2. As teachers, we needAs teachers, we need to deal with errorsto deal with errors
The reasons are as follows:The reasons are as follows:
．． Language learners make mistakesLanguage learners make mistakes
．． This seems to happen regardless ofThis seems to happen regardless of
the teacherthe teacher’’s skill and perseverances skill and perseverance
errorserrors
．． Errors play a necessary and importantErrors play a necessary and important
part in language learningpart in language learning
3. Having to make a number of on-the-Having to make a number of on-the-
spot decisionsspot decisions
Is there an error here?Is there an error here?
What kind of error is it?What kind of error is it?
What caused it?What caused it?
Does it matter?Does it matter?
What should I do about it?What should I do about it?
4. Take for example:Take for example:
I had a big surprise. (Wrong orI had a big surprise. (Wrong or
Correct?)Correct?)
ItIt’’s a grammatically well-formeds a grammatically well-formed
sentence.sentence.
The meaning is clear andThe meaning is clear and
unambiguous.unambiguous.
5. The answer isThe answer is ““ wrongwrong ””
The reasons are as follows:The reasons are as follows:
According to corpus evidenceAccording to corpus evidence
‧‧Something can be a big surpriseSomething can be a big surprise
‧‧A person can be in for a big surpriseA person can be in for a big surprise
‧‧ You can have a big surprise forYou can have a big surprise for
someonesomeone
6. To classify the errorTo classify the error
Errors include:Errors include:
‧‧Lexical errorsLexical errors
ex 1:My brother wasex 1:My brother was stoppingstopping in the door insteadin the door instead
of standing.of standing.
ex 2:ex 2: The Sunday night pastThe Sunday night past instead of lastinstead of last
Sunday night.Sunday night.
7. ．． Grammar errorsGrammar errors
ex 1: the doorbellex 1: the doorbell rangsrangs wrong→ wrong→
verb formverb form
ex 2: weex 2: we speakedspeaked wrong→ wrong→ tensetense
ex 3:ex 3: was the four owas the four o’’clockclock the→the→
subjectsubject of the clause has been leftof the clause has been left
outout
8. ‧‧Discourse errorsDiscourse errors
Definition: Discourse errors relate toDefinition: Discourse errors relate to
the way sentences are organised andthe way sentences are organised and
linked in order to make whole textlinked in order to make whole text
ex: at last; eventually (based on theex: at last; eventually (based on the
meaning of words in the context) →meaning of words in the context) →
See page 113See page 113
9. Transfer or interferenceTransfer or interference
Definition: Influence from theDefinition: Influence from the
learnerlearner’’s first language on thes first language on the
second languagesecond language
ex: The learnerex: The learner’’s pronunciation wass pronunciation was
full of sounds from his own languagefull of sounds from his own language
10. Positive transferPositive transfer
Definition: No difference or contrastDefinition: No difference or contrast
is present between the twois present between the two
languages.languages.
ex 1: Sex 1: S ＋＋ VV ＋＋ O; SO; S ＋＋ bebe ＋＋ SCSC
約翰喜歡瑪莉 約翰喜歡瑪莉 ;; 她是個美麗的小姐她是個美麗的小姐
11. OvergeneralisingOvergeneralising
Definition: The process ofDefinition: The process of
generalizing a particular rule or itemgeneralizing a particular rule or item
in the second language.in the second language.
ex: The doorbellex: The doorbell rangsrangs
ex: Weex: We speaked (Vedspeaked (Ved played,→ played,→
breaked, goed, speaked, etc)breaked, goed, speaked, etc)
12. What is a developmental error?What is a developmental error?
Learners are unconsciously workingLearners are unconsciously working
out and organising language, but thisout and organising language, but this
process is not yet complete. This kindprocess is not yet complete. This kind
of error is called a developmentalof error is called a developmental
error.error.
ex: All beginners confuse the tenses inex: All beginners confuse the tenses in
EnglishEnglish
13. What are systematic errors?What are systematic errors?
These errors seem to show evidence of aThese errors seem to show evidence of a
rule being fairly systematically appliedrule being fairly systematically applied
ex: My brother was stopping, he wasex: My brother was stopping, he was
changing, he was having a long hairchanging, he was having a long hair→→ aa
verb form (past continuous) beingverb form (past continuous) being
over-used, but in a systematic way.over-used, but in a systematic way.
