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Type specific persistence of high risk human
papillomavirus (HPV) as indicator of high grade cervical
squamous intraepithelial lesions in young women:
population based prospective follow up study
Susanne K Kjaer, Adriaan J C van den Brule, Gerson Paull, Edith I Svare, Mark E Sherman,
Birthe L Thomsen, Mette Suntum, Johannes E Bock, Paul A Poll, Chris J L M Meijer



Abstract                                                    Introduction                                                Danish Cancer
                                                                                                                        Society, Institute of
                                                            Human papillomavirus (HPV) is one of the most com-          Cancer
Objectives To investigate the role of human                                                                             Epidemiology,
papillomavirus (HPV) in the development of cervical         mon sexually transmitted viruses. Although most             DK-2100
neoplasia in women with no previous cervical                infections are transient, the potential health implica-     Copenhagen,
                                                                                                                        Denmark
cytological abnormalities; whether the presence of          tions are obvious because HPV types 16 and 18 are
                                                                                                                        Susanne K Kjaer
virus DNA predicts development of squamous                  considered carcinogenic and other types (for example,       senior investigator
intraepithelial lesion; and whether the risk of incident    31, 33, 35, 39, 45, 52, 56, and 58) have an important       Edith I Svare
squamous intraepithelial lesions differs with repeated      role in cervical carcinogenesis.1                           senior research fellow
                                                                Most epidemiological evidence originates from           Birthe L Thomsen
detection of the same HPV type versus repeated                                                                          senior statistician
                                                            cross sectional studies with samples from women taken
detection of different types.                                                                                           Mette Suntum
                                                            after the cancer or the squamous intraepithelial lesion     statistician
Design Population based prospective cohort study.
                                                            was diagnosed. Only few prospective cohort studies          Department of
Setting General population in Copenhagen,
                                                            with reliable and sensitive methods for HPV testing         Pathology, Section
Denmark.                                                                                                                of Molecular
                                                            have assessed the risk of new development of cervical
Participants 10 758 women aged 20-29 years                                                                              Pathology,
                                                            neoplasia by using repeated measurements of genital         University Hospital
followed up for development of cervical cytological         HPV in their study design.2–6 Only in such studies can      Vrije Universiteit,
abnormalities; 370 incident cases were detected (40         the temporal association between exposure and               Amsterdam,
with atypical squamous cells of undetermined                                                                            Netherlands
                                                            outcome be evaluated and established. However, the          Adriaan J C van
significance, 165 with low grade squamous                   currently available studies included only a few women       den Brule
intraepithelial lesions, 165 with high grade squamous       with high grade squamous intraepithelial lesions.2–5        molecular biologist
intraepithelial lesions).                                                                                               Chris J L M Meijer
                                                                We carried out a prospective follow up study to
                                                                                                                        professor of pathology
Main outcome measures Results of cervical smear             investigate the role of HPV (detected on two occasions)
                                                                                                                        Department of
tests and cervical swabs at enrolment and at the            in the development of cervical neoplasia in women           Pathology and
second examination about two years later.                   who had no previous diagnosis of cytological                Laboratory
Results Compared with women who were negative               abnormalities. We examined whether the presence of          Medicine, Emory
                                                                                                                        University, Atlanta,
for human papillomavirus at enrolment, those with           viral DNA can predict development of lesions. We also       GA, USA
positive results had a significantly increased risk at      investigated the role of repeated detection of high         Gerson Paull
follow up of having atypical cells (odds ratio 3.2, 95%     compared with low risk types and repeated detection         assistant professor

confidence interval 1.3 to 7.9), low grade lesions (7.5,    of the same virus compared with different types.            Department of
                                                                                                                        Pathology, Johns
4.8 to 11.7), or high grade lesions (25.8, 15.3 to 43.6).                                                               Hopkins Medical
Similarly, women who were positive for HPV at the           Methods                                                     Institutions,
                                                                                                                        Baltimore, MD,
second examination had a strongly increased risk of                                                                     USA
low (34.3, 17.6 to 67.0) and high grade lesions (60.7,      We collected a random sample of 17 949 women aged
                                                                                                                        Mark E Sherman
25.5 to 144.0). For high grade lesions the risk was         20-29 years from the general population in Copenha-         senior research fellow
strongly increased if the same virus type was present       gen using the central personal registry. Every citizen in   continued over
at both examinations (813.0, 168.2 to 3229.2).              Denmark has a unique 10 digit identification number
                                                            (CPR number), which is universally used in the public       bmj.com 2002;325:572
Conclusions Infection with human papillomavirus
                                                            administration. These identification numbers, which
precedes the development of low and high grade
                                                            comprise information on sex and date of birth, are
squamous intraepithelial lesions. For high grade
                                                            registered in the computerised central personal
lesions the risk is greatest in women positive for the
                                                            registry. The register is updated daily and contains
same type of HPV on repeated testing.                       information on vital status and migration, including
                                                            the current address. We invited all eligible women to a

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Department of              study clinic established at one of the university                                were originally enrolled in the study. During the
Gynecology,
Rigshospitalet,
                           hospitals in Copenhagen. Recruitment was from May                                following 18 months (that is, until January 1995) 8656
Copenhagen,                1991 to January 1993. We included 11 088 women in                                women (78%) underwent this second examination.
Denmark                    the study, all of whom gave informed consent. A                                  Women were interviewed about suspected risk factors
Johannes E Bock            detailed description of the enrolment procedure is                               for cervical cancer, focusing on the time between
professor of gynecology
                           provided elsewhere.7 The study was approved by the                               enrolment (first examination) and follow up (second
Department of
Pathology,
                           local ethics committee.                                                          examination). We also did a smear test and took cervi-
Nykøbing Falster                                                                                            cal swabs for HPV testing (placed in phosphate
Hospital, Nykøbing         Examination at enrolment                                                         buffered saline with 0.05% methiolate) and two blood
Falster, Denmark           At enrolment all 11 088 women were interviewed per-                              samples from each woman using the same procedure
Paul A Poll
                           sonally by specially trained female nurses. The nurses                           as at the initial examination, all biological material
pathologist
                           collected data on demographic variables, smoking,                                being stored at − 80°C.
Correspondence to:
S K Kjær susanne@
                           reproductive background, contraception, sexual habits,
cancer.dk                  previous sexually transmitted diseases, and history of                           Passive follow up
                           cervical smear tests. The participants also had a gynae-                         We also had the cohort under passive surveillance for
                           cological examination, in which we carried out a smear                           occurrence of abnormal cytology. In a high proportion
                           test and obtained endo-ectocervical cells for detection                          of Danish counties, all cytological and histological
                           of HPV DNA. All swabs were placed in a tube with                                 diagnoses are registered in a computerised pathology
                           TE-buffer (10 mM Tris-HCl and 1 mM EDTA, pH=8.0).                                register (the smears taken in the present study were
                           In addition, all participants gave two blood samples. All                        also registered in the pathology register). In November
                           biological material was kept at − 80°C until tested.                             1995 we linked the original cohort of 11 088 women to
                                                                                                            the pathology register files, and all women were traced
                           Examination at follow up                                                         in the register. Although the Danish Board of Health
                           In October 1993 we invited the entire cohort for a sec-                          recommends cervical smear testing every three years,
                           ond examination. Initially, the cohort was linked to the                         many women tend to get screened more often.8 By
                           central personal register using the CPR number as key                            means of the pathology register we were able to get
                           identifier. We traced all the women in the cohort using                          information about all such examinations on every
                           this register and retrieved information on vital status                          woman in our study since their first smear test and up
                           and current address. We invited the women to partici-                            to the date of the register linkage.
                           pate in the second phase in the same order as they
                                                                                                            Study population
                                                                                                            We excluded women with a history or current evidence
                                                      Original cohort women (n=11 088)                      of cervical neoplasia. The figure shows the different
                                                                                                            exclusions for the entire cohort. We excluded 11
                                                                                   Exclusions; women with   women in whom cervical neoplasia had been
                                                                                     abnormal smear at
                                                                                     enrolment (n=330)
                                                                                                            diagnosed in the first nine months (the time was
                                                                                                            chosen to ensure comparability with another study4) to
     Random sample of controls (n=1000)            Women with normal smear (n=10 758)
                                                                                                            avoid inclusion of potentially prevalent cases in the
                                                                                                            study (four had atypical squamous cells of undeter-
                    Exclusions: women with                                         Exclusions: women with
                                                                                                            mined significance, four had low grade lesions, three
                      history of abnormal                                            history of abnormal    had high grade lesions). After all exclusions 10 177
                      smear (n=38) or an                                            smear (n=570) or an     women remained in the follow up study.
                    abnormal smear within                                          abnormal smear within
                          9 months of                                                    9 months of
                        enrolment (n=1)                                               enrolment (n=11)      Identification of potential cases
                                                                                                            A total of 428 potential cases developed in the cohort.
           Women with no history of                       Women with no history of                          Of these, we identified 329 at the second examination.
           abnormal smear (n=961)                        abnormal smear (n=10 177)                          The linkage with the pathology register resulted in 99
                                                                                                            more women with an incident diagnosis of lesions on
                    Women who developed                       Potential cases (n=428)                       the uterine cervix that qualified them as potential cases
                     abnormal smear and                                                                     in the time period between nine months after the first
                    were added to potential
                         cases (n=40)                                                Cases downgraded       examination (that is, enrolment in the cohort) and
                                                                                      to normal (n=58)      November 1995. The cytological diagnoses covered a
                                                                                                            spectrum from “non-specific viral changes, not further
                                                   Incident cases after final review (n=370)                specified,” “koilocytosis,” and “atypia” to dysplasia
                                                                                                            (mild, moderate, severe) and carcinoma in situ.

