1. EXAMINATION QUESTIONS IN HISTOLOGY, EMBRYOLOGY, CYTOLOGY
FOR 2nd YEAR GENERAL MEDICINE FACULTY
I. Introduction
1. Role of histology, cytology and embryology in the medical education. Development of histology as a
science. Foundation of the first departments of Histology in the Russian medical Schools in the 19th
century. Development of histological science in the 20th
century. Modern trends of progress of medical
histology.
2. Definition of histology, its objectives: objectives and methods. Light microscopy and its modifications.
Electron microscopy and its types. Special histological methods: histochemistry including
immunohistochemistry and electron histochemistry, radioautography, in situ. hybridization, tissue
culture, vital staining, etc.
II. Cytology
3. Definition and objectives of cytology, its role in medicine. Cell as a basic structural and functional unit
of all multicellular organisms. Modern provisions of cell theory. General structure of eukariotic cell.
4. Biological membranes, their structure and function. Fluid mosaic model of cell membrane. Plasma
membrane, structure and functions. Intercellular junctions, their types and characteristics.
5. Nucleus, its structural and functional characteristics. Main components of the nucleus.
Nuclear/Cytoplasmic ratio, its functional signiicance.
6. Cytoplasm. General morphological and functional characteristics. Classification and structure of cell
organelles. Membranous and non-membranous organelles. General and special organelles. Cytoskeleton
and its components.
7. Inclusions, classification, chemical and morphofunctional characteristic. Cytoplasmic matrix.
8. Cell cycle: stages, morphofunctional characteristic. Mitotic cycle. Meiosis.
III. General histology
9. Tissue level of structural and functional organization, level as a level of organization. Definition of
tissue. Development and classification of tissues. Tissue regeneration and modification. Differon (cell
lineage). Significance of histology for medicine.
10. Epithelial tissue. Morphofunctional characteristics. Classification. Characteristics of epithelial tissue
types. Basement membrane. Cell surface modifications. Junctional complex. Epithelial cell renewal.
11. Surface epithelium. Structural and functional characteristics. Regeneration. Age-related changes.
12. Glands, definition and classifications. Exocrine glands, their types. Secretory cycle, phases and their
characteristics.
13. Blood and lymph mesenchymal tissues. Blood cells. Blood cell count.
14. Red blood cells (erythrocytes). Structure, size, shape, function, life span.
15. White blood cells. Classification, structure, functions, life span. Granular and agranular leucocytes. T-
and B-lymphocytes, their role in the immune response.
16. Platelets, their origin, structure, functions, count, life span.
17. Hematopoiesis. Embryonic and fetal hematopoiesis. Posnatal hematopoesis. Stem cells. Colony-forming
units. Lymphocytopoiesis.
18. Morphofunctional characteristics and classification of connective tissue. Connective tissue cells and
extracellular matrix. Ground substance and fibers. Macrophageal system.
19. Connective tissue proper. Connective tissue with special properties. Histophysiology.
20. Supporting tissues. Cartilage. Morphological characteristics and classification. Development, structure,
functions, histogenesis and growth of cartilage. Cartilage repair.
21. Bone tissue. Morphofunctional characteristics and classification. Bone cells and extracellular matrix.
Haversian system. Bone formation (intramembranous and endochondral ossification). Bone growth and
remodeling. Fracture repair.
22. Muscle tissue. General morphofunctional characteristics. Classification and origin. Smooth muscle
tissue: development, structure and functions. Contraction and its control.
23. Striated skeletal muscle. Development, structure and innervation. Repair. Molecular biology of
contraction of skeletal muscle.
24. Cardiac muscle: structural and functional characteristics, embryonic development. Contraction.
25. Nervous tissue: morphofunctional characteristics. Embryonic development. Neuroglia. Classification.
Structure and functions of glial cells.
26. Nerve cell as a structural and functional unit of the nervous system. Classification of neurons. Structure
and functions of neurons.

2. 27. Nerve fibers. Structural and functional characteristic of myelinated and unmyelinated nerve fibers.
