Excellent cns

TCNV 214
Slide 1
Badarul Zaman Hamidin
Universiti Kuala Lumpur
Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology
UniKL MIAT
KP(JPS)5195/US/38
DCAM No. AO/0110/03

Center of Excellence for Aviation TrainingCenter of Excellence for Aviation Training
TCNV 214
Slide 2
Instructor: Badarul Zaman Hamidin
Office: D-02-01
Office Hour: 0800 - 1715 Monday to Thursday
0800 – 1700 Friday

TCNV 214
Slide 3
Communication
& Navigation
TCNV 214

TCNV 214
Slide 4
TCNV 214
• Course Description
– A study of communication and navigation related equipment that includes
identification of types, purposes, operations, requirements, and installations. Also
includes basic understanding of radio signal generations.
• Schedule: Monday
2.30pm – 4.30pm
• Textbook: A&P Technician
Airframe (Jeppesen)
• Suggested Reading:
1. Aircraft Radio Systems / by J. Powell ISBN 0-89100-356-8
2. Aircraft Electricity & Electronics / by Thomas K. Eismin - 5th
Ed.; Glencoe Series, 1995
3. Avionics Fundamentals / Jeppesen
4. AC 43.13-1B Chapter 12
• Suggested Web:
1. Howstuffworks.com

TCNV 214
Slide 5
Syllabus
Week /
Session
Topic
1 Radio Fundamentals / Project A-38
2 Communication 1
3 Communication 2 / Project A-39
4 Navigation 1
5 Navigation 2 / Project A-40
6 Review / Phase Test
7
8
9
10

TCNV 214
Slide 6
Radio
Fundamentals
Day 1

TCNV 214
Slide 7
General
“Radio” means wireless transmission of information from one point to another.
Radio wave technology provides:
Communication
Navigation
Radar
Enables aircraft to fly under IFR
Requirement for two-way communication between air traffic controller and
aircraft.
Terminology
AVIONICS  means Aviation Electronics
Radio  wireless transmission of information
Communication  process of exchanging information
Navigation  process of piloting an aircraft towards intended destination

TCNV 214
Slide 8
Lesson Objective
• To understand the principle of radio waves and wave
propagation.
• To understand the basic operation of radio transmission and
reception.
• To identify components related to radio communications and
navigations, installations and maintenance practice.

TCNV 214
Slide 9
Introduction
• General
– “Radio” means wireless transmission of information from one point to
another.
– Radio wave technology provides:
• Communication
• Navigation
• Radar
– Enables aircraft to fly under IFR
– Requirement for two-way communication between air traffic controller and
aircraft.
• Terminology
– AVIONICS  means Aviation Electronics
– Radio  wireless transmission of information
– Communication  process of exchanging information
– Navigation  process of piloting an aircraft towards intended destination

TCNV 214
Slide 10
Radio Waves Utilizations
• Radio Waves Technology
– Communications radios is the first avionics systems to utilize this
technology
– Later, navigational radios were developed and continuously improved
• Communication
– Radios, Phones, Intercom, and even Internet Access
– Recently, Lufthansa airlines provide broadband communications for
customers to access during flight
• Navigation
– ADF – Auto Directional Finder
– ILS – Instrument Landing Systems
– Collision Avoidance Systems
– ELT – Emergency Locator Transmitter
– Radar

TCNV 214
Slide 11
Radio Fundamentals
• To understand the radio operating principles, it is essential for you to be
familiar with related topics and terms that make up the radio technology
possible.
– Principles of alternating current
– Electromagnetic waves / radiations
– Frequency / Frequency Spectrum / Frequency Bands
– Wave propagation
– Modulation
– Radio Components
• Transmitters
• Amplifiers
• Modulators / Demodulators
• Filters
• Antennas
• Receivers
• Tuner
• Microphones & Speakers

TCNV 214
Slide 12
Alternating Current
• From basic electrics, when we consider DC current flows through a
conductor:
1. Magnetic builds up surround the conductor
2. Voltage will be dropped
3. Heat will produce (loss energy due to resistance)
• However, in AC systems, items 2 and 3 above can be reduced due to
the behavior of AC which continuously changing the direction and
magnitude of the current flow, while leaving item 1 to change
proportionally with the magnitude, or strength, of the current flows.
• Although, in AC the resistance towards the changing current will be
caused by the induced voltage results from the continuous build-up and
collapse of the magnetic field. Hence, the conductor will have an
inductance property.