      Unrestricted study      Controls        With atypical
                                                                     With low             With high         Review and confirmation of case diagnoses
                                                                   grade lesions        grade lesions
              population      (n=921)         cells (n=40)
                                                                     (n=165)              (n=165)
                                                                                                            From the files of the pathology register we identified
                                                                                                            the microscopy number on all abnormal smear results
                                                                                                            (and biopsies if taken) as well as on the enrolment
                                                                     With low             With high
             Final study      Controls        With atypical
                                                                   grade lesions        grade lesions
                                                                                                            smear and smears taken and diagnosed as negative
             population       (n=653)         cells (n=25)
                                                                     (n=115)              (n=112)           during follow up from every potential case. The smear
                                                                                                            samples and biopsy slides were subsequently located
                                                                                                            and retrieved from the respective pathology depart-
Schematic overview of overall study design. Final study population comprised 653 women in
the control group had at least one normal smear test result at or after the second                          ments. This material was reviewed in a masked fashion
examination and 25, 115, and 112 women who were diagnosed within three months after the                     by one pathologist (GP) using the Bethesda nomen-
second examination                                                                                          clature system.9

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     In cases of discrepancy between the original            squamous cells, 115 with low grade lesions, and 112
diagnosis and the review diagnosis, another patholo-         with high grade lesions) and 653 cytologically normal
gist (MES), who was unaware of any of the two previous       women (see figure). Among the cases, 191 (76%)
diagnoses, reviewed the material. In most cases there        women were identified at the second examination and
was agreement at the first review, and in the remaining      61 women with an incident diagnosis of cervical
cases there was agreement between two of the three           neoplasia were identified from the pathology register
pathologists (GP, MES, PAP).                                 linkage.
     In cases where both cervical smear result and
                                                             HPV DNA detection
biopsy contributed to the diagnosis, the more severe
                                                             The cervical samples were analysed by the general
diagnosis formed the basis of the final diagnosis.
                                                             primer GP5+/6+ mediated polymerase chain reaction-
Among 428 potential cases, 58 were downgraded to
                                                             enzyme immunoassay method.10 Briefly, we added
normal in the review procedure, and 370 (86%) had a
                                                             10 l of the crude cervical cell suspension to the
confirmed diagnosis of incident atypical squamous
                                                             polymerase chain reaction mixture (10 mM TRIS HCl,
cells of undetermined significance or cervical neopla-
                                                             pH 8.3; 50 mM KCl; 3.5 mM MgCl2; 1 unit of
sia. This covered 40 with atypical squamous cells, 165
                                                             thermostable DNA polymerase (Amplitaq, Perkin
with low grade squamous intraepithelial lesions, and
                                                             Elmer Cetus, Norwalk, CT); 200 mol of each dNTP;
165 with high grade squamous intraepithelial lesions
                                                             and 25 pmol of each primer (GP5+ and biotinylated
(figure). Histological examination results to confirm
                                                             GP6+)). We incubated the mixture for five minutes at
the diagnosis were available in 136 (83%) high grade
                                                             94°C for DNA denaturation, followed by 40 cycles of
cases and 60 (35%) low grade cases. None of the smear
                                                             amplification with a polymerase chain reaction proces-
results that were originally negative at enrolment were
                                                             sor (Biomed, Theres, Germany). Each cycle included a
upgraded at the review procedure.
                                                             denaturation step to 94°C for one minute, an
Subcohort selection                                          annealing step to 40°C for two minutes, and a chain
We randomly selected a sample of 1000 from the               elongation step to 72°C for 90 seconds. To ensure a
10 758 women in the entire cohort who had cytologi-          complete extension of the amplified DNA we
cally normal results at enrolment. We retrieved the          prolonged the final elongation step by four minutes.
smear samples taken at enrolment and during follow               We analysed the biotinylated GP5+/6+ polymerase
up from the files of the pathology departments, and          chain reaction products by enzyme immunoassay
they were reviewed by one pathologist (PAP). In cases        using HPV high risk (HR) and HPV low risk (LR) oli-
of discrepancy between the original diagnosis and the        gococktail probes to identify 14 high risk HPV types
reviewed diagnosis, another pathologist blindly              (HPV 16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 39, 45, 51, 52, 56, 58, 59, 66, 68)
reviewed the smear (MES).                                    and six low risk types (HPV 6, 11, 40, 42, 43, 44). We
    We excluded 39 women from the subcohort                  also typed the high risk and low risk positive swabs
because of previous cervical neoplasia (n=38) or             individually using specific enzyme immunoassays. In
abnormal cytology detected within nine months of             addition, we analysed GP5+/6+ polymerase chain
enrolment (n=1). During follow up, 40 women had an           reaction products for the presence of other HPV types
abnormal smear test result, and we included them in          not identified by the high risk and low risk enzyme
the group of potential cases. This left 921 women with-      immunoassays; this was done with gel electrophoresis,
out any history of cervical neoplasia (that is, no history   followed by Southern blot analysis under low stringent
of cervical neoplasia before enrolment and no                conditions with a cocktail probe of different HPV
abnormal cervical cytology during follow up). At the         types.11 We classified samples that were positive by this
review procedure none of the enrolment or follow up          Southern blot analysis but negative by both high risk
smears was upgraded.                                         and low risk enzyme immunoassay as HPV X positive.
Final study population                                       Statistical analysis
We excluded cases diagnosed later than three months          We investigated the associations between squamous
after the follow up examination. This time limit was         intraepithelial lesions and HPV DNA detected at the
chosen so the HPV status at the follow up visit would        two examinations by multiple logistic regression analy-
still reflect the status at diagnosis. In the analyses       ses performed separately for each type of lesion
including HPV status at follow up, we excluded cases         compared with the controls (subcohort). This corre-
that were diagnosed before the follow up examination         sponds to being either cytologically normal or having a
and in which cervical biopsies or surgical treatment         specific case type in the full generalised logistic
(cone) had been carried out (two with atypical               regression model considering all four outcome catego-
squamous cells, 13 with low grade lesions, 19 with high      ries (normal, atypical squamous cells, low grade lesions,
grade lesions). For us to define women in the                and high grade lesions) simultaneously, and makes the
subcohort as “cytologically normal” we considered that       estimates directly comparable with case-control studies
they had to have a normal cervical smear result at or        of any of the single adverse outcomes. We corrected all
after the follow up examination. On the basis of these       analyses for age at enrolment as a categorical variable,
restriction criteria, we excluded 15 women with              grouped in yearly intervals. The 95% confidence inter-
atypical squamous cells, 46 with low grade lesions, 51       vals were based on Wald’s test performed on the log
with high grade lesions, and 265 controls from the           transformed odds ratios and back transformed.
analyses. We excluded four other women with low                  We classified HPV types in relation to their associ-
grade lesions, two with high grade lesions, and three        ation with cervical cancer. HPV types 16, 18, 31, 33, 35,
controls because their cervical swabs were inadequate        39, 45, 51, 52, 56, 58, 59, 66, and 68 were grouped
for HPV analysis. Thus, the final study population           together in a high risk (“oncogenic”) group, and HPV
comprised 252 incident cases (25 with atypical               types 6, 11, 40, 42, 43 and 44 were placed in the low risk

