1. Sodium Bicarbonate: A Role in Collegiate Swimming
Allison Kliewer
University of the Incarnate Word
December 5, 2012

2. Sodium Bicarbonate: A Role in Collegiate Swimming
Competitive athletes compete and train to the best of their abilities. They have to be
able to perform in any condition and at their best in order to excel in a sport. Athletes trying to
achieve at the highest level of competition often use ergogenic aids such as creatine, caffeine,
and ephedrine to enhance sport performance. An ergogenic aid is defined as “any means of
enhancing energy utilization, including energy production, control, and efficiency” (Silver,
2001). Albeit limited, the use of ergogenic aids has been increasing in the collegiate athlete
population (Dascombe et al, 2010).
Sodium bicarbonate (SB), more commonly known as baking soda, has been used for
years. As an ergogenic aid SB is reported to reduce the negative effects of acid build up in the
circulation. The claims made about SB are that it increases endurance, shortens recovery time,
and helps increase intensity during exercise. In addition, claims by supplement shops include
that taking SB will increase endurance, intensity with resistance training, help with muscle
recovery, and maximize physique and performance impact. Claims for enhanced performance
can be made, whether valid or not, without demonstrated safety and efficacy of a product
(ADA, 2009). There are no regulations against the use of SB and is not banned by the
International Olympic Committee (IOC) or the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA).
However, there is conflicting evidence in the literature that the supplement enhances
performance, as the ergogenic effects of SB have been demonstrated in some types of exercise
and not others. According to the Australian Institute of Sport, sodium bicarbonate is considered
a grade A supplement and has been shown to benefit performance in specific situations in sport
following a specific protocol (2010).

3. There is limited research on competitive swimmers even though many swimmers use it
and many coaches recommend using it (personal experience). Limitations also lie in research
regarding the motives behind the collegiate swimmers choice to take SB. Conclusive evidence
is needed to determine the role of SB on competitive swimmers (Edge, J., Bishop, D., and
Goodman, C. 2006).
Extensive research has not been conducted on NCAA swimmers in regards to the use of
SB. The purpose of this study is to assess basic nutrition and supplementation knowledge, and
the use of SB including frequency, perceived benefits, and reasons for use in NCAA swimmers.
Literature Review
A study of use and perceptions of nutrition and supplements was conducted by
Karabudak and Ercumen on elite water sport athletes who competed at national, international
and Olympic levels within Europe (2011). Results show that 72% of athletes take supplements,
and believe they are necessary to be successful in sport. The primary purpose for taking
supplements was to provide energy, maintain strength, maintain health, and restore nutrients.
The most commonly used supplements by swimmers were multivitamins, multivitamin with
minerals, and creatine. The lack of congruence between the reasons and supplements used,
shows poor understanding of why the athletes take supplements. Forty-one percent of the
athletes claimed an explanation for not seeking further information regarding a specific
supplement was that “the product must be safe since it is a commonly advice.” Results also
indicate that the belief of supplements as an unavoidable part of competition, and the pressure
to take dietary supplements is reflected in the high prevalence of use (Karabudak and Ercumen,

4. 2011). Fifty-four percent of those who do not take supplements and 78% of those who do take
supplements felt well informed about nutrition and nutrition supplements, however, other
results showed that 53% of athletes had minimal or no knowledge about the supplements they
took, and only 36% of those who used supplements were aware of the possible contamination.
The authors conclude that athletes appear to take supplements with poor understanding of
why they take them (Karabudak and Ercumen, 2011).
Froiland et al, 2004, conducted a survey on 207 male and female division I athletes. The
survey was developed to determine an athlete’s definition of supplement, use and regularity of
supplements, source of information and recommendations regarding use and reasons for
choosing to use, supplemental frequency of use, personal explanation for use and how it
enhances performance or improve health, and demographics. Only 11% reported having never
used supplements and 34% accurately defined supplements by including a positive effect on
sport performance, strength, muscle, and recovery in their definition. Of those who used, 86%
took supplements for energy. Most information on supplements was obtained from either,
family, teammates, strength coach, athletic trainer, registered dietitian (RD), friend or coach.
The reasons for use were for health, strength and power, increased energy, and weight and
muscle gain. Thirty-three percent did not consider fluid and calorie replacement products as a
dietary supplement, and only 37% correctly identified the appropriate function of vitamins
while 30% thought vitamins provided energy. Therefore, it is evident that athletes do not have
a clear or complete understanding of what qualifies as a dietary supplement. It should be noted
the athletic department provided a RD specializing in sports nutrition at no charge to the