Histogenesis and regeneration.
28. Synapses. Classification, structure. Chemical synapse transmission. Nerve endings, classification.
Receptors and effectors.
IV. Microscopic anatomy
29. Morphofunctional characteristic of nervous system. The embryonic development of the nervous system.
Classification.
30. Peripheral nervous system. Peripheral nerve. Structure and regeneration. Spinal ganglia, structure and
functions.
31. Central nervous system. Spinal cord. Morphofunctional characteristics. Development. Structure of the
gray and the white matter. Neurons of spinal cord. Motor and sensory tracts of spinal cord.
32. Brain. Development. General characteristics of the cerebral cortex. Neurons of the cerebral cortex.
Myeloarchitectonics of the cerebral cortex (cortical afferent and efferent fibers). Age-related change of
the cerebral cortex.
33. Cerebellum. Structure and morphofunctional characteristics. Neurons of cerebellar cortex, glial cells.
Interneuronic contacts.
34. Sense organs. Classification of the sense organs. General morphofunctional characteristics. Olfactory
organ and gustatory apparatus. Taste buds: structure and functions.
35. Eye. Morphofunctional characteristics. Development of the eye. General structure of the eye.
36. Еаг. Structure and functions of the vestibular system. Structure and functions of the auditory system.
37. The general morphofunctional characteristic of the cardiovascular system. Classification of the vessels.
Development of the vessels. General features of arteries and veins.
38. Arteries, morphofunctional characteristics. Classification, development, structure, functions. Age-related
change of the arteries.
39. Veins: structure, functions, age-related changes.
40. The vessels of microcirculatory bed. Morphofunctional characteristic. Classification of the capillaries.
Correlation of structure and function. Blood-tissue barrier.
41. Lymphatic vessels. Morphofunctional characteristics and origin. Structure and functions of the lymphatic
capillaries, vessels and ducts.
42. The heart. The general morphofunctional characteristics. Development of heart. The structure of the wall
of the heart atrium and the heart ventricle. Congenital malformations of the heart and large vessels. The
structure of the heart valves. Blood supply, innervations, regeneration. Age-related changes of the heart.
43. Histophysiology of the impulse-conducting system of the heart.
44. The morphofunctional characteristics of the immune system and its components. Classification and
characteristics of the immunocompetent cells and their interaction in the immune reactions (cell-
mediated immune response and humoral response). Features of T-and B-lymphocytes.
45. Lymphoid organs. Central and peripheral immune organs. Central immune organs, their development,
structure and functions. Bone marrow as a central organ of the immune system and its role in B-
lymphopoiesis.
46. Structure of the red bone marrow. Characteristics of hematopoiesis after birth. B-lymphocytes, their
types, antigen-independent and antigen-dependent proliferation and differentiation of B-lymphocytes.
Comparative charactristics of T- and B-lymphocytes.
47. Thymus. Structure and development. Interaction between stromal, epithelial and hematopoietic
components. Age-related and accidental involution of thymus.
48. Lymph nodes: development, structure and functions. Age-relative changes.
49. Spleen: development, structure, functions. Vascularization, pre- and postnatal hematopoiesis in the
spleen. T- and B-dependent zones. Interaction of stromal and hematopoietic components.
50. Morphofunctional characteristics of the endocrine system. Classification of the endocrine organs. Central
and peripheral endocrine glands.
51. Target cells and receptors for the hormones.
52. Hypothalamo-hypophyseal system. Hypothalamus, morphofunctional characteristics. Neuro secretory
neurons. Control of hypothalamic functions. Epithalamo-epiphyseal system.
53. Hypophysis (pituitary gland). Structure, development and function. Adenohypophysis and
neurohypophysis. Cells and their regulatory functions.
54. Pineal gland: structure and functions. The cells of APUD-system, their functions and characteristics.
55. Thyroid gland. Morphofunctional characteristics. Development. Structure. Functions. The synthesis,
storage and release of thyroid hormones.