BMJ VOLUME 325    14 SEPTEMBER 2002   bmj.com                                                                               page 3 of 7
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                           (“non-oncogenic”) group. The uncharacterised HPV                          Prevalence of HPV
                           types (HPV X) were grouped together with the low risk                     In both cytologically normal women and all three case
                           types. Women with multiple types were grouped                             groups the most common type of HPV at enrolment
                           according to the highest risk group.                                      was HPV 16 (table 1). Among women positive for HPV,
                                We performed the statistical analyses both on the                    the prevalence was similar among cytologically normal
                           unrestricted study population (that is, 40 with atypical                  women (30%), women with atypical cells (25%), and
                           cells, 165 with low grade lesions, 165 with high grade                    women with low grade lesions (30%), but significantly
                           lesions, and 921 without any history of cervical neopla-                  higher in those with high grade lesions (48%). Unchar-
                           sia), on the final study population (25, 115, 112, and                    acterised HPV types were found in about 8% of women
                           653 respectively) (figure), and with intermediate                         with low grade lesions and 7% of women with high
                           restriction criteria for cases and the subcohort (data                    grade lesions, whereas nearly a quarter of the cytologi-
                           not shown). The overall pattern of the results was the                    cally normal women harboured these unknown types.
                           same irrespective of the restriction criteria; however,                   At enrolment, among women positive for HPV, 12% of
                           the strength of association in the analyses including                     cytologically normal women, 36% of women with low
                           HPV status at follow up increased with the severity of                    grade lesions, and 25% of women with high grade
                           the inclusion criteria for the subcohort and decreased                    lesions had multiple types of HPV.
                           with the length of time between the second                                    The prevalence of HPV detected at enrolment in
                           examination and the case diagnosis (data not shown).                      women who were cytologically normal at enrolment
                           We have presented only those results concerning the                       and during follow up was 14% (89/653). Among
                           final (restricted) study population.                                      women in whom high grade lesions were subsequently
                                Finally, we investigated whether the restrictions                    detected, 80% (89/112) were HPV positive at
                           leading to the final study population were associated                     enrolment. The corresponding figures for low grade
                           with different distributions of some potential con-                       lesions and atypical cells were 63 (55%) and 8 (32%). At
                           founders registered at enrolment (age, number of                          the follow up examination, 11 (50%) women with
                           sexual partners, age at first intercourse, and use of oral                atypical cells, 92 (89%) women with low grade lesions,
                           contraceptives). Thus, we compared the women in the                       and 84 (93%) women with high grade lesions were
                           final study population with those who were excluded                       positive for HPV.
                           from the unrestricted study population within the con-
                           trol group and within the case groups, and the respec-                    Clearance of HPV
                           tive distributions were nearly the same (data not                         Among cytologically normal women who were positive
                           shown).                                                                   for HPV at the first examination, 62/87 (71%) cleared
                                                                                                     that specific HPV infection: 45 became HPV negative
                           Results                                                                   and 17 acquired another HPV type. In contrast with
                                                                                                     this, 21/53 (40%) women who were positive for HPV
                           Age at enrolment did not differ significantly between                     and had low grade lesions lost the HPV (two became
                           women in the cytologically normal group (mean 25.2                        HPV negative and 19 got a new type), and only 17/72
                           years) and women in the total case group (24.8 years),                    (26%) women who were positive for HPV and had high
                           women with atypical cells (24.9 years), and women with                    grade lesions cleared the specific infection (four (6%)
                           high grade lesions (24.9 years). The women with low                       became HPV negative and 13 (20%) acquired a new
                           grade lesions tended to be a little younger (24.3 years).                 HPV type), such that in 72% of HPV positive women
                                                                                                     with high grade lesions, the same type(s) was found at
Table 1 Distribution and prevalence of types of human papillomavirus (HPV) among                     both examinations (2% still had uncharacterised HPV
cases and cytologically normal women who were positive for HPV at enrolment. Figures                 types at both examinations).
are numbers (percentages) of women
              Cytologically normal                          Low grade lesions   High grade lesions
                                                                                                     HPV and cervical lesions
HPV type             (n=89)          Atypical cells (n=8)        (n=63)               (n=89)         Table 2 shows the odds ratios for incident atypical cells
6                    5 (6)                    0                   2 (3)               1 (1)          and squamous intraepithelial lesions according to
11                   1 (1)                 1 (13)                  0                  1 (1)          HPV status at enrolment. Compared with women who
16                  27 (30)                3 (25)                19 (30)             43 (48)         were HPV negative at enrolment, HPV positive women
18                  11 (12)                2 (17)                 7 (11)             10 (11)         had a significantly increased risk of developing atypical
31                   7 (8)                 1 (13)                10 (16)             15 (17)         cells (odds ratio 3.2, 95% confidence interval 1.3 to 7.9),
33                  11 (12)                2 (17)                 9 (14)              7 (8)
                                                                                                     low grade lesions (7.5, 4.8 to 11.7), and high grade
35                   1 (1)                 1 (13)                 1 (2)               1 (1)
                                                                                                     lesions (25.8, 15.3 to 43.6). When we divided the
39                   2 (2)                    0                   1 (2)               2 (2)
                                                                                                     women who were HPV positive into a group of low risk
40                     0                      0                    0                    0
42                   1 (1)                 1 (13)                  0                    0
                                                                                                     or unknown HPV types and a group of high risk or
43                     0                      0                    0                    0
                                                                                                     oncogenic types, it was evident that the oncogenic
44                   1 (1)                    0                   1 (2)                 0            HPV types were associated with the highest risk, espe-
45                   1 (1)                    0                   4 (6)               5 (6)          cially for high grade lesions, when compared with HPV
51                   1 (1)                    0                   9 (14)              6 (7)          negative (7.8, 3.1 to 9.4 for low risk or unknown types v
52                   2 (2)                    0                   4 (6)               5 (6)          HPV negative) and (34.5, 19.7 to 60.2 for high risk or
56                   1 (1)                 1 (13)                 7 (11)              2 (2)          unknown types v HPV negative).
58                   5 (6)                    0                   5 (8)               5 (6)              A similar picture emerged regarding the risk of
59                     0                      0                   1 (2)               2 (2)          cervical neoplasia in relation to HPV status at follow
66                   1 (1)                 1 (13)                 7 (11)              4 (5)          up (table 2), with HPV positive women having a
68                     0                      0                    0                    0
                                                                                                     strongly increased risk, especially of low grade lesions
X                   22 (25)                   0                   5 (8)               6 (7)
                                                                                                     (34.3, 17.6 to 67.0) and high grade lesions (60.7, 25.5 to


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Table 2 Risk of incident cervical neoplasia according to human papillomavirus status at enrolment and at follow up

                               Cytologically                   Atypical cells                     Low grade lesions                   High grade lesions
HPV status                        normal           No            Odds ratio* (95% CI)        No         Odds ratio* (95% CI)     No      Odds ratio* (95% CI)
Enrolment:
 Negative                          564              17                     1.0               52                  1.0             23               1.0
 Positive                           89               8              3.2 (1.3 to 7.9)         63           7.5 (4.8 to 11.7)      89       25.8 (15.3 to 43.6)
 Low risk and unknown               26               0                     —                  7           3.1 (1.3 to 7.5)        8        7.8 (3.1 to 19.4)
  types†
 High risk types‡                   63               8              4.9 (1.9 to 12.4)        56           9.3 (5.8 to 14.9)      81       34.5 (19.7 to 60.2)
Follow up:
 Negative                          498              11                     1.0               11                  1.0              6               1.0
 Positive                          122              11              4.1 (1.7 to 10.2)        92          34.3 (17.6 to 67.0)     84       60.7 (25.5 to 144.0)
 Low risk and unknown               32               4              6.3 (1.8 to 22.2)        13          17.3 (7.1 to 42.5)       8       21.7 (7.0 to 67.6)
  types†
 High risk types‡                   90               7              3.5 (1.3 to 9.5)         79          40.9 (20.6 to 81.3)     76       74.5 (31.1 to 178.7)
Enrolment/follow up:
 Negative/negative                 451               9                     1.0                7                  1.0              2               1.0
 Positive/negative                  45               2              2.3 (0.5 to 11.2)         2           2.7 (0.5 to 13.3)       4       20.3 (3.6 to 115.3)
 Negative/positive                  79               6              3.5 (1.2 to 10.5)        39          30.7 (13.0 to 72.5)     14       39.1 (8.6 to 178.1)
 Positive/positive                  42               5              7.4 (2.3 to 24.3)        51          83.8 (35.1 to 200.2)    68      413.9 (96.3 to 1779.5)
*Adjusted for age.
†HPV 6, 11, 40,42,43,44, X.
‡HPV 16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 39, 45, 51, 52, 56, 58, 59, 66, 68.


Table 3 Risk of incident cervical neoplasia according to different characteristics of human papillomavirus status* at enrolment and
follow up

                                Cytologically                  Atypical cells                     Low grade lesions                   High grade lesions
HPV status                         normal           No           Odds ratio† (95% CI)        No         Odds ratio† (95% CI)     No     Odds ratio† (95% CI)
Enrolment/follow up:
 Negative/negative                   451             9                    1.0                 7                  1.0              2              1.0
 Positive (high‡)/positive               5           2            37.1 (4.3 to 317.2)         3           34.0 (6.4 to 180.8)     1      61.9 (4.1 to 941.8)
  (low§)
 Positive (low§)/positive                5           0                     —                  3           53.4 (9.5 to 299.2)     2      99.8 (10.8 to 923.7)
  (high‡)
 Positive (high‡)/positive            26             2             4.9 (0.9 to 26.7)         42         117.7 (45.2 to 306.8)    58     691.6 (145.3 to 3292.7)
  (high§)
Enrolment/follow up:
 Negative/negative                   451             9                    1.0                 7                  1.0              2              1.0
 Positive/positive (not               17             4            16.8 (3.8 to 75.1)         19           73.2 (25.7 to 208.9)   13     192.7 (37.5 to 988.7)
  identical HPV types)
 Positive/positive                    19             0                     —                 29         117.9 (42.5 to 327.4)    48     813.0 (168.2 to 3229.2)
  (identical HPV types)¶
*Women positive only to HPV X at one or both visits excluded from analysis.
†Adjusted for age.
‡HPV types belonging to high risk HPV group (16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 39, 45, 51, 52, 56, 58, 59, 66, 68).
§HPV types belonging to low risk HPV group (6, 11, 40, 42, 43, 44).
¶At least one specific HPV type present both at enrolment and at follow up.