14. How to deal with systematic errorsHow to deal with systematic errors
Correction can provide the feedbackCorrection can provide the feedback
the learner needs to help confirmthe learner needs to help confirm
or reject a hypothesis, or to tightenor reject a hypothesis, or to tighten
the application of a rule that is beingthe application of a rule that is being
applied fairly loosely.applied fairly loosely.
15. One way of testing learners failing toOne way of testing learners failing to
apply the ruleapply the rule
Self-correct:Self-correct:
Could the writer change speaked toCould the writer change speaked to
spoke, for example, if told that speakedspoke, for example, if told that speaked
was wrong? If so, this suggests that thewas wrong? If so, this suggests that the
rule is both systematic and correctlyrule is both systematic and correctly
formulated in the learnerformulated in the learner’’s mind, but thats mind, but that
it hasnit hasn’’t yet become automatict yet become automatic
16. The question of prioritiesThe question of priorities
Which errors really matter, and whichWhich errors really matter, and which
dondon’’t?t?
ex: un banane; une pomme nouns→ex: un banane; une pomme nouns→
are distinguished by genderare distinguished by gender
These errors are likely to distract orThese errors are likely to distract or
even irritate the reader or listenereven irritate the reader or listener
17. Attitudes to error and correctionAttitudes to error and correction
Attitudes to error run deep and lie atAttitudes to error run deep and lie at
the heart of teachersthe heart of teachers’’ intuitions aboutintuitions about
language learning. Many people stilllanguage learning. Many people still
believe that errors are contagious, andbelieve that errors are contagious, and
that learners are at risk of catchingthat learners are at risk of catching
the errors other learners make.the errors other learners make.
18. It is often this fear of error infectionIt is often this fear of error infection
that underlies many studentsthat underlies many students’’ dislike ofdislike of
pair and group work. On the other hand,pair and group work. On the other hand,
many teachers believe that to correctmany teachers believe that to correct
errors is a form of interference, especiallyerrors is a form of interference, especially
in fluency activities.in fluency activities.
19. Some teachers go further, and argue thatSome teachers go further, and argue that
correction of any sort creates acorrection of any sort creates a
judgmentaljudgmental –– and therefore stressful-and therefore stressful-
classroom atmosphere, and should beclassroom atmosphere, and should be
avoided altogether.avoided altogether.
20. Responding to errorsResponding to errors
He has a long hair.He has a long hair.
Possible responses:Possible responses:
““NoNo”: negative feedback, no clue for”: negative feedback, no clue for
what is wrong.what is wrong.
Without saying No: facial expression,Without saying No: facial expression,
shake of the head etc.shake of the head etc.
Soften the negative force of No: making aSoften the negative force of No: making a
mmmmmmmm noise to indicate “noise to indicate “Well, that’sWell, that’s
not entirely correct but thanks anyway.not entirely correct but thanks anyway.””
results in students wonder whether he isresults in students wonder whether he is
right or wrong.right or wrong.
21. ““He has long hair.He has long hair.”: strict correction.”: strict correction.
Teachers should remind students not toTeachers should remind students not to
focus only meaning at the expense offocus only meaning at the expense of
form.form.
““No articleNo article”: the application of”: the application of
metalanguage (grammaticalmetalanguage (grammatical
terminology); pinpoint the error toterminology); pinpoint the error to
promote self-correction or peer-promote self-correction or peer-
correction.correction.
““No. AnyoneNo. Anyone?”: unambiguous feedback?”: unambiguous feedback
and invitation for peer-correction, butand invitation for peer-correction, but
risking humiliating the original student.risking humiliating the original student.
22. ““He hasHe has”: replay the student’s”: replay the student’s
utterance up to the point where theutterance up to the point where the
error occurred to isolate the error aserror occurred to isolate the error as
a clue for self-correction. Technique:a clue for self-correction. Technique:
finger-coding.finger-coding.
““He has a long hairHe has a long hair.”: echo the.”: echo the
mistake with a quizzical intonation.mistake with a quizzical intonation.
Less threatening than saying No, butLess threatening than saying No, but
students often fail to self-correct andstudents often fail to self-correct and
think the teacher merely questionsthink the teacher merely questions
the truth they said.the truth they said.
23. ““I am sorry. I didn’t understand.I am sorry. I didn’t understand.””
Variations:Variations: Sorry? He what?Sorry? He what?