56. Parathyroid glands. Development, structure and functions. Calcium homeostasis-regulating cells and

3. glands.
57. Adrenal (suprarenal) glands. Development. Structure of the adrenal cortex and medulla. The functions of
the adrenal glands and their regulation. Age-related change.
58. Alimentary tract: structure and functions, nerve and blood supply. Development and morphofunctional
characteristics of the layers of the alimentary tract walls. Endocrine and lymphoid apparatus of the
alimentary tract.
59. Oral cavity. The general morphofunctional characteristics, development. Mucosa of the oral cavity.
Salivary glands: development, structure.
60. Tongue, development, structure, functions, anomalies of the development. Tonsils: development,
structure, functions. The malformations of the organs of the oral cavity.
61. Teeth: development, structure, regeneration, age-related changes.
62. Esophagus: development and structure. The anomalies of structure. Age- related changes.
63. Stomach. Morphofunctional characteristics. Development. Anomalies. Structure of different parts.
Structure of the gastric glands. Blood and nerve supply.
64. Small intestine. Development, anomalies. General morphofunctional characteristics. Villus-crypt system.
65. Large intestine. Development and histophysiology. Appendix. Age-related changes.
66. Pancreas. General morphofunctional characteristics. Development, structure of an exocrine and
endocrine parts. Age-related changes.
67. Liver. General morphofunctional characteristic. Development. Structural organization of the liver. Liver
lobules: the classic hepatic lobule, the portal lobule, the liver acinus. Gallbladder, structure and
functions.
68. Respiratory system. Morphofunctional characteristics. The conducting portion of the respiratory system.
Development. Anomalies. Structure and functions of trachea and bronchi.
69. Lungs. Morphofunctional characteristic. Development. Anomalies. Structure of the conducting and
respiratory portions. The air-blood barrier. Blood supply of lungs.
70. Integumentary system. Skin, structure and functions. Development. Blood and nerve supply of the skin.
Regeneration of skin. Skin appendages (hair, glands, nails).
71. Urinary system and its morphofunctional characteristics. Kidney: development, anomalies, structure
(cortex and medulla). Renal corpuscle. Filtration barrier. The nephron as the structural and functional
unit of the kidney. Types of nephrons. Endocrine functions of kidney. Blood supply.
72. Ureter, urinary bladder, urethra. Development, structure, congenital mulformations, innervations, blood
supply.
73. Male reproductive system. Morphofunctional characteristics of testis. Development, structure, functions.
Spermatogenesis and its regulations. The blood-testis barrier.
74. Excretory ducts and accessory sex glands of male reproductive system. Epididymis, seminal vesicles,
prostate gland. Anomalies, age-related changes.
75. Female reproductive system. Development, structure, functions of the ovaries. Age-related changes.
Ovarian cycle and its hormonal regulation.
76. Oviduct, uterus, vagina. Development, anomalies. Structure and functions. Menstrual cycle, its
regulation. Age-related changes.
V. Embryology
77. Male and female gametes. Spermatogenesis and oogenesis: comparative characteristics.
78. Fertilization. Zygote, structure. Cleavage. Structure of human's blastocyst. Implantation. Implantation
sites.
79. Early embryogenesis. Gastralation and its significance. Formation of the germ layers. Human
development in the 2nd
and 3rd
weeks.
80. Germ layers: development and differentiation. Mesoderm and its derivatives. Ectoderm and its
derivatives. Endoderm and its derivatives.
81. Development of the axial complex in the human embryo. Critical periods of embryonic development,
influence of exogenous and endogenous factors. Progenitor organs and fetal membranes.
82. Histogenesis and organogenesis. The fourth to eight weeks of human development.
83. Fetal period of prenatal development. The ninth to thirty-eight weeks of human development.
84. Development of organ systems in the human embryo/fetus. Postnatal development and its stages.
85. Human placenta: structure and function at various stages of gestation. Placental circulation. Placental
barrier and its significance.