144.0). Also here the group of high risk HPV types was                                      Table 3 shows the results for women who stayed
responsible for the highest increase in risk.                                           HPV negative compared with women who stayed HPV
    We also examined the risk of incident cervical neo-                                 positive. For both low and high grade lesions the high-
plasia taking into account the HPV status both at                                       est risk was associated with having a high risk HPV
enrolment and at follow up (table 2). We found a simi-                                  type detected at both visits, though the odds ratio for
lar overall pattern of risk for all three disease                                       high grade lesions was the highest (low grade 117.7,
categories. However, the most substantial effect was                                    45.2 to 306.8; high grade 691.6, 145.3 to 3292.7).
seen for high grade lesions, where the odds ratio was                                       In addition, we found that for high grade lesions
413.9 (96.3 to 1779.5) when we compared women who                                       the risk was strongly increased if at least one identical
were HPV positive at both examinations with women
                                                                                        HPV type was present at both examinations (813.0,
who were negative at both examinations.
                                                                                        168.2 to 3229.2 for being positive for identical types at
    When we compared women who were positive at
                                                                                        both examinations v being negative for HPV at both
both examinations with those who were positive only
                                                                                        examinations, table 3). Even when we carried out an
at enrolment, the odds ratio for low and high grade
                                                                                        internal comparison of women with identical types at
lesions increased (low grade 31.6, 7.1 to 140.5; high
grade 20.4, 6.6 to 62.9) (data not shown). When we                                      the two visits versus different types at the two visits, we
compared the same women with women who had                                              observed a significantly increased risk of high grade
HPV detected only at follow up we observed                                              lesions (4.2, 1.5 to 12.3) (data not shown). In contrast,
significantly increased odds ratios for both low grade                                  we found no significant difference between having
(2.7, 1.5 to 5.0) and high grade lesions (10.6, 5.1 to 21.8)                            identical HPV types or different HPV types at the two
(data not shown).                                                                       examinations in relation to the risk of low grade lesions


BMJ VOLUME 325              14 SEPTEMBER 2002       bmj.com                                                                                                       page 5 of 7
Papers

         (1.6, 0.6 to 4.2). No women with atypical cells had iden-     specific persistent HPV infection if, for example, the
         tical types at the two visits.                                HPV type detected at the first examination was cleared
             Finally, we estimated the odds ratio for the              soon after the visit and the woman subsequently
         association between being repeatedly postitive for            became infected with a new type that persisted and
         HPV and high grade lesions in relation to age. The risk       thus was detected at the second examination. Further-
         of high grade lesions in women positive for identical         more, the women in our study were young and sexually
         types at the two visits compared with women negative          active, and as such had a high background prevalence
         at both examinations tended to be stronger in women           and acquisition rate of HPV. The group of women who
         aged 25-29 years (810, 97 to 6754) than in women              had the same HPV type detected at both examinations
         aged 20-24 years (567, 63 to 5688) (data not shown).          may actually cover different kinds of infection—for
                                                                       instance, in cytologically normal women it may mostly
                                                                       reflect reinfection with the same HPV type, whereas in
         Discussion                                                    women with high grade lesions it is likely to reflect type
         In this prospective follow up study of more than              specific persistence. However, we were unable to deter-
         10 000 cytologically normal 20-29 year old women we           mine whether repeated type specific HPV positivity
         found that HPV status at enrolment predicted future           was reflecting true persistence or a recurrent HPV
         development of high grade squamous intraepithelial            infection with the same HPV type as we did not do
         lesions. In a random sample of the women who stayed           variant analyses. Thus, we may have underestimated
         cytologically normal during follow up, only 14% were          the association between high grade lesions and type
         HPV positive at their first visit whereas this applied to     specific persistence.
         80% of the women who were subsequently diagnosed                  Because the prevalence of HPV among women
         with high grade lesions. Most women were diagnosed            without cervical lesions decreases with age we expected
         at the second examination, and the HPV status at this         that the association between HPV and cervical neopla-
         examination was also strongly associated with the             sia would be even stronger among older women.
         presence of cytological abnormalities, though the out-        Although the age range in our cohort was quite narrow
         standing risk for incident high grade lesions in this         and the age stratified analyses were based on small
         study was being repeatedly positive for HPV. We found         numbers we were able to show such an age pattern,
         that women who were positive for HPV DNA both at              though it did not reach significance.
         enrolment and at follow up had an odds ratio of more
         than 410 for developing high grade lesions compared           Conclusion
         with women who were HPV negative at both visits.              In conclusion, we can confirm previous reports that
         Even when we compared women who were repeatedly               stated that HPV infection is common in young women
         positive for HPV with women who were HPV positive             and that most infections are transient with high rates of
         at only one of the visits (either the first or the second),   acquisition and clearance. More importantly, we have
         they had a significantly increased risk of high grade         shown that HPV infection precedes the development
         lesions. Our findings agree with those recently               of low and high grade squamous intraepithelial lesions
         reported from another big cohort study.4                      and that high risk HPV infection is a good predictor of
              Our results provide evidence that HPV infection          subsequent high grade lesions in young women. Our
         precedes the development of high grade squamous               data also indicate that HPV is an even better predictor
         intraepithelial lesions and support the suggested             in older women with a lower background HPV preva-
         central role of persistent HPV infection in the develop-      lence. The outstanding predictor of high grade lesions,
         ment of cervical neoplasia.12 13 At present there is no       however, was being repeatedly positive for HPV with
         general consensus on a definition of persistent HPV
         infection, and we have no knowledge about the                     What is already known on this topic
         duration of infection required for the development of
         high grade lesions. In this study it was evident that type        Persistence of infection with human
         specific persistence of HPV was highly associated with            papillomavirus (HPV) is thought to have a role in
         high grade lesions, with persistence defined as positiv-          the development of cervical neoplasia
         ity to the same HPV type at two visits with an interval
                                                                           Previous studies have included only a few cases of
         of two years. It is interesting that for low grade lesions,
                                                                           high grade squamous intraepithelial lesions, and
         there was no significant difference in the risk associated
                                                                           few have randomly sampled women from the
         with being HPV positive on both occasions with differ-
                                                                           general population
         ent types and having the same HPV type at both visits,
         and among the women with atypical cells, none                     What this study adds
         presented with the same HPV type twice. In contrast
         with this, the risk of high grade lesions was significantly       In women aged 20-29, HPV infection preceded
         higher in women positive for identical HPV types on               the development of high grade lesions
         both occasions than in such women with different
                                                                           Persistent HPV infection with a specific HPV type
         types.
                                                                           was an indicator of incident high grade lesions
              Women with different HPV types detected at enrol-
                                                                           among young women in the general population
         ment and at follow up still had a substantially increased
         risk of high grade lesions. Because of the rather long
                                                                           The association between persistence and high
         time (about two years) between the two visits in this
                                                                           grade cervical lesions was more pronounced
         study, however, the group of women with apparently
                                                                           among women aged over 25
         different HPV types detected at the two examinations
         may actually contain a group of women with truly type


6                                                                                   BMJ VOLUME 325    14 SEPTEMBER 2002   bmj.com
Papers

the same HPV type, in line with the previously                                          vical cancer screening gives objective risk assessment of women with
                                                                                        cytomorphologically normal smears. Int J Cancer 1996;68:766-9.
suggested hypothesis that persistence of high risk HPV                             3    Ho GYF, Bierman R, Beardsley LNP, Chang CJ, Burk RD. Natural history
types is strongly associated with the development of                                    of cervicovaginal papillomavirus infection in young women. N Engl J Med
                                                                                        1998;338:423-28.
high grade lesions.                                                                4    Liaw K-L, Glass AG, Manos MM, Greer CE, Scott DR, Sherman ME, et al.
                                                                                        Detection of papillomavirus DNA in cytologically normal women and
    Contributors: SKK designed the follow up study, organised                           subsequent cervical squamous intraepithelial lesions. J Natl Cancer Inst
the data collection at enrolment and at follow up, interpreted                          1999:91:954-60.
the results, and wrote the original and successive drafts of the                   5    Woodman CBJ, Collin S, Winter H, Bailey A, Ellis J, Prior P, et al. Natural
paper. AJCvdB supervised the HPV analyses and commented                                 history of cervical human papillomavirus infection in young women: a
on drafts of the paper. GP reviewed all cytological and histologi-                      longitudinal study. Lancet 2001;357:1831-6.
                                                                                   6    Wallin KL, Wiklund F, Ångström T, Bergman F, Stendal U, Wadell G, et al.
cal slides and commented on drafts of the paper. EIS
                                                                                        Type-specific persistence of human papillomavirus DNA before the
participated in the data collection at follow up and commented                          development of invasive cervical cancer. N Engl J Med 1999;341:1633-8.
on all drafts of the paper. MES reviewed the slides and                            7    Kjaer SK, van den Brule AJC, Bock JE, Poll PA, Engholm G, Sherman ME,
commented on drafts of the paper. BLT planned the statistical                           et al. Human papillomavirus—the most significant risk determinant of
analyses, interpreted the results, and commented on every draft                         cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. Int J Cancer 1996;65:601-6.
of the paper. MS conducted the statistical analyses. JEB advised                   8    Munk C, Kjaer SK, Poll PA, Bock JE. Cervical cancer screening:
                                                                                        knowledge of own screening status among women aged 20-29 years. Acta
on the organisation of the data collection and commented on                             Obstet Gynecol Scand 1998;77:917-22.
drafts of the paper. PAP supervised the daily diagnostic                           9    Luff RD. The Bethesda system for reporting cervical/vaginal cytologic
procedures regarding the cervical cytological examinations and                          diagnoses. Hum Pathol 1992;23:719-21.
reviewed the normal cervical smears taken at enrolment.                            10   Jacobs MV, Snijders PJF, van den Brule AJC, Helmerhorst TJ,
CJLMM commented on all drafts of the paper. SKK is                                      Meijer CJLM, Walboomers JMM. A general primer GP5+/GP6(+)-
guarantor.                                                                              medicated PCR-enzyme immunoassay method for rapid detection of 14
                                                                                        high-risk and 6 low-risk human papillomavirus genotypes in cervical
    Funding: National Cancer Institute (RO1 CA47812) and                                scrapings. J Clin Microbiol 1997;35:791-95.
Danish Cancer Society.                                                             11   van den Brule AJC, Meijer CJLM, Bakels V, Kenemans P,
    Competing interests: SKK is a consultant for Merck. CM is a                         Walboomers JMM. Rapid detection of human papillomavirus in cervical
consultant for Digene. Mark Sherman was formally a faculty                              scrapes by combined general primer-mediated and type-specific
member at Johns Hopkins (participant in the centres of                                  polymerase chain reaction. J Clin Microbiol 1990;28:2739-43.
excellence programme developed by Digene).                                         12   Meijer CJLM, Snijders PJ, van den Brule AJC. Screening for cervical
                                                                                        cancer: should we test for infection with high-risk HPV? CMAJ
                                                                                        2000;163:535-8.
1   WHO, International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC Monograph on            13   Einstein MH, Burk RD. Persistent human papillomavirus infection:
    the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans: human papillomavirus. Lyons:        definitions and clinical implications. Papillomavirus Report 2001;12:119-
    IARC Scientific Publications, 1995:64.                                              23.
2   Rozendaal L, Walboomers JMM, van der Linden JC, Voorhorst FJ,
    Kenemans P, Helmerhorst TJ, et al. PCR-based high-risk HPV test in cer-             (Accepted 23 April 2002)