5. athletes. In this study advice given by staff clearly affected the choices of the athletes regarding
supplementation.
Lewis, M. surveyed 152 male and female division I athletes of various sports with a 14
item questionnaire (2012). Results showed that 51% of those that used nutritional ergogenic
aids, and 33% of those who did not, believed supplements are the most effective way to build
muscle and increase energy (2012). Of the 80% who used nutritional ergogenic supplements,
90% reported an experienced benefit.
Mechanism of Sodium Bicarbonate
During high-intensity exercise the body is supplied energy via anaerobic glycolysis. The
by-product of anaerobic glycolysis is lactic acid which builds up within the muscle cell, inhibiting
energy production, and resulting in fatigue (Ghaphery, N. A. 1995). The buildup of lactic acid
eventually will leak out of the muscle cell into the blood (Ghaphery, N. A. 1995). Sodium
bicarbonate is used as a buffering agent in the extracellular environment to improve
performance during continuous short-term high intensity work. Increased extracellular
buffering capacity efficiently buffers diffused hydrogen ions and lactate. This helps to indirectly
maintain intracellular pH because SB cannot diffuse directly into the muscle cells and affect
intracellular pH (Ghaphery, N. A. 1995).
Preventing a decrease in blood pH via increased buffering capacity has been
hypothesized to provide a delay in fatigue and enhance performance. Fatigue is attributed to
lower pH values which inhibit muscular contraction by: inhibiting enzyme activity in key
metabolic pathways (glycolysis, citric acid cycle and electron transport oxidative

6. phosphorylation), inhibiting the release of calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum and
the binding of calcium ions to the protein troponin reducing the rate of cross bridge cycling. It
also impairs the rate of depolarization of the muscle membrane and propagation of the neural
impulse initiated at the motor end plate (Requena et al, 2005).
Intra and extracellular buffer systems act to reduce buildup of hydrogen ions by
preventing a large drop in pH during intense muscle contractions (Edge, J., Bishop, D., and
Goodman, C. 2006). Sodium bicarbonate ingestion acts as a buffering agent and is thought to
improve performance in short term anaerobic exercise by reducing the accumulation of
hydrogen ions in skeletal muscle, interstitium, and blood (Edge, J., Bishop, D., and Goodman, C.
2006). Sodium bicarbonate facilitates efflux of hydrogen ions and lactic acid from cells and
reportedly increases the rate of ATP production. (Raymer, G., Marsh, G., Kowalchuk, T., and
Thompson, R. 2004). Edge et al. found SB ingestion leads to a greater lactate threshold, mean
power, and short term endurance (2006).
Problem
Only two studies have been conducted on swimmers as seen in Tabe 1. Of the studies
on sodium bicarbonate, and the limited research with collegiate swimmers, no quantitative
study has been conducted researching the relationship between attitudes, beliefs, nutrition
knowledge and the usage of SB. Little published data specifically describes the dietary and
psychological profiles of NCAA swimmers. Scientific studies have thoroughly explored the
ergogenic mechanism of SB and the performance results in various sports other than
swimming, but less is known concerning swimmers’ attitudes toward integrating nutritional

7. practices, or SB, into his or her training/competition regimen and whether or not the athlete
believes this area to be beneficial to training/competing.

