also denied to Blacks. In the
Brown vs. Board of Education in 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled segregation

41. 29
unconstitutional and the Jim Crow Laws were dismantled by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and
the Voting Rights Act of 1965 (DuBois, 1903/2003; Harper, 2008; Woodson, 1933/2005).
The Jim Crow Laws and Segregation
The Jim Crow Laws were designed to reinforce political, economical, and social
suppression among African Americans (Woodson, 1933/2005). In the face of challenges and
adversity experienced by African Americans, some have developed the mental fortitude to rise
above temporary setbacks. DuBois (1903/2003) and Woodson (1933/2005) articulated that while
segregation was prevalent throughout the South, soldiers of the United States Army (through
World War 1) were segregated as well. African American males played supportive roles in the
army, but most did not see combat.
The Black Power and Civil Rights Movements
The Black Power Movement of the 1960s and the Civil Rights Movement became two
critical moments in African American history and leadership. In the fight for an end to racism
and the quest for equality, the Black Power Movement took a militant approach to assuage the
problem of African Americans living in America. Their political ideology involved race pride,
political and cultural institutions, and Black interests. The movement sought to separate African
Americans from the mainstream and build a self-sufficient race (Herton, 1996).
The Civil Rights Movement has had a long history in the United States. The movement,
though mostly fought through non-violence, opened the door to social and legal acceptance for
African Americans. It also exposed the existence and price of racism in American history. The
Civil Rights Movement refers to the political struggles and the need for reformation for African
Americans between 1945 and 1970. The movement‘s purpose was to end discrimination
experienced by disadvantaged groups in America. The key players in the movement were the

42. 30
Black church and its focal leader, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Although the movement caused the
death of Dr. King, it provided marginalized groups access to civil rights (―Biographical Profiles,‖
2010).
The Black Family and Community
During slavery, it was not uncommon for slaves to be separated from family members.
As slavery ended, many longed to reunite and find displaced members of their families.
According to DuBois (1903/2003), the separation of male slaves from their households left
single mothers the burden of leadership in a paternalistic society. African American family and
community considered strong family bonds, great respect for elders, and the acceptance of others
as a major part of their value system. The family structure gradually deteriorated due to poverty
and the lack of education.
Chessson‘s (2009) study was conducted to gain more insight on how pre-collegiate and
collegiate experiences of African-American males affect their pursuit of higher education. The
study focused on the impact of critical variables such as high school counselors, teachers, student
involvement, faculty members, and mentors played in the college success of African-American
males. Emerging themes included participation and precollegiate leadership programs, relating
and associating with other successful African-American males, building report and social
networks.
Segregation became a social tool that brought the African American community together.
The African American community has been pivotal in the development of the African American
culture (Woodson, 1933/2005). Although African American communities suffer with poor
housing, inadequate schools, and less law enforcement protection, the Black church was its
nucleus. DuBois (1903/2003) confirmed that the religious growth of millions of male slaves

43. 31
contributed to the rise of the Baptist and Methodist faiths. It appears that the nature of the
African American struggle has set Black churches as a cornerstone of spirituality for African
Americans who experience racism and inequality.
Mitchell (2010) explored the influence of community, institutions, and personal
background had on African American administrators serving at Western Interstate Commission
for Higher Education (WICHE). The role of ethnicity as it related to career development,
recruitment and retainment of African American administrators divulged several themes that
were critical to African American leaders such as job opportunity, strong support groups,
community, and family upbringing.
The Rise of African American Leadership and National Leaders
Strong and effective leadership is imperative to any organization that desires to remain
competitive in a global society. Research cannot deny that disparities among racial groups exist.
Berry (2001) asserts that organizational and societal factors such as income, education, and
occupation, health, and environment impact the quality of life for an individual. The researcher
further argues that leaders who are democratic, nurturing, and culturally sensitive create a
climate that is conducive for racial diversity in leadership (Berry, 2001).
In spite of fierce opposition, there were those of the African American community who
would rise from the ashes. Although the United States has had a history of racial discrimination
and inequality, these barriers did not silence the voice of pivotal African American leaders.
Through a militant and a persistent faith, Black leaders began to rise and define leadership styles
that served as guides in how the African community would respond to social injustices in
mainstream society (DuBois, 1903/2003; Woodson, 1933/2005).
Boswell (2010) conducted a study to determine the lack of African-American male