Excuse me?Excuse me? etc. clarificationetc. clarification
requests; friendly signal students therequests; friendly signal students the
meaning of their message is unclear,meaning of their message is unclear,
and suggest it might have beenand suggest it might have been
distorted by the form.distorted by the form.
““Just one? Like thisJust one? Like this ?”: [ draw bald?”: [ draw bald
man with one long hair] literallyman with one long hair] literally
interpret the student’s utterance tointerpret the student’s utterance to
show his unintended error.show his unintended error.
24. ““A long hair is just one singleA long hair is just one single
hair, like you find in your soup.hair, like you find in your soup.
For the hair on your head youFor the hair on your head you
wouldn’t use an article: He haswouldn’t use an article: He has
long hairlong hair..”: impromptu teaching”: impromptu teaching
point; reactive teaching in respondpoint; reactive teaching in respond
students’ error, not trying tostudents’ error, not trying to
preempt them. Teacher-centered andpreempt them. Teacher-centered and
passive students.passive students.
25. ““Oh, he has long hair, has heOh, he has long hair, has he?”:?”:
covert feedback (reformulation)covert feedback (reformulation) 重製重製 ,,
重組重組 ,, 再形成再形成 ; expansion and; expansion and
reformulation provide a temporaryreformulation provide a temporary
scaffold for children’s developingscaffold for children’s developing
language competence. Drawback:language competence. Drawback:
students might not notice thestudents might not notice the
differences between the utterancedifferences between the utterance
from theirs and teachers’.from theirs and teachers’.
E.g.: child: Teddy hat.E.g.: child: Teddy hat.
Mother: Yes, Teddy’s got a hatMother: Yes, Teddy’s got a hat
on, hasn’t he?on, hasn’t he?
26. ““Good.”: ( OK) intention is toGood.”: ( OK) intention is to
acknowledge students’ contribution,acknowledge students’ contribution,
irrespective of either accuracy orirrespective of either accuracy or
meaning; lull them into a false sensemeaning; lull them into a false sense
of security, and fossilization.of security, and fossilization.
Teacher says nothing but writesTeacher says nothing but writes
down error for future reference.down error for future reference.
Intention is to postpone the feedbackIntention is to postpone the feedback
so as not to disrupt the talk. (Realso as not to disrupt the talk. (Real
operating conditions)operating conditions)
27. The choice of feedback strategy willThe choice of feedback strategy will
depend on factors as the following:depend on factors as the following:
The type ofThe type of errorerror: major effect on: major effect on
communication? Learners can self-communication? Learners can self-
repair?repair?
The type ofThe type of activityactivity: focus on form: focus on form
or on meaning?or on meaning?
The type ofThe type of learnerlearner: discourage or: discourage or
humiliate learners? Learners feelhumiliate learners? Learners feel
short-changed if no correction?short-changed if no correction?
28. Sample lessonSample lesson
Lesson one: using learners’ errors toLesson one: using learners’ errors to
review cohesive devicesreview cohesive devices
(intermediate)(intermediate)
Participant: a class of mixedParticipant: a class of mixed
nationalities in Australianationalities in Australia
Goal: sentences and parts ofGoal: sentences and parts of
sentences are connected by wordssentences are connected by words
likelike and, but, however, soand, but, however, so etc.etc.
29. Step 1: the teacher hands out aStep 1: the teacher hands out a
worksheet which consist of sentencesworksheet which consist of sentences
collected from students’ previouscollected from students’ previous
written work, and he asks them towritten work, and he asks them to
attempt to correct in pairs andattempt to correct in pairs and
identify one feature in common.identify one feature in common.
30. Step 2: the teacher helps them toStep 2: the teacher helps them to
pick out some peripheral problemspick out some peripheral problems
((wentwent substitute forsubstitute for has droppedhas dropped
intointo) and avoids dealing with) and avoids dealing with
despitedespite andand neverthelessnevertheless..
Step 3: the teacher distributes aStep 3: the teacher distributes a
handout about grammar and askhandout about grammar and ask
them to study before returning to thethem to study before returning to the
sentence correction task.sentence correction task.
31. Step 4: the teacher elicits correctedStep 4: the teacher elicits corrected
versions of sentence and writes onversions of sentence and writes on
the board, underlining the linkingthe board, underlining the linking
devices and ask individuals todevices and ask individuals to
explain the usage.explain the usage.