TCNV 214
Slide 13
Alternating Current
• Definition
– Current that periodically changes direction and continuously changes in
magnitude.
– Also known as “Sinusoidal Voltage”
• The behavior of the current is represented by Sine Wave
• Cycle – one complete sine wave of 360°
• Alternation is one half a cycle (½ Cycle)

TCNV 214
Slide 14
Electromagnetic Waves
• Also refers to radio waves in radio transmission studies.
• Produced by synchronized oscillations of electric fields and magnetic fields.
• Both fields produced will be perpendicular (90°) towards each other.
• When wire is fed with Alternating Current, electromagnetic waves will be radiated in various patterns in an
infinite frequencies to the space and if intercepted by parallel wire to it, the signal is transferred.
• This energy is assumed to travel at the speed of light, ‘C’ (3.0X108
meter/second or 186,300 mile/second )
• The strength depends on its frequency.
• The effective range of travel, or distance, will be determine by the wavelength of the signal.

TCNV 214
Slide 15
Frequency
• One characteristics of a sine waves is the Frequency
• Frequency = Cycle per second
• In radio transmission, frequency refers to number of electromagnetic field
oscillations that take place in one second.
• Measurement unit
– Cycle per second (cps)
– Hertz (Hz)
• Electromagnetic spectrum (or Frequency Spectrum) classifies the characteristics
of frequencies.
• The classification varies from higher frequency (Gamma Ray), visible light to the
lower frequency, that is radio frequency.

TCNV 214
Slide 16
Wavelength & Polarization
Wavelength
• The distance from one crest of one wave
to another.
• Symbol is ‘Lambda’ ( λ )
• It is inversely proportional to the frequency
of the signal, since:
λ = C / ƒ ; where ƒ = frequency
and C = speed of light
• Therefore, low frequency has greater
wavelength, thus can travel further.
Polarization
• Important to induce the maximum voltage
into the receiving antenna.
• Antenna must be installed in such way
that it is perpendicular to the magnetic (H)
field, and parallel to the electric (E) field.
• Vertically polarized
– Transmitting antenna is vertical
– E field is vertical, H field is horizontal
– Maximum reception by vertical antenna
• Horizontally polarized
– Transmitting antenna is horizontal
– E field is horizontal, H field is vertical
– Maximum reception by horizontal antenna

TCNV 214
Slide 17
Frequency Spectrum
• Radio Frequency Spectrum  from 3 kHz to 300 GHz
• Radio frequency below 20,000 Hz or 20 kHz also known as audio frequency which can be
understood by human.
• Above 20,000 Hz or 20 kHz range, human is not able to hear the sound and this range is
used for radio transmission or Radio Waves.
• Radio waves are classified into frequency band, and divided into 8 bands.
• The bands are VLF, LF, MF, HF, VHF, UHF, SHF, and EHF
• SHF and EHF also known as Microwave Frequencies

TCNV 214
Slide 18
Frequency Band
BAND & FUNCTION FREQUENCY
Very Low Frequency (VLF) 3 – 30 kHz
Omega 10 – 14 kHz
Low Frequency (LF) 30 – 300 kHz
Decca 70 – 130 kHz
Loran C 100 kHz
ADF 200 – 1700 kHz
Medium Frequency (MF) 300 kHz – 3 MHz
Commercial Broadcast 535 kHz – 1.6 MHz
High Frequency (HF) 3 – 30 MHz
HF Communications 2 – 25 MHz
Very High Frequency (VHF) 30 – 300 MHz
Marker Beacons 75 MHz
ILS Localizer 108.1 – 111.95 MHz
VOR 108.0 – 117.95 MHz
VHF Communications 118.0 – 135.975 MHz
Ultrahigh Frequency (UHF) 300 MHz – 3 GHz
ILS Glideslope 320 – 340 MHz
DME 960 MHz – 1.215 MHz
Secondary Surveillance Radar 1.03 GHz & 1.09 GHz
Superhigh Frequency 3 – 30 Ghz
Radar Altimeter 2.2 – 2.4 GHz
Weather Radar (C Band) 5.5 GHz
Doppler Radar (X Band) 8.8 GHz
Weather Radar (X Band) 9.4 GHz
Doppler Radar (K Band) 13.3 GHz
Extremely High Frequency (EHF) 30 – 300 GHz