BMJ VOLUME 325          14 SEPTEMBER 2002           bmj.com                                                                                                           page 7 of 7

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Type specific persistence of high risk human papillomavirus (HPV) as indicator of high grade cervical squamous intraepithelial lesions in young women: population based prospective follow up study

  • 1. Papers Type specific persistence of high risk human papillomavirus (HPV) as indicator of high grade cervical squamous intraepithelial lesions in young women: population based prospective follow up study Susanne K Kjaer, Adriaan J C van den Brule, Gerson Paull, Edith I Svare, Mark E Sherman, Birthe L Thomsen, Mette Suntum, Johannes E Bock, Paul A Poll, Chris J L M Meijer Abstract Introduction Danish Cancer Society, Institute of Human papillomavirus (HPV) is one of the most com- Cancer Objectives To investigate the role of human Epidemiology, papillomavirus (HPV) in the development of cervical mon sexually transmitted viruses. Although most DK-2100 neoplasia in women with no previous cervical infections are transient, the potential health implica- Copenhagen, Denmark cytological abnormalities; whether the presence of tions are obvious because HPV types 16 and 18 are Susanne K Kjaer virus DNA predicts development of squamous considered carcinogenic and other types (for example, senior investigator intraepithelial lesion; and whether the risk of incident 31, 33, 35, 39, 45, 52, 56, and 58) have an important Edith I Svare squamous intraepithelial lesions differs with repeated role in cervical carcinogenesis.1 senior research fellow Most epidemiological evidence originates from Birthe L Thomsen detection of the same HPV type versus repeated senior statistician cross sectional studies with samples from women taken detection of different types. Mette Suntum after the cancer or the squamous intraepithelial lesion statistician Design Population based prospective cohort study. was diagnosed. Only few prospective cohort studies Department of Setting General population in Copenhagen, with reliable and sensitive methods for HPV testing Pathology, Section Denmark. of Molecular have assessed the risk of new development of cervical Participants 10 758 women aged 20-29 years Pathology, neoplasia by using repeated measurements of genital University Hospital followed up for development of cervical cytological HPV in their study design.2–6 Only in such studies can Vrije Universiteit, abnormalities; 370 incident cases were detected (40 the temporal association between exposure and Amsterdam, with atypical squamous cells of undetermined Netherlands outcome be evaluated and established. However, the Adriaan J C van significance, 165 with low grade squamous currently available studies included only a few women den Brule intraepithelial lesions, 165 with high grade squamous with high grade squamous intraepithelial lesions.2–5 molecular biologist intraepithelial lesions). Chris J L M Meijer We carried out a prospective follow up study to professor of pathology Main outcome measures Results of cervical smear investigate the role of HPV (detected on two occasions) Department of tests and cervical swabs at enrolment and at the in the development of cervical neoplasia in women Pathology and second examination about two years later. who had no previous diagnosis of cytological Laboratory Results Compared with women who were negative abnormalities. We examined whether the presence of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, for human papillomavirus at enrolment, those with viral DNA can predict development of lesions. We also GA, USA positive results had a significantly increased risk at investigated the role of repeated detection of high Gerson Paull follow up of having atypical cells (odds ratio 3.2, 95% compared with low risk types and repeated detection assistant professor confidence interval 1.3 to 7.9), low grade lesions (7.5, of the same virus compared with different types. Department of Pathology, Johns 4.8 to 11.7), or high grade lesions (25.8, 15.3 to 43.6). Hopkins Medical Similarly, women who were positive for HPV at the Methods Institutions, Baltimore, MD, second examination had a strongly increased risk of USA low (34.3, 17.6 to 67.0) and high grade lesions (60.7, We collected a random sample of 17 949 women aged Mark E Sherman 25.5 to 144.0). For high grade lesions the risk was 20-29 years from the general population in Copenha- senior research fellow strongly increased if the same virus type was present gen using the central personal registry. Every citizen in continued over at both examinations (813.0, 168.2 to 3229.2). Denmark has a unique 10 digit identification number (CPR number), which is universally used in the public bmj.com 2002;325:572 Conclusions Infection with human papillomavirus administration. These identification numbers, which precedes the development of low and high grade comprise information on sex and date of birth, are squamous intraepithelial lesions. For high grade registered in the computerised central personal lesions the risk is greatest in women positive for the registry. The register is updated daily and contains same type of HPV on repeated testing. information on vital status and migration, including the current address. We invited all eligible women to a BMJ VOLUME 325 14 SEPTEMBER 2002 bmj.com page 1 of 7
  • 2. Papers Department of study clinic established at one of the university were originally enrolled in the study. During the Gynecology, Rigshospitalet, hospitals in Copenhagen. Recruitment was from May following 18 months (that is, until January 1995) 8656 Copenhagen, 1991 to January 1993. We included 11 088 women in women (78%) underwent this second examination. Denmark the study, all of whom gave informed consent. A Women were interviewed about suspected risk factors Johannes E Bock detailed description of the enrolment procedure is for cervical cancer, focusing on the time between professor of gynecology provided elsewhere.7 The study was approved by the enrolment (first examination) and follow up (second Department of Pathology, local ethics committee. examination). We also did a smear test and took cervi- Nykøbing Falster cal swabs for HPV testing (placed in phosphate Hospital, Nykøbing Examination at enrolment buffered saline with 0.05% methiolate) and two blood Falster, Denmark At enrolment all 11 088 women were interviewed per- samples from each woman using the same procedure Paul A Poll sonally by specially trained female nurses. The nurses as at the initial examination, all biological material pathologist collected data on demographic variables, smoking, being stored at − 80°C. Correspondence to: S K Kjær susanne@ reproductive background, contraception, sexual habits, cancer.dk previous sexually transmitted diseases, and history of Passive follow up cervical smear tests. The participants also had a gynae- We also had the cohort under passive surveillance for cological examination, in which we carried out a smear occurrence of abnormal cytology. In a high proportion test and obtained endo-ectocervical cells for detection of Danish counties, all cytological and histological of HPV DNA. All swabs were placed in a tube with diagnoses are registered in a computerised pathology TE-buffer (10 mM Tris-HCl and 1 mM EDTA, pH=8.0). register (the smears taken in the present study were In addition, all participants gave two blood samples. All also registered in the pathology register). In November biological material was kept at − 80°C until tested. 1995 we linked the original cohort of 11 088 women to the pathology register files, and all women were traced Examination at follow up in the register. Although the Danish Board of Health In October 1993 we invited the entire cohort for a sec- recommends cervical smear testing every three years, ond examination. Initially, the cohort was linked to the many women tend to get screened more often.8 By central personal register using the CPR number as key means of the pathology register we were able to get identifier. We traced all the women in the cohort using information about all such examinations on every this register and retrieved information on vital status woman in our study since their first smear test and up and current address. We invited the women to partici- to the date of the register linkage. pate in the second phase in the same order as they Study population We excluded women with a history or current evidence Original cohort women (n=11 088) of cervical neoplasia. The figure shows the different exclusions for the entire cohort. We excluded 11 Exclusions; women with women in whom cervical neoplasia had been abnormal smear at enrolment (n=330) diagnosed in the first nine months (the time was chosen to ensure comparability with another study4) to Random sample of controls (n=1000) Women with normal smear (n=10 758) avoid inclusion of potentially prevalent cases in the study (four had atypical squamous cells of undeter- Exclusions: women with Exclusions: women with mined significance, four had low grade lesions, three history of abnormal history of abnormal had high grade lesions). After all exclusions 10 177 smear (n=38) or an smear (n=570) or an women remained in the follow up study. abnormal smear within abnormal smear within 9 months of 9 months of enrolment (n=1) enrolment (n=11) Identification of potential cases A total of 428 potential cases developed in the cohort. Women with no history of Women with no history of Of these, we identified 329 at the second examination. abnormal smear (n=961) abnormal smear (n=10 177) The linkage with the pathology