sociolinguistics, lingua franca, code switching, code mixing, pidgin, creole

1. SOCIOLINGUISTICS
Language Contact
Ahmet Mesut Ateş
March 20, 2013
Applied Linguistics
Karadeniz Technical University

2. Before moving on…
Monolingual
a person who speaks only one language
Bilingual
a person who can speak two languages
Multilingual
a person who can speak more than one language
Bilingualism
the process of a monolingual learning a second language
Polygot
a person who is capable of speaking and writing several
languages with a hight level of proficiency
Language Contact in "Sociolinguistics" by Ahmet Mesut Ateş

3. When two languages are not enough…
When bilinguals fail to communicate properly with their
interlocutors they can resort to one or more of the following
avenues:
1. Use a third language
2. Mix the two languages
3. Use different languages for different purposes
Thus we can suggest that bilingual problems between
interlocutors lead to:
– Lingua Franca
– Pidgin (Creole)
– Code-switching
Language Contact in "Sociolinguistics" by Ahmet Mesut Ateş

4. Outcomes of language contact
• Language Z
Lingua
Franca used for
communication
Language X
Meets • Language X and
Pidgin
Language Y Y are mixed
• Language X and
Code
Switching
Y are used
successively
Language Contact in "Sociolinguistics" by Ahmet Mesut Ateş

5. 1 Lingua Franca
Lingua Franca is a language used between two interlocutors but
is not the first language (or native tongue) of either of the
interlocutors.
Many Languages throughout the history served as lingua franca:
– Chinese
– French
– Arabic
– Turkish
– English
We can conclude that mainly political and economical power
defines the Lingua Franca.
Language Contact in "Sociolinguistics" by Ahmet Mesut Ateş

6. 1.1 English as an International Language
English as a «second language» or «foreign language»?
Second Language: any additional language used in a country for
communicative purposes.
Foreign Language: any language learned after native (mother) tongue.
English is the second language in French Canada* but is a foreign
language in Turkey.
Many countries have multiple languages spoken and used officially; a
majority of these countries are conolized African and Latin countries
by French and British empires.
*Canada is officially bilingual under the Official Languages Act and the
Constitution of Canada that require the federal government to deliver services
in both official languages.
Language Contact in "Sociolinguistics" by Ahmet Mesut Ateş

7. 1.1 English as an International Language
Expanding
circle
• English is spoken by 2 billion user
either as a first, second language
or lingua franca.
Outer circle • The number of international
English speakers (also can be
referred as non-native English
speakers) has outnumbered the
native English speakers.
inner circle • We can no more speak of an
English language but of Englishes.
Language Contact in "Sociolinguistics" by Ahmet Mesut Ateş

8. 1.1.1 Inner Circle Englishes
Inner circle countries are those where English is spoken
monolingually, where it is the first and only language of the
speakers.
– British English
– American English
– Canadian English
– Australian English
– New Zealand English
Language Contact in "Sociolinguistics" by Ahmet Mesut Ateş

9. 1.1.2 Outer Circle Englishes
Outer circle countries are those using English as second
language. English is exported to these countries through
colonialism and later acquired the status of community
language.
The distinctive status of outer circle Englishes is the nativization process, that
is to say they have undergone their own independent development influenced
by local languages.
• Indian English
• Pakistani English
• Ghanaian English
• Singapor English
Language Contact in "Sociolinguistics" by Ahmet Mesut Ateş

10. 1.1.3 Expanding Circle Englishes
Expanding circle Englishes are those shaped under direct
influence of the dominant language. In these countries English
has the foreign language status.
– Turkish English
– Japanese English
– Chinese English
– German English
– Egyptian English
– French English
– Italian English
Language Contact in "Sociolinguistics" by Ahmet Mesut Ateş

11. 2 Pidgin and Creole
Pidgin is a sociolinguistic phenomenon where two people whose first
languages are different attempt to communicate using elements from both of
their languages in a mixed manner. They:
• Use words from both languages,
• Mix morphology and syntax,
• Use the simplest sounds from both languages.
Obtained language is called pidgin. Characteristics of pidgin language:
• Limited vocabulary
• Simple grammatical rules
• Small inventory of sounds
• Spoken by a small fraction of the community
• Used for specific purposes such as trade, religion.
Language Contact in "Sociolinguistics" by Ahmet Mesut Ateş

12. 2 Pidgin and Creole
Some of pidgin languages are listed below:
• Patois (Jamaican and English)
• Basque-Icelandic pidgin (Basque, Germanic and Romance)
• Béarlachas (Gaelic Irish and English)
• Hawaiian (Portuguese, Hawaiian, Cantonese, English, Spanish)
• Nigerian (English and Nigeria Krio)*
• Portuñol (Spanish and Portugese)
• Denglisch (Deutsch and English)
• Siculish (Sicilian and English)
*Nigerian pidgin is used as lingua franca throughout Africa.
Language Contact in "Sociolinguistics" by Ahmet Mesut Ateş

13. 2 Pidgin and Creole
When a contact language is passed onto new generations in the same fashion
a mother tongue is acquired by children, pidgin is called ‘creole’.
A creole language, is a stable natural language developed from the mixing of
parent languages; creoles differ from pidgins in that creoles have been
nativized by children as their primary language.
Pidgin Etymology
Assumed to be coming from a Chinese attempt to pronounce the English
word business during trades in the Far East.
Creole Etymology
An adaptation of the Castilian Spanish criollo ("homey, local yokel"), from
Portuguese crioulo, diminutive of cria ("person raised in one’s house,
servant"), from Portuguese criar ("to rear, to bring up"), from Latin creo ("to
create").
Language Contact in "Sociolinguistics" by Ahmet Mesut Ateş

14. 3 Code-switching
Code switching is a well-known event in bilingual communities. It
refers to usage of two languages in a mixed manner, generally in oral
interaction. There are two types of code swtiching:
1. Inter-sentential (code-switching)
2. Intra sentential (code-mixing)
Some of the reasons for code switching:
• Desire to reveal mixed identity or to show off
• Inability to express an idea in one language
• Inability to recall a word
• Existence of lexical gap*
• More effective communication
• Wish to obtain a special effect.
*Lexical gap (lacuna) is the absence of a word in a particaular language.
Language Contact in "Sociolinguistics" by Ahmet Mesut Ateş

15. 3 Code-switching
Inter-sentential switching is to use sentences from two languages
following each other.
Intra sentential switching involves the use of a word or an axpression
from one language in a sentence whose structure belongs to another
language.
Mum! Your friend, Alev, geldi.
Anne benim books nerede?
Yazar narrative tekniği ile dikkat çekti.
He entered the line for the Nişantaşı dolmuş.
Bana trouble vermek için.Ben ağlayınca o da fun yapacak.
All right. Buyursun. Kitchendayım.
All İstanbullular spend their weekend on Bosphorus.
Language Contact in "Sociolinguistics" by Ahmet Mesut Ateş

16. 3.1 Code-switching vs Pidgin
Pidgin Code-mixing
Phonological, morphological and lexical Grammatic or pronunciation features are
integration is extensive and effective over kept intact, shift is restricted to
the sentence. vocabulary.
Language Contact in "Sociolinguistics" by Ahmet Mesut Ateş