TCNV 214
Slide 19
United States Frequency Allocation

TCNV 214
Slide 20
Carrier Waves
• To carry intelligence input signal from transmitter to the receiver.
• Constant oscillation signal at selected transmission frequency.
• The carrier wave frequency must be high enough to produce EM waves that
radiate from the antenna.
• This frequency must be accurately controlled that it will be received by the
receiver or it will be rejected.
• The carrier frequency will determine the length of transmitting and receiving
antenna required, that is normally ¼ to ½ the wavelength of the frequency.
• Due to the higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelength will be.
• LF radio waves can directly transmitted, but requires extremely large antenna.
• However, higher frequency radio can employ a shorter wavelength.
• The frequency of the transmission will be determine by the frequency of the
carrier waves.
• Higher frequency offers more room / channels with lower interference for better
reception of the signal.

TCNV 214
Slide 21
Modulation
• Modulation is the process of
placing the intelligence input
signal on a carrier waves and to
be transmitted by an antenna.
• Several ways to achieve it, most
common used are:
– Amplitude Modulation (AM)
– Frequency Modulation (FM)
• The lower frequency information
signal is superimposed on a
higher carrier frequency for
transmission.

TCNV 214
Slide 22
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
• Amplitude of the carrier wave varies with the change in amplitude and
frequency of the information signal.
• In other words, the voltage of the carrier is changed by the audio signal.
• Affect by interference:
– Man-made  electric motor, ignition systems
– Natural  lightning

TCNV 214
Slide 23
Frequency Modulation (FM)
• The frequency of the carrier wave varies with the change in amplitude of the information
signal.
• In other words, the voltage of the carrier wave is held constant, but their frequency is
modulated by the information signal.
• Interference-free communication.
• The carrier frequency changed proportionately with the amplitude change of the information
signal.
• Advantages:
– Less affected by electrostatic emissions (noise or static).  thunderstorm
– Noise (electrical)  unwanted electrical signal within an electronic equipment.
• Due to constant amplitude controlled by limiter circuits, other interfering signals will be
rejected.
• The information will be recovered by the receiver and the signal is used to drive the
speaker.

TCNV 214
Slide 24
Single-Sideband (SSB)
• Both AM and FM require wider band
and higher voltage for effective
transmission over a great distance.
• Lower sideband – carrier frequency
minus modulating frequency
• Upper sideband – carrier frequency
plus modulating frequency
• SSB uses the one sideband for
transmission
• In US, lower sideband is used, while
other uses upper sideband.
• Using SSB receiver, a carrier of
proper frequency will be inserted
back to reproduced the information
signal.
• SSB has become primary type of
transmission for communication in
HF band.

TCNV 214
Slide 25
Radio Waves Propagation
• Radio wave is an electromagnetic wave propagated by an
antenna
• When radio waves transmitted from an antenna, it will travels in
the atmosphere in three (3) propagation paths.
1. Ground Waves 3 kHz – 3 MHz
2. Sky Waves 3 MHz – 30 MHz
3. Space Waves 30 MHz – 3 GHz
• Atmosphere act as a medium for waves travel.

TCNV 214
Slide 26
Ground Waves
• Used by VLF and LF radio waves. ( 3 kHz to 300 kHz )
• Low frequency, Longer Wavelength, thus travel great distance.
• Waves travel along the curvature of the earth.
• Application: Radio Broadcasting Station
• Advantages
– Travel great distance.
– Do not requires Carrier Wave.
– Do not affected by weather condition.
• Disadvantages
– Longer wavelength requires a very large antenna.
– Energy absorbed by ground structure or curvature. (Hills and Mountains)

TCNV 214
Slide 27
Sky Waves
• Use by HF radio waves. ( 3 MHz to 30 MHz )
• Waves travel in straight line from the radio station which do not follow the earth
curvature
• The waves bounces or refracted back to earth hundreds of miles away when it
hits the earth ionosphere at the right way. Known as SKIP or HOP.
• Ionosphere is the layer of earth atmosphere from about 60 to 200 miles high,
made up of ionized particles.
• Allow longer distance coverage of the radio signals transmission.
• Major setback cause by electrostatic distortion or interference.