4. LIST OF THE HISTOLOGICAL SLIDES FOR THE EXAMINATION
IN HISTOLOGY, EMBRYOLOGY, CYTOLOGY
Cytology
1. Golgi apparatus. Silver impregnation.
2. Centrioles (cytocenter). Iron hematoxylin.
3. Brush border in the epithelium (small intestine). H & E.
4. Cilia in the epithelium (trachea). H & E.
5. Inclusions of glycogen (liver). Best’s Carmine & hematoxylin.
6. Lipid droplets (liver). Osmium impegnation.
7. Cellular pigment: melanin (skin). Unstained.
8. Multinucleated muscle fibers (skeletal muscle of the tongue). Iron hematoxylin.
9. Fibrous extracellular matrix (dense connective tissue of the skin). Van Gieson's Stain.
10. Ground substance (loose connective tissue of the skin). Van Gieson's Stain.
11. Mitosis. Hematoxylin.
Embryology
12. Spermatozoa (smear). Hematoxylin.
13. Oocyte (ovary). H & E.
14. Development of the axial organs in the chicken embryo (neural tube, notochord, somites). Hematoxylin.
15. Lateral and amniotic folding in the chicken embryo, 24 hours of incubation. Hematoxylin.
16. Fetal placenta. H & E.
17. Maternal placenta. H & E.
18. Sagittal section of the rat embryo. H & E.
19. Umbilical cord. H & E.
Histology
20. Simple squamous epithelium (mesothelium of the peritoneum). Silver impregnation & hematoxylin.
21. Simple columnar epithelium with a brush border (small intestine). H & E.
22. Simple cuboidal epithelium of the renal medulla (kidney). H & E.
23. Pseudostratified ciliated epithelium (trachea). H & E.
24. Transitional epithelium (urinary bladder). H & E.
25. Stratified squamous nonkeratinized epithelium (esophagus). H & E.
26. Stratified squamous keratinized epithelium (thick skin). H & E.
27. Compound branched tubulo-alveolar gland (mammary gland). H & E.
28. Simple unbranched tubular branch (uterus). H & E.
29. Simple branched alveolar gland (eyelid). H & E.
30. Blood smear. Azure II - eosin.
31. Smear of red bone marrow. Azure II-eosin.
32. Loose connective tissue. Hematoxylin.
33. Reticular tissue (lymph node). H & E.
34. Dense irregular connective tissue (thick skin). H & E.
35. Dense regular connective tissue (tendon, longitudinal section). H & E.
36. Hyaline cartilage. H & E.
37. Elastic cartilage. Orcein.
38. Fibrocartilage of the intervertebral disc. H & E.
39. Lamellar bone (transverse section of the decalcified long bone). Schmorl’s stain.
40. Intramembranous osteogenesis. H & E.
41. Enchondral osteogenesis. H & E.
42. Smooth muscle tissue (urinary bladder). H & E.
43. Striated skeletal muscle (tongue). Iron hematoxylin.
44. Striated cardiac muscle. Iron hematoxylin.
45. Nissl’s bodies in the nerve cells (spinal cord or ganglion). Tyonine.
46. Myelinated nerve fibers. Silver impregnation.
47. Unmyelinated nerve fibers. H & E.