register resulted in 99 more women with an incident diagnosis of lesions on Women who developed Potential cases (n=428) the uterine cervix that qualified them as potential cases abnormal smear and in the time period between nine months after the first were added to potential cases (n=40) Cases downgraded examination (that is, enrolment in the cohort) and to normal (n=58) November 1995. The cytological diagnoses covered a spectrum from “non-specific viral changes, not further Incident cases after final review (n=370) specified,” “koilocytosis,” and “atypia” to dysplasia (mild, moderate, severe) and carcinoma in situ. Unrestricted study Controls With atypical With low With high Review and confirmation of case diagnoses grade lesions grade lesions population (n=921) cells (n=40) (n=165) (n=165) From the files of the pathology register we identified the microscopy number on all abnormal smear results (and biopsies if taken) as well as on the enrolment With low With high Final study Controls With atypical grade lesions grade lesions smear and smears taken and diagnosed as negative population (n=653) cells (n=25) (n=115) (n=112) during follow up from every potential case. The smear samples and biopsy slides were subsequently located and retrieved from the respective pathology depart- Schematic overview of overall study design. Final study population comprised 653 women in the control group had at least one normal smear test result at or after the second ments. This material was reviewed in a masked fashion examination and 25, 115, and 112 women who were diagnosed within three months after the by one pathologist (GP) using the Bethesda nomen- second examination clature system.9 page 2 of 7 BMJ VOLUME 325 14 SEPTEMBER 2002 bmj.com
  • 3. Papers In cases of discrepancy between the original squamous cells, 115 with low grade lesions, and 112 diagnosis and the review diagnosis, another patholo- with high grade lesions) and 653 cytologically normal gist (MES), who was unaware of any of the two previous women (see figure). Among the cases, 191 (76%) diagnoses, reviewed the material. In most cases there women were identified at the second examination and was agreement at the first review, and in the remaining 61 women with an incident diagnosis of cervical cases there was agreement between two of the three neoplasia were identified from the pathology register pathologists (GP, MES, PAP). linkage. In cases where both cervical smear result and HPV DNA detection biopsy contributed to the diagnosis, the more severe The cervical samples were analysed by the general diagnosis formed the basis of the final diagnosis. primer GP5+/6+ mediated polymerase chain reaction- Among 428 potential cases, 58 were downgraded to enzyme immunoassay method.10 Briefly, we added normal in the review procedure, and 370 (86%) had a 10 l of the crude cervical cell suspension to the confirmed diagnosis of incident atypical squamous polymerase chain reaction mixture (10 mM TRIS HCl, cells of undetermined significance or cervical neopla- pH 8.3; 50 mM KCl; 3.5 mM MgCl2; 1 unit of sia. This covered 40 with atypical squamous cells, 165 thermostable DNA polymerase (Amplitaq, Perkin with low grade squamous intraepithelial lesions, and Elmer Cetus, Norwalk, CT); 200 mol of each dNTP; 165 with high grade squamous intraepithelial lesions and 25 pmol of each primer (GP5+ and biotinylated (figure). Histological examination results to confirm GP6+)). We incubated the mixture for five minutes at the diagnosis were available in 136 (83%) high grade 94°C for DNA denaturation, followed by 40 cycles of cases and 60 (35%) low grade cases. None of the smear amplification with a polymerase chain reaction proces- results that were originally negative at enrolment were sor (Biomed, Theres, Germany). Each cycle included a upgraded at the review procedure. denaturation step to 94°C for one minute, an Subcohort selection annealing step to 40°C for two minutes, and a chain We randomly selected a sample of 1000 from the elongation step to 72°C for 90 seconds. To ensure a 10 758 women in the entire cohort who had cytologi- complete extension of the amplified DNA we cally normal results at enrolment. We retrieved the prolonged the final elongation step by four minutes. smear samples taken at enrolment and during follow We analysed the biotinylated GP5+/6+ polymerase up from the files of the pathology departments, and chain reaction products by enzyme immunoassay they were reviewed by one pathologist (PAP). In cases using HPV high risk (HR) and HPV low risk (LR) oli- of discrepancy between the original diagnosis and the gococktail probes to identify 14 high risk HPV types reviewed diagnosis, another pathologist blindly (HPV 16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 39, 45, 51, 52, 56, 58, 59, 66, 68) reviewed the smear (MES). and six low risk types (HPV 6, 11, 40, 42, 43, 44). We We excluded 39 women from the subcohort also typed the high risk and low risk positive swabs because of previous cervical neoplasia (n=38) or individually using specific enzyme immunoassays. In abnormal cytology detected within nine months of addition, we analysed GP5+/6+ polymerase chain enrolment (n=1). During follow up, 40 women had an reaction products for the presence of other HPV types abnormal smear test result, and we included them in not identified by the high risk and low risk enzyme the group of potential cases. This left 921 women with- immunoassays; this was done with gel electrophoresis, out any history of cervical neoplasia (that is, no history followed by Southern blot analysis under low stringent of cervical neoplasia before enrolment and no conditions with a cocktail probe of different HPV abnormal cervical cytology during follow up). At the types.11 We classified samples that were positive by this review procedure none of the enrolment or follow up Southern blot analysis but negative by both high risk smears was upgraded. and low risk enzyme immunoassay as HPV X positive. Final study population Statistical analysis We excluded cases diagnosed later than three months We investigated the associations between squamous after the follow up examination. This time limit was intraepithelial lesions and HPV DNA detected at the chosen so the HPV status at the follow up visit would two examinations by multiple logistic regression analy- still reflect the status at diagnosis. In the analyses ses performed separately for each type of lesion including HPV status at follow up, we excluded cases compared with the controls (subcohort). This corre- that were diagnosed before the follow up examination sponds to being either cytologically normal or having a and in which cervical biopsies or surgical treatment specific case type in the full generalised logistic (cone) had been carried out (two with atypical regression model considering all four outcome catego- squamous cells, 13 with low grade lesions, 19 with high ries (normal, atypical squamous cells, low grade lesions, grade lesions). For us to define women in the and high grade lesions) simultaneously, and makes the subcohort as “cytologically normal” we considered that estimates directly comparable with case-control studies they had to have a normal cervical smear result at or of any of the single adverse outcomes. We corrected all after the follow up examination. On the basis of these analyses for age at enrolment as a categorical variable, restriction criteria, we excluded 15 women with grouped in yearly intervals. The 95% confidence inter- atypical squamous cells, 46 with low grade lesions, 51 vals were based on Wald’s test performed on the log with high grade lesions, and 265 controls from the transformed odds ratios and back transformed. analyses. We excluded four other women with low We classified HPV types in relation to their associ- grade lesions, two with high grade lesions, and three ation with cervical cancer. HPV types 16, 18, 31, 33, 35, controls because their cervical swabs were inadequate 39, 45, 51, 52, 56, 58, 59, 66, and 68 were grouped for HPV analysis. Thus, the final study population together in a high risk (“oncogenic”) group, and HPV comprised 252 incident cases (25 with atypical types 6, 11, 40, 42, 43 and 44 were placed in the low risk BMJ VOLUME 325 14 SEPTEMBER 2002 bmj.com page 3 of 7