TCNV 214
Slide 28
Space Waves
• Used by VHF and UHF radio waves. Also known as Direct Waves.
• Due to high frequency, it has shorter wavelength which allows them to travel through the
ionosphere layer which does not follow earth curvature.
• Travel in straight line of sight and do not bounce back by the ionosphere.
• Transmission range is limited to the line of sight of the transmitting station.
• Repeater stations or satellites will retransmit the signal at another frequency to extend the
line of sight, hence increase the transmission coverage.
• Looking down from an aircraft at 10,000 ft, the line of sight coverage is approximately 260
miles. Therefore, to increase the coverage, the antenna should be built higher as possible.
• Provides better and clear reception.
• Transmission will be cut off if there is object between the transmitter and receiver. (Heavy
Clouds, Buildings)

TCNV 214
Slide 29
Basic Radio Theory
• Method of transmitting intelligence from one location to another by means of electromagnetic radiation.
• Basic radio communication device should have:
1. Transmitter Unit 5. Filters 9. Transmission Line
2. Receiver Unit 6. Antennas
3. Amplifiers 7. Tuning Circuits
4. Modulators / Demodulators 8. Speakers / Microphones
• For some radio that has both components, known as Transceiver. Able to transmit and receive radio
frequency signals.
• Radio signals that carries the intelligence emanate from the transmitter antenna partly in the form of
radiated electromagnetic waves.
• The receiver will receive the intelligence signals using the receiver antenna which has the same
characteristics and polarization.
• Regardless the use of radio for communication or navigation, all radio must have the two major
components.

TCNV 214
Slide 30
Basic Radio Transmitter
• Accept information and converts it
into radio frequency to be
transmitted.
• 3 basic function:
1. Generate signal of correct
frequency within EM spectrum.
(Oscillator)
2. Provide form of modulation that
cause signal to modify carrier
signal. (Modulator)
3. Provide sufficient power
amplification towards desired range.
(Amplifier)
• Basic components:
1. Microphone
2. Oscillator
3. Modulator
4. Amplifier
5. Antenna

TCNV 214
Slide 31
Basic Radio Receiver
• Reproduces the information signal
received by the antenna when the same
frequency of signal is selected.
• Function:
1. Have sensitivity to select desired
frequency of the signal. (Tuning Circuits)
2. Provide demodulation to reproduce the
information signal. (Demodulator)
3. Provide enough amplification to recover
the modulating signal. (Amplifier)
• 1920’s – Superheterodyne (Superhet)
radio invented.
• Basic components:
1. Antenna
2. Amplifier
3. Demodulator
4. Tuner (Tuning Circuits)
5. Speaker
6. Local Oscillator & Mixer (for Superhet
Radio)

TCNV 214
Slide 32
Oscillator
• Heart of the radio systems in high frequency wave known as
carrier waves.
• Also known as Electronic Generator.
• Using electronics components like capacitor and inductor.
• Simple oscillator employs an LC parallel circuit.
• Type of oscillators:
– Variable Frequency Oscillator.
– Crystal Oscillator.
– Phase Locked Loop Oscillator. (PLL)

TCNV 214
Slide 33
Amplifiers
• Increases strength of the signal.
• Found in both transmitters and receivers.
• In transmitter  increase the strength and sent to the antenna for transmission.
• In Receivers  Amplify weak signal received for reproduction of the information
signal.
• Earlier amplifiers, before 1920’s, vacuum tubes is used in amplifiers.
• Since invention of transistors, nowadays transistors and integrated circuits
replaced the bulky amplifiers and become smaller and lighter.
• Basic types:
– Linear amplifiers
• Classified as Class A, Class AB, or Class B.
• Provide output directly proportional to the input at higher power level.
• Mainly used in all audio amplifiers.
• Class A & Class B – increase power level of changing amplitude RF (directly proportional).
• Amplitude change as in AM signal.
– Class C amplifiers
• Non-linear amplifiers.
• More stable than linear amplifiers.
• Used for FM signals.
– Switching amplifiers
• Same as Class C amplifiers.

TCNV 214
Slide 34
Modulator / Demodulator
• Electronic equipment which add or remove between the carrier wave and audio
wave.
• Modulator
– Add carrier wave into audio waves for signal transmission.
– The output is called ‘Modulated Radio Frequency’ in AM or FM.
• Demodulator
– Remove the carrier wave from the audio wave for reproduction of the audio signal.
– Produces ‘Audio Frequency’.
• Proper relative modulation for maximum efficiency.
• Modulation rate – The amount of modulation
– Low rate – AF signal is too weak compared to RF signal – Low efficiency.
– If rate is over 100% (RF is weaker than AF) – distortion will occur to the output signal.
– Most radio is 90% – 95% modulation rate for high efficiency and prevent distortion.
– Example: Shouting at microphone causes over modulation.