Step 5: the teacher has out theStep 5: the teacher has out the
exercise about linking devices.exercise about linking devices.
32. Discussion: fluency practice can beDiscussion: fluency practice can be
targeted at latter stage, but accuracytargeted at latter stage, but accuracy
may be best dealt with a reactivemay be best dealt with a reactive
and reflective approach. Usingand reflective approach. Using
students’ errors for consciousness-students’ errors for consciousness-
raising purpose is suitable for theraising purpose is suitable for the
specific problems of the students.specific problems of the students.
33. Evaluation:Evaluation:
The E-factor: collecting learners’The E-factor: collecting learners’
errors from written work is easy byerrors from written work is easy by
computers while capturing spokencomputers while capturing spoken
errors. Self-study grammars bookserrors. Self-study grammars books
or reference notes are available, soor reference notes are available, so
making grammar handout ismaking grammar handout is
unnecessary.unnecessary.
Error-analysis is effective for L1Error-analysis is effective for L1
transfer mistake.transfer mistake.
34. Grammar lessons should be taughtGrammar lessons should be taught
around errors the learners actuallyaround errors the learners actually
made, but not taught to preempt themade, but not taught to preempt the
errors might make.errors might make. Error-drivenError-driven
approachapproach: focus instruction on what: focus instruction on what
really matters, in favour ofreally matters, in favour of
effectivenesseffectiveness..
The A-factor: a focus on errors mayThe A-factor: a focus on errors may
discourage learners. However, mostdiscourage learners. However, most
students accept explicit feedback onstudents accept explicit feedback on
error between focused instructionerror between focused instruction
and random acquisition.and random acquisition.
35. Sample lesson 2
Teaching grammar through
reformulation (Elementary)
Participant: a group of Japanese
students
Goal: the impetus underlying
reformulation is more: This is how I
would say it.
36. Reformulation
It is the process by which the
teacher takes the meanings the
learners are attempting to express in
English and “translates” these into
an acceptable form.
37. Step 1
Teacher introduces the theme; such
as “disaster”, and without giving
explicit prompts, but indicating that
students should say anything with
the topic.
Teacher encourages the production
of isolated words, phrases and
sentences.
38. Step 2
When students are starting to run
out of idea or start departing to
widely from the topic, the teacher
stops the activity and draws a line
down the centre of the board.
Asks one student as the class scribe,
collate the ideas that students have
produced about the topic, write up
on to the board.
39. Step 3
Teacher read the students’ text
aloud, without commentary, but
asking any questions where the
meaning is unclear.
Teacher reformulates this text on to
the other half of the board while he
always insisting that this is the way I
would say it.
40. Step 4
Students then, working individually,
write their own texts about similar
topic.
They compare these in pairs,
suggesting changes and
improvements, before submitting
their texts to the teacher for
correction.
41. Discussion
In step 1, the focus at this stage is simply on
brainstorming ideas.
In step 2, the teacher renounces any active role
in the construction of the text.
In step 3, the students are involved in the text
reformulation process.
In step4, using students’ original text (erase or
cover up) as a prompt. It will force attention of
form, as well as encouraging greater
attentiveness during the reformulation stage.
42. Evaluation
The E-factor:
1. It requires no materials preparation since the
texts are created entirely by the students.
2. This process requires only a board, although
overhead projectors are very useful for this
purpose.
3. The greatest demand is on the teachers’ skill at
on-the-spot reformulation.
43. The A-factor:
1. The reformulation of learners’ texts is likely to
have greater relevance to learners than the study
of “imported” texts.
2. It has to be handled sensitively, so that
learners see it as an empowering activity rather
than an exercise in humiliation.
3. Any activity that allows the teacher prolonged
control of the blackboard runs the risk of
becoming perilously “chalky-talky”.
44. Conclusions
Not all errors are caused by L1
interference.
Not all errors are grammar errors,
and not all grammar errors are
simply tense mistakes.
45. Not all errors matter equally: nor do
they all respond to the same kind of
treatment.
Correction is not the only form of
feedback that teachers can provide.
Other options include positive
feedback, clarification requests, and
reformulation.
46. Failure to provide some negative feedback
may have a damaging effect on the
learner’s language development in the
long run; on the other hand , providing
only negative feedback may be ultimately
demotivating.
Learners’ errors offer a rich source of
material for language focus and
consciousness-raising.