5. Microscopic anatomy
48. Nerve (transverse section). H & E.
49. Spinal ganglion. H & E.
50. Spinal cord. Silver impregnation.
51. Cerebral cortex. Silver impregnation.
52. Cerebellum. Silver impregnation.
53. Anterior wall of the eye (eyeball, cornea). H & E.
54. Retina on the light & in the dark. H & E.
55. Posterior wall of the eye. H & E.
56. Organ of Corti. Axial section of the cochlea. H & E.
57. Taste buds. Foliate papillae of the tongue. H & E.
58. Arterioles, capillaries and venules of the pia mater. H & E.
59. Aorta. Orcein.
60. Artery of the muscular type. H & E.
61. Vein. H & E.
62. Purkije fibers in the heart ventricle. H & E.
63. Lymph node. H & E.
64. Spleen. H & E.
65. Thymus. H & E.
66. Pituitary gland. H &E.
67. Thyroid gland. H & E.
68. Parathyroid gland. H & E.
69. Adrenal gland. H & E. or Iron hematoxylin.
70. Thick skin (palm). H & E.
71. Thin skin with hair (longitudinal section). H & E.
72. Trachea. H & E.
73. Lung. H & E.
74. Tooth.
75. Tooth development (differentiation of a tooth bud – cap stage). H & E.
76. Tooth development (histogenesis, formation of enamel and dentin – bell stage). H & E.
77. Lip. H & E.
78. Filiform papillae of the tongue. H & E.
79. Palatine tonsil. H & E.
80. Parotid gland. H & E.
81. Mixed salivary gland (submandibular or sublingual gland). H & E.
82. Esophagus. H & E.
83. Gastro-esophageal junction. H & E.
84. Stomach. Fundus. Congo Red & Hematoxylin.
85. Stomach. Pylorus. H & E.
86. Duodenum. H & E.
87. Jejunum. H & E.
88. Large intestine. H & E.
89. Appendix. H & E.
90. Liver. H & E.
91. Pancreas. H & E.
92. Kidney. H & E.
93. Ureter. H & E.
94. Urinary bladder. H & E.
95. Testis. H & E.
96. Prostate. H & E.
97. Ovary. H & E.
98. Oviduct. H & E.
99. Uterus. H & E.
100. Mammary gland (lactating). H & E.

6. LIST OF ELECTRON MICROPHOTOGRAPHS FOR THE EXAMINATION
IN HISTOLOGY, EMBRYOLOGY, CYTOLOGY
1. Nucleus, ТЕМ (here and below if not indicated otherwise).
2. Mitochondria.
3. Rough endoplasmatic reticulum.
4. Smooth endoplasmatic reticulum.
5. Metaphase.
6. Prophase.
7. Anaphase.
8. Centrioles (cell center).
9. Spermatids.
10.Spermatozoon.
11.Primary oocyte.
12.Sinusoidal capillary (SEM).
13.Fenestrated capillary.
14.T- and B-lymphocytes (SEM).
15.Striated skeletal muscle.
16.Cardiomyocytes with intercalated discs.
17.Synapses.
18.Myelinated nerve fiber.
19.Renal corpuscle.
20.Filter barrier.
21.Proximal convoluted tubule.
22.Gastric gland.
23.Chief cell of the stomach.
24.Pancreatic Acinus.
25.Ciliated cell.
26.Striated border of the small intestine.
27.Hepatocyte.
28.Respiratory portion of the lung. (SEM).
29.Air-Blood barrier.
30.Epidermis (stratum spongiosum).

7. LIST OF ELECTRON MICROPHOTOGRAPHS FOR THE EXAMINATION
IN HISTOLOGY, EMBRYOLOGY, CYTOLOGY
1. Nucleus, ТЕМ (here and below if not indicated otherwise).
2. Mitochondria.
3. Rough endoplasmatic reticulum.
4. Smooth endoplasmatic reticulum.
5. Metaphase.
6. Prophase.
7. Anaphase.
8. Centrioles (cell center).
9. Spermatids.
10.Spermatozoon.
11.Primary oocyte.
12.Sinusoidal capillary (SEM).
13.Fenestrated capillary.
14.T- and B-lymphocytes (SEM).
15.Striated skeletal muscle.
16.Cardiomyocytes with intercalated discs.
17.Synapses.
18.Myelinated nerve fiber.
19.Renal corpuscle.
20.Filter barrier.
21.Proximal convoluted tubule.
22.Gastric gland.
23.Chief cell of the stomach.
24.Pancreatic Acinus.
25.Ciliated cell.
26.Striated border of the small intestine.
27.Hepatocyte.
28.Respiratory portion of the lung. (SEM).
29.Air-Blood barrier.
30.Epidermis (stratum spongiosum).