TCNV 214
Slide 35
Filters
• To remove or filter out unwanted frequencies.
• Using inductor and capacitor combination circuit. (LC circuit)
• Without filters, audio signal will be disturbed by ‘noise’.
• Types of filters:
– Low-Pass (LP) filter  allows only low frequencies to pass thru.
– High-Pass (HP) filter  allows only high frequencies to pass thru.
– Band-Pass filter  allows only range of frequencies to pass thru between
the selected high and low frequencies.
• Consist both LP filter and HP filter.
– Band-Reject filter  blocked frequencies in between, but allows below or
above the selected range frequencies (low and high) to pass thru.

TCNV 214
Slide 36
Antennas
• An electrical conductor that radiates or receives radio
waves (RF).
• Protected and insulated by hard plastic material to give
mechanical strength.
• Maybe use for transmit only, receive only, or both
depending on the type of radio systems.
• Located on top or bottom of the fuselage depending of
their usage, and free from obstruction of airframe
structure.
• Inspection and maintenance is responsibility of
airframe and structure technician since they are
attached to the airframe skin.
• Antenna length is determined by the wavelength (λ) of
the transmit or to receive frequency. (¼ λ to ½ λ)
• Categories known by general name and described the
characteristics.
– Hertz Antenna  Hertz Dipole Antenna
• Half wave dipole antenna.
• Half wave – overall length is equal to one
half (½) the wavelength.
• Polarization : Horizontal
– Marconi Antenna  Marconi Monopole Antenna
• Single metal with a length of ¼ wavelength.
• Ground plane – metal surrounding the
mounting base for proper operations.
• Polarization : Vertical

TCNV 214
Slide 37
Antennas
– Wire Antenna (Whip Antenna)
• Often on smaller and older aircraft.
• Insulated to reduce noise caused by static electricity. (Some
are not insulated)
• Example: ADF sense antenna (a wire from top of empenage to
forward of fuselage)
• Modern aircraft combine loop and sense antenna in single ADF
antenna system.
– Loop Antenna (Sense Antenna)
• Winding the antenna in the form of loop for directional
characteristics.
• Voltage induced into the two sides is of equal magnitude but
opposite in polarity, causes signal to cancel each other.
• At different angel of interception, directional finding is possible.

TCNV 214
Slide 38
Tuning Circuits
• To isolate desired frequency to receive among various frequency.
• Other word, to tune or select the desired frequency.
• Simple circuit using variable capacitor and an inductor connected in
parallel.
• Tuning knob changing the amount of capacitance in the circuit to match
or resonant with transmitting frequency.
• Modern radios, uses frequency synthesizer.
– Consists number of crystals.
– Each crystals has a particular frequency.
– Using switches, combine the crystals to produce additional frequencies.
– The two new frequencies are combined, two new frequencies are produced.
(Sum and Difference of the two crystals frequency)
– Hundreds of frequencies can be created.

TCNV 214
Slide 39
Speakers / Microphones
• Speakers
– Transform electrical signals into sound waves.
– Aircraft speakers not the same as home and automotive speakers.
– Use of large magnet will cause large magnetic field emissions which affects
aircraft instruments systems.
– Types
• Permanent magnet speakers
– It utilize a metal plate attached over the magnet to shield the flux for the.
• Dynamic speaker
– Do not produce large magnetic field disturbance.
– Use electromagnetic that varies with the input audio frequency signal.
– Expands and contracts to move the diaphragm at audio rate.
• Microphones
– Transform sound waves into electrical signals to the transmitter.
– Dynamic microphone is also available.
– Types:
• Magnetic Type
• Dynamic type

TCNV 214
Slide 40
Transmission Lines
• Radio components which provide path for the frequency signals
in radio systems.
• Special electrical cable to connect between the transmitter unit
or receiver unit to the antenna.
• Coaxial cable
– Insulated solid copper conductor for maximum efficiency in signal
transmission.

TCNV 214
Slide 41
Inspection & Maintenance
• Responsibility of the technician involved.
• Refer to AC 43.13-1B Chapter 12 for basic acceptable practice.
• Proper handling, maintenance and inspection procedures must
be observed to ensure the airworthiness of the aircraft is
maintained.