  • 4. Papers (“non-oncogenic”) group. The uncharacterised HPV Prevalence of HPV types (HPV X) were grouped together with the low risk In both cytologically normal women and all three case types. Women with multiple types were grouped groups the most common type of HPV at enrolment according to the highest risk group. was HPV 16 (table 1). Among women positive for HPV, We performed the statistical analyses both on the the prevalence was similar among cytologically normal unrestricted study population (that is, 40 with atypical women (30%), women with atypical cells (25%), and cells, 165 with low grade lesions, 165 with high grade women with low grade lesions (30%), but significantly lesions, and 921 without any history of cervical neopla- higher in those with high grade lesions (48%). Unchar- sia), on the final study population (25, 115, 112, and acterised HPV types were found in about 8% of women 653 respectively) (figure), and with intermediate with low grade lesions and 7% of women with high restriction criteria for cases and the subcohort (data grade lesions, whereas nearly a quarter of the cytologi- not shown). The overall pattern of the results was the cally normal women harboured these unknown types. same irrespective of the restriction criteria; however, At enrolment, among women positive for HPV, 12% of the strength of association in the analyses including cytologically normal women, 36% of women with low HPV status at follow up increased with the severity of grade lesions, and 25% of women with high grade the inclusion criteria for the subcohort and decreased lesions had multiple types of HPV. with the length of time between the second The prevalence of HPV detected at enrolment in examination and the case diagnosis (data not shown). women who were cytologically normal at enrolment We have presented only those results concerning the and during follow up was 14% (89/653). Among final (restricted) study population. women in whom high grade lesions were subsequently Finally, we investigated whether the restrictions detected, 80% (89/112) were HPV positive at leading to the final study population were associated enrolment. The corresponding figures for low grade with different distributions of some potential con- lesions and atypical cells were 63 (55%) and 8 (32%). At founders registered at enrolment (age, number of the follow up examination, 11 (50%) women with sexual partners, age at first intercourse, and use of oral atypical cells, 92 (89%) women with low grade lesions, contraceptives). Thus, we compared the women in the and 84 (93%) women with high grade lesions were final study population with those who were excluded positive for HPV. from the unrestricted study population within the con- trol group and within the case groups, and the respec- Clearance of HPV tive distributions were nearly the same (data not Among cytologically normal women who were positive shown). for HPV at the first examination, 62/87 (71%) cleared that specific HPV infection: 45 became HPV negative Results and 17 acquired another HPV type. In contrast with this, 21/53 (40%) women who were positive for HPV Age at enrolment did not differ significantly between and had low grade lesions lost the HPV (two became women in the cytologically normal group (mean 25.2 HPV negative and 19 got a new type), and only 17/72 years) and women in the total case group (24.8 years), (26%) women who were positive for HPV and had high women with atypical cells (24.9 years), and women with grade lesions cleared the specific infection (four (6%) high grade lesions (24.9 years). The women with low became HPV negative and 13 (20%) acquired a new grade lesions tended to be a little younger (24.3 years). HPV type), such that in 72% of HPV positive women with high grade lesions, the same type(s) was found at Table 1 Distribution and prevalence of types of human papillomavirus (HPV) among both examinations (2% still had uncharacterised HPV cases and cytologically normal women who were positive for HPV at enrolment. Figures types at both examinations). are numbers (percentages) of women Cytologically normal Low grade lesions High grade lesions HPV and cervical lesions HPV type (n=89) Atypical cells (n=8) (n=63) (n=89) Table 2 shows the odds ratios for incident atypical cells 6 5 (6) 0 2 (3) 1 (1) and squamous intraepithelial lesions according to 11 1 (1) 1 (13) 0 1 (1) HPV status at enrolment. Compared with women who 16 27 (30) 3 (25) 19 (30) 43 (48) were HPV negative at enrolment, HPV positive women 18 11 (12) 2 (17) 7 (11) 10 (11) had a significantly increased risk of developing atypical 31 7 (8) 1 (13) 10 (16) 15 (17) cells (odds ratio 3.2, 95% confidence interval 1.3 to 7.9), 33 11 (12) 2 (17) 9 (14) 7 (8) low grade lesions (7.5, 4.8 to 11.7), and high grade 35 1 (1) 1 (13) 1 (2) 1 (1) lesions (25.8, 15.3 to 43.6). When we divided the 39 2 (2) 0 1 (2) 2 (2) women who were HPV positive into a group of low risk 40 0 0 0 0 42 1 (1) 1 (13) 0 0 or unknown HPV types and a group of high risk or 43 0 0 0 0 oncogenic types, it was evident that the oncogenic 44 1 (1) 0 1 (2) 0 HPV types were associated with the highest risk, espe- 45 1 (1) 0 4 (6) 5 (6) cially for high grade lesions, when compared with HPV 51 1 (1) 0 9 (14) 6 (7) negative (7.8, 3.1 to 9.4 for low risk or unknown types v 52 2 (2) 0 4 (6) 5 (6) HPV negative) and (34.5, 19.7 to 60.2 for high risk or 56 1 (1) 1 (13) 7 (11) 2 (2) unknown types v HPV negative). 58 5 (6) 0 5 (8) 5 (6) A similar picture emerged regarding the risk of 59 0 0 1 (2) 2 (2) cervical neoplasia in relation to HPV status at follow 66 1 (1) 1 (13) 7 (11) 4 (5) up (table 2), with HPV positive women having a 68 0 0 0 0 strongly increased risk, especially of low grade lesions X 22 (25) 0 5 (8) 6 (7) (34.3, 17.6 to 67.0) and high grade lesions (60.7, 25.5 to page 4 of 7 BMJ VOLUME 325 14 SEPTEMBER 2002 bmj.com
  • 5. Papers Table 2 Risk of incident cervical neoplasia according to human papillomavirus status at enrolment and at follow up Cytologically Atypical cells Low grade lesions High grade lesions HPV status normal No Odds ratio* (95% CI) No Odds ratio* (95% CI) No Odds ratio* (95% CI) Enrolment: Negative 564 17 1.0 52 1.0 23 1.0 Positive 89 8 3.2 (1.3 to 7.9) 63 7.5 (4.8 to 11.7) 89 25.8 (15.3 to 43.6) Low risk and unknown 26 0 — 7 3.1 (1.3 to 7.5) 8 7.8 (3.1 to 19.4) types† High risk types‡ 63 8 4.9 (1.9 to 12.4) 56 9.3 (5.8 to 14.9) 81 34.5 (19.7 to 60.2) Follow up: Negative 498 11 1.0 11 1.0 6 1.0 Positive 122 11 4.1 (1.7 to 10.2) 92 34.3 (17.6 to 67.0) 84 60.7 (25.5 to 144.0) Low risk and unknown 32 4 6.3 (1.8 to 22.2) 13 17.3 (7.1 to 42.5) 8 21.7 (7.0 to 67.6) types† High risk types‡ 90 7 3.5 (1.3 to 9.5) 79 40.9 (20.6 to 81.3) 76 74.5 (31.1 to 178.7) Enrolment/follow up: Negative/negative 451 9 1.0 7 1.0 2 1.0 Positive/negative 45 2 2.3 (0.5 to 11.2) 2 2.7 (0.5 to 13.3) 4 20.3 (3.6 to 115.3) Negative/positive 79 6 3.5 (1.2 to 10.5) 39 30.7 (13.0 to 72.5) 14 39.1 (8.6 to 178.1) Positive/positive 42 5 7.4 (2.3 to 24.3) 51 83.8 (35.1 to 200.2) 68 413.9 (96.3 to 1779.5) *Adjusted for age. †HPV 6, 11, 40,42,43,44, X. ‡HPV 16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 39, 45, 51, 52, 56, 58, 59, 66, 68. Table 3 Risk of incident cervical neoplasia according to different characteristics of human papillomavirus status* at enrolment and follow up Cytologically Atypical cells Low grade lesions High grade lesions HPV status normal No Odds ratio† (95% CI) No Odds ratio† (95% CI) No Odds ratio† (95% CI) Enrolment/follow up: Negative/negative 451 9 1.0 7 1.0 2 1.0 Positive (high‡)/positive 5 2 37.1 (4.3 to 317.2) 3 34.0 (6.4 to 180.8) 1 61.9 (4.1 to 941.8) (low§) Positive (low§)/positive 5 0 — 3 53.4 (9.5 to 299.2) 2 99.8 (10.8 to 923.7) (high‡) Positive (high‡)/positive 26 2 4.9 (0.9 to 26.7) 42 117.7 (45.2 to 306.8) 58 691.6 (145.3 to 3292.7) (high§) Enrolment/follow up: Negative/negative 451 9 1.0 7 1.0 2 1.0 Positive/positive (not 17 4 16.8 (3.8 to 75.1) 19 73.2 (25.7 to 208.9) 13 192.7 (37.5 to 988.7) identical HPV types) Positive/positive 19 0 — 29 117.9 (42.5 to 327.4) 48 813.0 (168.2 to 3229.2) (identical HPV types)¶ *Women positive only to HPV X at one or both visits excluded from analysis. †Adjusted for age. ‡HPV types belonging to high risk HPV group (16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 39, 45, 51, 52, 56, 58, 59, 66, 68). §HPV types belonging to low risk HPV group (6, 11, 40, 42, 43, 44). ¶At least one specific HPV type present both at enrolment and at follow up. 144.0). Also here the group of high risk HPV types was Table 3 shows the results for women who stayed responsible for the highest increase in risk. HPV negative compared with women who stayed HPV We also examined the risk of incident cervical neo- positive. For both low and high grade lesions the high- plasia taking into account the HPV status both at est risk was associated with having a high risk HPV enrolment and at follow up (table 2). We found a simi- type detected at both visits, though the odds ratio for lar overall pattern of risk for all three disease high grade lesions was the highest (low grade 117.7, categories. However, the most substantial effect was 45.2 to 306.8; high grade 691.6, 145.3 to 3292.7). seen for high grade lesions, where the odds ratio was In addition, we found that for high grade lesions 413.9 (96.3 to 1779.5) when we compared women who the risk was strongly increased if at least one identical were HPV positive at both examinations with women HPV type was present at both examinations (813.0, who were negative at both examinations. 168.2 to 3229.2 for being positive for identical types at When we compared women who were positive at both examinations v being negative for HPV at both both examinations with those who were positive only examinations, table 3). Even when we carried out an at enrolment, the odds ratio for low and high grade internal comparison of women with identical types at lesions increased (low grade 31.6, 7.1 to 140.5; high grade 20.4, 6.6 to 62.9) (data not shown). When we the two visits versus different types at the two visits, we compared the same women with women who had observed a significantly increased risk of high grade HPV detected only at follow up we observed lesions (4.2, 1.5 to 12.3) (data not shown). In contrast, significantly increased odds ratios for both low grade we found no significant difference between having (2.7, 1.5 to 5.0) and high grade lesions (10.6, 5.1 to 21.8) identical HPV types or different HPV types at the two (data not shown). examinations in relation to the risk of low grade lesions BMJ VOLUME 325 14 SEPTEMBER 2002 bmj.com page 5 of 7