8. Table 1: Studies that use swimmers as subjects and explore relationship of sodium bicarbonate with swim performance, which lack
subjective data.
Article Subject Age Anthropometrics Training Regimen NaHCO Dose Method Variables
Measured
GI Tolerability
Zajac, et al. 8 male
trained
competitive
youth
swimmers
post
puberty
15.1 ±0.4
years
body mass 56.1 ±
1.2 kg, height
1.66 ± 0.03 m,
training
experience 6.6 ±
0.6 years
Swimmers trained
approximately 25
h per week,
including 2.5 h of
strength training
on land
Average volume
of swim training
equaled 69.5 km
per week
300 mg. kg BM
NaHCO
dissolved in 500ml
solution
Fluid was ingested
over 15 in period, 90
min before start of
the test trial
Each subject
completed two
test trials of
4x50m freestyle
swims with 1
min passive rest
between each
sprint
Blood Ph
SB
BE
Lactate
Not Reported
Lindh, et al. 9 male elite-
standard
swimmers
3- world
ranked top 5
2- world
ranked top 30
4- top 8
nationally
20.4 ±
1.7
180.5 ± 5.1 cm
76.1 ± 4.0 kg
Regular training
regimen
average 10 x 2.5
hours pool-based
sessions per week
average 3 x 1.5
hours land-based
sessions per week
300 mg. kg BM
NaHCO
supplementation
was consumed over
a 30 min period
commencing 90 min
prior to the start of
the performance
with water taken ad
libitum
Maximal effort
200 m freestyle
swim on 3
separate
occasions
standardized
warm up
(2000m -30 min
duration)
10 min post
warm up
swimmers
competed in
200 m trial
pH values
Blood
bicarbonate
Base excess
Lactate
Not Reported

9. Methodology
A group interview method will be used to administer the survey as a questionnaire. The
questionnaire will be developed by the researcher to evaluate the swimmers preexisting
nutrition and supplementation knowledge level, perceptions, beliefs, attitudes and utilization
practices of SB. The swimmers taking part in the study are elite swimmers training
approximately 20 hours a week and have been cleared to participate in intense physical activity
via institutional sports physicals. They have a routine practice six days a week in which all
swimmers participate. The swimmers cover approximately 55km to 60 km per week. The
subjects are a sub-population of NCAA swimmers.
Subjects must be at least 18 years or older. Subjects will not be identified and data
collection will be kept confidential. Documentation will be stored in a file cabinet in the closet
of room 316 in the Bonilla Science Hall, in a locked room that only faculty have access to. Taking
part of the survey will in no way hinder the swimmers athletic or academic relationship with the
University of the Incarnate Word. No action will be taken if there are reports of illegal or
banned supplementation use. Subjects are at limited risk due to the nature of the study.
Data Collection
The head swim coach will be contacted prior to recruitment to obtain permission to
conduct the survey with the swimmers. Subjects will be recruited via email and by word of
mouth by the head swim coach. A date will be set with the swim team at earliest convenience
and the downstairs classroom will be reserved for the date of the questionnaire administration.
At the beginning of the swimmers normal practice time, the questionnaire will be administered

10. in the presence of the researcher. Swimmers will agree to participate by signing the IRB
approved consent form. Coaches will be asked to leave the room, in avoidance of any possible
bias from their presence. The researcher will give an introduction, explanation, and benefits of
the survey followed by instructions and distribution of questionnaire. While in the classroom
the swimmers will be asked not to share answers, answer honestly, and remain silent unless
they have questions in which they will raise their hand, and personal attention will be given.
Questionnaire
The questionnaire used was developed based on the research question and objectives.
Important information required was decided with a target population defined. A group
interview was determined to be the best method for data collection with this population.
Content of questions were divided into three domains: nutrition and supplementation
knowledge, SB knowledge and usage, and attitudes, beliefs, and influences of nutrition and
supplementation. Wording of questions and answer choices were articulated so that the
subject would be able to offer accurate answers. Multiple choice, numeric open-ended, text
open-ended, and agreement scale are included as answer choices. To reduce possible
habituation, same answer choices are limited and changes in positive answers choices were
made (Appendix A). Questions pertaining specifically to swimmers were used to maintain
interest. The order and format of questions provide easy and less personal questions early and
the more difficult and open ended questions later. Related questions were randomized and
separated in order to reduce the possibility of associations made by the subject through other
questions. Qualities of the questionnaire followed that of M. Crawford’s Marketing Research