TCNV 214
Slide 42
QUIZ 1
1. What is:
1. Avionic = _________________________________
2. Communication = _________________________________
3. Navigation = _________________________________
4. Radio = _________________________________
2. Radio wave is produced by synchronize operation of ____________
_________ and _____________ __________, and they are
______________ to each other.
3. Radio waves are classified by their _______________________.
4. Frequency below 20,000Hz is known as ____________ frequency,
which we _______ (can/cannot) hear.
5. Frequency above 20,000Hz is known as ____________ frequency,
which we _______ (can/cannot) hear.

TCNV 214
Slide 43
QUIZ 1
6. The strength of radio wave is depends on _______________.
7. 2 frequencies that are known as microwave frequency are:
________________________ & ________________________.
8. Information signal is transmitted using a ________________ wave.
9. 2 kinds of microphone:
a) ________________________
b) ________________________
6. Transmitter contains :
a) __________________
b) __________________
c) _________________

TCNV 214
Slide 44
QUIZ 1
11. 2 types of modulation:
a) _________________________
b) _________________________
11. Size or length of antenna is determined by ____________________.
12. Which component is considered the heart of radio system?
________________________________________________________.
14. Function of modulator
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________.
15. Which type of microphone that might interfere a/c system operation &
need a shield cover?
________________________________________________________.

TCNV 214
Slide 45
QUIZ 1
16. The output of modulation is called _______________________.
17. 2 types of amplifier:
a) _________________________
b) _________________________
16. An electrical conductor that is used to convert electrical energy to EM
waves is _____________.
17. Class A is _______________ amplifier which is used in _________
(radio/audio) system
18. Advantage of frequency modulation are:
_______________________________________________________.
19. Simple oscillator uses __________________ circuit.

TCNV 214
Slide 46
Project A-38
Aircraft Antenna
• Title : Aircraft Antennas
• Objective : To identify type of antenna and their location on the aircraft.
• Project type: Group
• Work Performance:
– Each group will select an aircraft type for the project.
– All information must be refer to respective aircraft maintenance manual.
– Identify the location of the antenna, their type, and their installation purposes on the aircraft.
– Installation and maintenance requirements according to the maintenance manual.
– Provide written explanation and presentation.
– Determine the type of (communication radio) radio used inside the aircraft. Please provide the
manufacturer of the radio inclusive the part number.
• Aircrafts Selection:
1. Boeing 777 / 747 / 737
2. Airbus 300 Series (320 / 330)
3. Hawker Siddeley – HS 125
4. Hughes 500
5. Fokker 50
6. Cessna 250

TCNV 214
Slide 47
Communication
Systems
Day 3

TCNV 214
Slide 48
HF Communication Systems
• Provide long range (over ocean or overland) communication.
• Frequency range : 2 – 30 MHz
• Propagation : Ground Waves
• Reception range : 1500 to 2000 miles
• Transmitter output : 80 – 200 watts  high to achieve long distance. (Trans-Atlantic or Pacific)
• Generally referred to as ‘short wave’ communication.
• Provides two way communication or digitally coded signals (data-link).
• System components
– HF transceiver – located at the electronic equipment rack.
– HF radio control unit – remotely control the transceiver from the pilot/co-pilot instrument panels.
– Antenna
• Probe/Flush Mounted – Large Aircraft
– Requires antenna coupler.
– Covered by plastic type shield. (fiberglass or similar)
• Wire / Extended Wire – Small Aircraft
– Wing-tip to Vertical Fin / Vertical Fin to Top Forward Fuselage
– Long-wire-trailing antenna – extended from aft fuselage with adjustable length. Not
suitable for high-speed aircraft.
– Antenna Coupler
• Frequency selector unit.
• Automatically reposition the antenna to selected new frequency.
• Disadvantage – affected by atmospheric interference
– Communication loss by thunderstorm or atmospheric disturbances.
• Being replaced and improved by SATCOM

TCNV 214
Slide 49
VHF Communication Systems
• Provide short range communication. (Air Traffic Controller)
• Frequency Range : 118 – 135.975 MHz
• International Operations Frequency : extends up to 151.975 MHz
• Propagation: Space Wave / Direct Wave
• Reception Range : Limited to Line-Of-Sight ( ≈ 20 – 39 miles / 48 km at 1,000 ft / 305 m)
• Transmitter output : 5 – 20 watts (lesser than HF power)
• Channels available
– 360 (50 kHz spacing) – 720 (25 kHz spacing)
– 760 (25 kHz spacing extended to 151.975 MHz)
• Standard communication systems approved by ICAO
• Advantages:
– Not often distorted by atmospheric/static noise interference.
– Provide clearer receptions.
• VHF radio display.
– Two frequency display – Active & Standby Frequency
– Switching in between using Transfer Button on the radio panel.
• Antennas
– Bent Whip Rod / Plastic-Encapsulated Blade Type
– Mounted on top or bottom or both aircraft centerline.
– Used for both transmit and receive.
• Some systems, combined with VHF navigation systems.
• Built-In Test Equipment (BITE) systems – easier maintenance and fault detection.