  • 6. Papers (1.6, 0.6 to 4.2). No women with atypical cells had iden- specific persistent HPV infection if, for example, the tical types at the two visits. HPV type detected at the first examination was cleared Finally, we estimated the odds ratio for the soon after the visit and the woman subsequently association between being repeatedly postitive for became infected with a new type that persisted and HPV and high grade lesions in relation to age. The risk thus was detected at the second examination. Further- of high grade lesions in women positive for identical more, the women in our study were young and sexually types at the two visits compared with women negative active, and as such had a high background prevalence at both examinations tended to be stronger in women and acquisition rate of HPV. The group of women who aged 25-29 years (810, 97 to 6754) than in women had the same HPV type detected at both examinations aged 20-24 years (567, 63 to 5688) (data not shown). may actually cover different kinds of infection—for instance, in cytologically normal women it may mostly reflect reinfection with the same HPV type, whereas in Discussion women with high grade lesions it is likely to reflect type In this prospective follow up study of more than specific persistence. However, we were unable to deter- 10 000 cytologically normal 20-29 year old women we mine whether repeated type specific HPV positivity found that HPV status at enrolment predicted future was reflecting true persistence or a recurrent HPV development of high grade squamous intraepithelial infection with the same HPV type as we did not do lesions. In a random sample of the women who stayed variant analyses. Thus, we may have underestimated cytologically normal during follow up, only 14% were the association between high grade lesions and type HPV positive at their first visit whereas this applied to specific persistence. 80% of the women who were subsequently diagnosed Because the prevalence of HPV among women with high grade lesions. Most women were diagnosed without cervical lesions decreases with age we expected at the second examination, and the HPV status at this that the association between HPV and cervical neopla- examination was also strongly associated with the sia would be even stronger among older women. presence of cytological abnormalities, though the out- Although the age range in our cohort was quite narrow standing risk for incident high grade lesions in this and the age stratified analyses were based on small study was being repeatedly positive for HPV. We found numbers we were able to show such an age pattern, that women who were positive for HPV DNA both at though it did not reach significance. enrolment and at follow up had an odds ratio of more than 410 for developing high grade lesions compared Conclusion with women who were HPV negative at both visits. In conclusion, we can confirm previous reports that Even when we compared women who were repeatedly stated that HPV infection is common in young women positive for HPV with women who were HPV positive and that most infections are transient with high rates of at only one of the visits (either the first or the second), acquisition and clearance. More importantly, we have they had a significantly increased risk of high grade shown that HPV infection precedes the development lesions. Our findings agree with those recently of low and high grade squamous intraepithelial lesions reported from another big cohort study.4 and that high risk HPV infection is a good predictor of Our results provide evidence that HPV infection subsequent high grade lesions in young women. Our precedes the development of high grade squamous data also indicate that HPV is an even better predictor intraepithelial lesions and support the suggested in older women with a lower background HPV preva- central role of persistent HPV infection in the develop- lence. The outstanding predictor of high grade lesions, ment of cervical neoplasia.12 13 At present there is no however, was being repeatedly positive for HPV with general consensus on a definition of persistent HPV infection, and we have no knowledge about the What is already known on this topic duration of infection required for the development of high grade lesions. In this study it was evident that type Persistence of infection with human specific persistence of HPV was highly associated with papillomavirus (HPV) is thought to have a role in high grade lesions, with persistence defined as positiv- the development of cervical neoplasia ity to the same HPV type at two visits with an interval Previous studies have included only a few cases of of two years. It is interesting that for low grade lesions, high grade squamous intraepithelial lesions, and there was no significant difference in the risk associated few have randomly sampled women from the with being HPV positive on both occasions with differ- general population ent types and having the same HPV type at both visits, and among the women with atypical cells, none What this study adds presented with the same HPV type twice. In contrast with this, the risk of high grade lesions was significantly In women aged 20-29, HPV infection preceded higher in women positive for identical HPV types on the development of high grade lesions both occasions than in such women with different Persistent HPV infection with a specific HPV type types. was an indicator of incident high grade lesions Women with different HPV types detected at enrol- among young women in the general population ment and at follow up still had a substantially increased risk of high grade lesions. Because of the rather long The association between persistence and high time (about two years) between the two visits in this grade cervical lesions was more pronounced study, however, the group of women with apparently among women aged over 25 different HPV types detected at the two examinations may actually contain a group of women with truly type 6 BMJ VOLUME 325 14 SEPTEMBER 2002 bmj.com
  • 7. Papers the same HPV type, in line with the previously vical cancer screening gives objective risk assessment of women with cytomorphologically normal smears. Int J Cancer 1996;68:766-9. suggested hypothesis that persistence of high risk HPV 3 Ho GYF, Bierman R, Beardsley LNP, Chang CJ, Burk RD. Natural history types is strongly associated with the development of of cervicovaginal papillomavirus infection in young women. N Engl J Med 1998;338:423-28. high grade lesions. 4 Liaw K-L, Glass AG, Manos MM, Greer CE, Scott DR, Sherman ME, et al. Detection of papillomavirus DNA in cytologically normal women and Contributors: SKK designed the follow up study, organised subsequent cervical squamous intraepithelial lesions. J Natl Cancer Inst the data collection at enrolment and at follow up, interpreted 1999:91:954-60. the results, and wrote the original and successive drafts of the 5 Woodman CBJ, Collin S, Winter H, Bailey A, Ellis J, Prior P, et al. Natural paper. AJCvdB supervised the HPV analyses and commented history of cervical human papillomavirus infection in young women: a on drafts of the paper. GP reviewed all cytological and histologi- longitudinal study. Lancet 2001;357:1831-6. 6 Wallin KL, Wiklund F, Ångström T, Bergman F, Stendal U, Wadell G, et al. cal slides and commented on drafts of the paper. EIS Type-specific persistence of human papillomavirus DNA before the participated in the data collection at follow up and commented development of invasive cervical cancer. N Engl J Med 1999;341:1633-8. on all drafts of the paper. MES reviewed the slides and 7 Kjaer SK, van den Brule AJC, Bock JE, Poll PA, Engholm G, Sherman ME, commented on drafts of the paper. BLT planned the statistical et al. Human papillomavirus—the most significant risk determinant of analyses, interpreted the results, and commented on every draft cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. Int J Cancer 1996;65:601-6. of the paper. MS conducted the statistical analyses. JEB advised 8 Munk C, Kjaer SK, Poll PA, Bock JE. Cervical cancer screening: knowledge of own screening status among women aged 20-29 years. Acta on the organisation of the data collection and commented on Obstet Gynecol Scand 1998;77:917-22. drafts of the paper. PAP supervised the daily diagnostic 9 Luff RD. The Bethesda system for reporting cervical/vaginal cytologic procedures regarding the cervical cytological examinations and diagnoses. Hum Pathol 1992;23:719-21. reviewed the normal cervical smears taken at enrolment. 10 Jacobs MV, Snijders PJF, van den Brule AJC, Helmerhorst TJ, CJLMM commented on all drafts of the paper. SKK is Meijer CJLM, Walboomers JMM. A general primer GP5+/GP6(+)- guarantor. medicated PCR-enzyme immunoassay method for rapid detection of 14 high-risk and 6 low-risk human papillomavirus genotypes in cervical Funding: National Cancer Institute (RO1 CA47812) and scrapings. J Clin Microbiol 1997;35:791-95. Danish Cancer Society. 11 van den Brule AJC, Meijer CJLM, Bakels V, Kenemans P, Competing interests: SKK is a consultant for Merck. CM is a Walboomers JMM. Rapid detection of human papillomavirus in cervical consultant for Digene. Mark Sherman was formally a faculty scrapes by combined general primer-mediated and type-specific member at Johns Hopkins (participant in the centres of polymerase chain reaction. J Clin Microbiol 1990;28:2739-43. excellence programme developed by Digene). 12 Meijer CJLM, Snijders PJ, van den Brule AJC. Screening for cervical cancer: should we test for infection with high-risk HPV? CMAJ 2000;163:535-8. 1 WHO, International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC Monograph on 13 Einstein MH, Burk RD. Persistent human papillomavirus infection: the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans: human papillomavirus. Lyons: definitions and clinical implications. Papillomavirus Report 2001;12:119- IARC Scientific Publications, 1995:64. 23. 2 Rozendaal L, Walboomers JMM, van der Linden JC, Voorhorst FJ, Kenemans P, Helmerhorst TJ, et al. PCR-based high-risk HPV test in cer- (Accepted 23 April 2002) BMJ VOLUME 325 14 SEPTEMBER 2002 bmj.com page 7 of 7