44. 32
educators in the teaching profession from grades K to 12. The study revealed that African
American males who always had the desire to teach early in life came from the influence of close
family ties and teachers. Other participants entered the teaching profession because of the need
for employment and job stability. Regardless of the reasons for choosing teaching as a
profession, a passion to touch the lives of students was ignited. The recommendation was that
African American males should give the teaching profession serious consideration.
Walker (2007) explored how the lived experiences of 12 African-American community
college leaders exercised their leadership and service to their campuses. The study revealed that
participant actively sought to climb the educational ladder, utilized social and academic
knowledge to enhance their leadership skills, were active in public organizations, and worked
closely with a mentor for career advancement. Findings revealed that African-American male
leadership was relevant in that they promoted equity, improved academic performance for
minorities, destroyed negative stereotyping, and served as role models to African-American male
youth.
Berry (2008) explored the lived experiences of three African-American female
elementary principles and their leadership style that helped create and sustain academic
excellence among minority students. The study divulged spirituality as the foundation for the
participants‘ career achievement as educational administrators. Each participant exercised their
leadership philosophy in the form of service to their respective campuses with the express
purpose of promoting social, emotional, and academic success. The service of the participants of
the study deemed them not only as leaders of their campuses but as motherly figures to
underrepresented populations. Their leadership was demonstrative of the love for God and
humanity. Recommendations included: studies on the example of spiritual males, various ethnic

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groups, and secondary principles.
Leadership Styles of African American Men
During the Antebellum, Civil War, Reconstruction, and Civil Rights Eras, African
American male leaders took different approaches as to how they would respond to the harsh
treatment of the American society. Some leaders chose the militant or non-violence approach,
while others promoted nationalism.
Frederick Douglass
In ―Biographical Profiles‖ (2010), Fredrick Douglass was an activist, who spoke-out
against racism and discrimination. Douglass was born around 1817 and was acclaimed as the
first African American leader in United States history. Frederick Douglass was raised by a single
mother around 1817; he never knew his father. Through his literary work, he characterized his
life as a slave, as one filled with hard work, family detachment, and incredulous inhumanity.
Despite the push to withhold education from slaves, Frederick Douglass practically educated
himself. His resilience not only spread through his quest for education, but through his longing
for freedom as well (―Biographical Profiles,‖ 2010).
Upon several attempts to escape, he disguised himself as an American sailor, and married
a free African American woman from the South while in New York. Douglass finally purchased
his freedom and traveled to England to expose the cruelty of slavery through speaking and
writing. Douglass‘ political activism awarded him the title of the unofficial spokesperson for the
African American community. During the Civil War, he was asked by President Lincoln to help
recruit Black soldiers into the army. His courage to speak-out against racism and discrimination
against Black soldiers influenced the decisions of Lincoln, who provided better treatment on
their behalf. Douglass displayed a charismatic and servant leadership style in that he was a