11. and Information Systems (1997). Concepts associated with misconceptions or attitudes
towards supplements and SB were identified through review of peer reviewed research articles
and based on personal experience as and with college athletes.
Field Study
A field study was given to nutrition graduate students, registered dietitians, and
previous NCAA swimmers. The purpose of the field study is to determine if the questions
achieved desired results, are placed in the best order, easily understood, and is not misleading
to the subject, allowing for additional or elimination of specific questions or instruction. The
field study included eight, what will be referred to as experts in the field. Of the eight, three
BA’s were held, one registered dietitian, two BS’s in dietetics, BS in business, BS in nutrition, BS
in nutritional sciences, and a M Ed in Kinesiology. Combined they had 16 years experience as a
NCAA swimmer, 14 years experience in nutrition, and 2 years in another NCAA sport field.
Feedback from study was encouraged and changes were made accordingly. The experts
validated the questionnaire. It took an average time of 13 minutes to complete the survey.
Results
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) will be used for data analysis in the
form of descriptive statistics for all variables, including demographic information to determine
use of SB and knowledge base scores. Univariate analysis and central tendencies will be
determined and presented as frequency distribution on a univariate frequency table.

12. It is of interest of the researcher to identify: basic sport nutrition knowledge, basic
knowledge of supplements, knowledge of SB as an ergogenic aid, perceived mechanism of
action for SB, ethics pertaining to supplemental use, perceived demand of sport, sources of
nutritional and supplement knowledge, and a detailed usage of SB in NCAA swimmers.
Hypothesis
A relationship between perceived demand of sport, sex, ethics pertaining to supplement
use, and the use of SB is expected. Basic nutrition and supplementation knowledge is expected
to be average.
Significance
This study may benefit the expansion of current literature on the application of
nutrition-related practices in collegiate swimmers.

13. References
Australian Sports Commission. (2010). Supplements and sports foods. In Burke & Deakin (Eds.),
Clinical Sports Nutrition (5th
ed.). Sydney: McGraw Hill.
Crawford, M. (1997). Questionnaire design. Marketing Research and Information Systems.
Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Dascombe, B., Karunaratna, M., Cartoon, J., Fergie, B., & Goodman, C. (2010) Nutritional
supplementation habits and perceptions of elite athletes within a state-based sporting
institute. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport. 13(2): 274-280.
Edge, J., Bishop, D., & Goodman, C. (2006). Effects of chronic NaHCO ingestion during interval
training on changes to muscle buffer capacity, metabolism, and short-term endurance
performance. Journal of Applied Physiology. 101: 918-925.
dio:10.1152/japplphysiol.01534.2005.
Froiland, K., Koszewski, W., Hingst. J. & Kopecky, L. (2004). Nutritional supplement use among
college athletes and their sources of information. International Journal of Sport
Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism. 14: 104-120.
Ghaphery, N. A. (1995) Performance enhancing drugs. Orthopedic Clinics of North America. 26
(3): 438-439.
Karabudak, E. & Ercumen, S. (2011). Water sports athletes and nutritional supplements: A study
of use and perceptions. Scientific Research and Essays. 6(2): 4839-4847.

14. Lewis, M., (2012). Evaluation of knowledge beliefs and use of nutritional ergogenic aids among
collegiate athletes. Master’s Theses. paper 835.
Lindh, A., Peyrebrune, M., Ingham, S., Bailey, D., & Folland, J. (2008). Sodium bicarbonate
improves swimming performance. International Journal of Sports Medicine. 29: 519-523.
Raymer, G., Marsh, G., Kowalchuk, T., & Thompson, R. (2004). Etabolic effects of induced
alkalosis during progressive forearm exercise to fatigue. Journal of Applied Physiology.
96: 2050-2056. doi:10.1152/japplphysoiol.01261.2003.
Requena, B., Zabala, M., Padial, P. & Feriche, B. (2005). Sodium bicarbonate and sodium citrate:
Ergogenic aids? Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 19(1): 213-224.
Zajac, A., Cholewa, J., Poprzecki, S Waskiewicz,Z., & Langfort, J. (2009). Effects of sodium
bicarbonate ingestion on swim Performance in youth athletes. Journal of Sports Science
and Medicine. 8:45-50.
(2009). Position of the American Dietetic Association, Dietitians of Canada, and the American
College of Sports Medicine: Nutrition and athletic performance. Journal of the American
Dietetic Association. Doi:10.1016/j.jada.2009.01.005.

15. Appendix A
Questionnaire