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powerful orator who spoke for the rights of people of color, as well as women. Frederick
Douglass continued to fight for the rights of his people until his death in 1895 (―Biographical
Profiles,‖ 2010).
Henry Highland Garnet
In direct opposition to Frederick Douglass‘ leadership style, was his contemporary,
Henry Highland Garnet. In ―Biographical Profiles‖ (2010), Henry Garnet was born in 1815-1882
to the Garnet family. Garnet‘s parents were slaves but eventually escaped to Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania where they were later separated. Garnet, considered an activist and great orator as
well, advocated slave rebellion and emancipation through militant abolitionism. He urged Blacks
to take action against social injustice through politics and claim their own destiny, even if it
meant by force. Garnet‘s form of leadership style caused tension between him and Douglass,
which developed into political debates. Garnet also formed the idea of Black emigration out of
America and into Mexico, Liberia, and the West Indies. Although Garnet gained some political
influence in America, the movement lost momentum. He died and was buried in Liberia
(―Biographical Profiles,‖ 2010).
Marcus Garvey
According to ―Marcus Garvey Biography‖ (2010), Garvey was born in 1887 in St.
Anna‘s Bay, Jamaica. His leadership style began as a result of the influence of African
nationalism, which contested that African Americans should establish their own states and
political power by leaving America in place of safer havens. Garvey‘s father had a tremendous
influence on him. Upon leaving the printing business in Jamaica, Garvey came to America. The
racial tension that Garvey experienced inspired him to join the fight by speaking openly against
racism; his passion for equality ignited a spark in the African American community. In 1914, he

47. 35
formed two organizations and a newspaper that spread throughout the world regarding the
injustices experienced by Blacks. Garvey advocated for the Black Nationalism and the return
back to Africa. He encouraged African Americans to enterprise and build social and political
clout (―Marcus Garvey Biography,‖ 2010).
After a bad business deal, Garvey was imprisoned then shipped back to Jamaica. Garvey
had a strong spiritual connection with God. He was married twice and fathered two sons. His
legacy included various Black symbols, a forerunner of liberation and nationalism among
African American youth (―Marcus Garvey Biography,‖ 2010).
The two most influential African American male educational leaders of the late 19th and
early 20th Centuries were Booker T. Washington and W. E. B. DuBois. According to the
―Biographical Profiles‖ (2010), both men graduated from HBCUs and were highly respected
among the African American community. Washington‘s influence afforded him the job as the
principal of Tuskegee Institute while W. E. B. DuBois‘ scholarship on the lived experiences of
African Americans in the United States gained national attention.
Booker T. Washington
Booker T. Washington was raised by a single mother. His father was a slave owner of a
nearby plantation. While growing-up, Washington desired education so much that he worked as
a janitor for room and board. After receiving his degree, he began teaching at Hampton
University (―Biographical Profiles,‖ 2010).
DuBois (2003) described Washington‘s leadership style as the politics of accommodation,
which suggested that African Americans should not rush to demand their rights fresh out of
slavery, but should demonstrate their usefulness to White America through strong work ethics.
While Washington publicly endorsed White supremacy, he secretly funded activities which

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spoke against it. Washington‘s charisma was so convincing that White Northerners and
Southerners named him the official spokesperson for the Black community (―Biographical
Profiles,‖ 2010). This title opened political opportunities and power for Washington among
White political meetings. His subservient behavior, however, was ridiculed by W. E. B. DuBois.
These two prolific leaders were polar opposites on how to address inequality and which
curriculum would best serve the African American community.
According to Woolfolk (1986), DuBois favored a Liberal Arts curriculum for the
freedman, while Washington advocated a curriculum which would train students for
industrialism (Woodson, 2005). In the ―Biographical Profiles‖ (2010), Booker T. Washington
advocated that African Americans could acquire constitutional rights by their own efforts
through industry rather than politics. Washington refrained from creating friction and unrest
among the African American community, which earned him the name ―The Great
Accommodator.‖ According to DuBois (1903/2003) and Kritsonis (2002), the hardships of
lynching, segregation, and the Jim Crow Laws, compelled Washington to secretly help finance
activists fight against equality. Washington‘s legacy includes educational programs for rural
extension work and the development of the National Negro Business League. In 1901, Booker T.
Washington received an Honorary Doctorate degree from Harvard University.
William Edward Burghardt DuBois
In ―Biographical Profiles‖ (2010), William Edward Burghardt DuBois lived from 1868 to
1963 and was deemed the most important Black intellect of the 20th Century. DuBois earned his
B.A. degree at Fisk University in Nashville, Tennessee and became the first Black to receive a
PhD at Harvard University. DuBois was very controversial in the injustices and unequal
treatment of African Americans. He advocated for African Americans and spoke-out against