TCNV 214
Slide 50
VHF Radio

TCNV 214
Slide 51
Intercom & Interphone Systems
• Not truly radio systems, but an avionic equipment providing
communication onboard.
• Do not use RF signals, ONLY audio signals.
• Located at various point on the aircraft to provide aircraft crew
communication.
• Intercom Systems
– Allows pilot communications internally
• Captain to First Officer (Pilot to Co-pilot)
• Pilot to Cabin Crew (Flight Attendant)
• Pilot to Passenger ( Passenger Address (PA) Systems)
• Interphone Systems
– Allows pilot to communicate externally
• Pilot to Maintenance Crew
– Jack-point available for maintenance crew to communicate with the
pilot during ground operations using headset.

TCNV 214
Slide 52
Radio Telephone
• Provide Air to Ground communication for passenger.
• Similar to cell-phone function to allows phone calls made during
flight to ground phone systems.
• Operating Frequency : 450 – 500 MHz (UHF)
• Control by ground station and relay to ground communication
systems.
• Antenna
– Marconi Type
– Similar look to VHF antenna with difference in size and shape

TCNV 214
Slide 53
SATCOM
• Satellite Communication.
• Provides voice communication and data link.
• Replacing HF communication. (*large aircraft)
• Consists three segments:
1. Satellite
– Geostationary positioned at 10,900 miles high.
– Also refers as Repeater Station
– Duplication of ground station
1. Ground / Earth Station
2. Aircraft
• Frequency Range – using Microwave Frequency
– L Band ( 1 – 2 GHz )  Aircraft – Satellite
– C Band ( 4 – 6 GHz )  Ground - Satellite
• One satellite can provide approximately 11,000 audio/digital
communication links.
• User congestion – AIRCOM and ACARS helps provide digital
communication systems.

TCNV 214
Slide 54
SATCOM

TCNV 214
Slide 55
AIRCOM
• Air Communication
• Also known as – Digital Air / Ground Communication Services
• Uses VHF comm. systems of existing VHF radio.
• Provided by SITA (Société Internationale de Telecommunitions Aeronautique)
• Purpose:
– To reduce amount of voice communication on existing congested comm. frequencies.
– Allows ground to aircraft comm. for operational flight information.
• Flight delays
• Departure time
• Estimated Time Arrived (ETA)
• AIRCOM is widely used in Europe and Australia

TCNV 214
Slide 56
ACARS
• ARINC Communication Addressing and Reporting System
• ARINC – Aeronautical Radio Incorporated
– Corporation established by foreign and domestic airline, manufacturers, and transport
companies.
– To set standard in radio telecommunication in aviation industry.
• Uses VHF radio waves (131.55 MHz) or SATCOM.
• Normally, the third VHF radio is reserved for ACARS systems.
• If failure condition – interfere VHF comm. systems. *Prohibited ATC to operate
VHF comm. on the third radio.
• Purpose : Same as AIRCOM
• ACARS is the United States counterpart of AIRCOM systems.
• Operation: 2 Modes
– Demand Mode
• To transmit message from aircraft to ground.
• Airborne Management Unit (MU) determine if the channel is free for communication.
• If clear – message transmitted
• If busy – MU waits until free
– Polled Mode
• Request by ground station.

TCNV 214
Slide 57
SELCAL
• Selective Calling
• Purposes:
– To prevent interruption of the pilot concentration from unwanted
communications.
– To relieve pilot from continuously monitoring the receivers.
• Connected to the HF or VHF radios.
• SELCAL unit consists of a decoder with aircraft assigned code number.
• The code
– 4 tones transmitted in series.
– Each tone has 12 possible frequencies.
– 20,000 combination codes available.
– Transmitted in UHF.
• When selected code match the assigned aircraft code, SELCAL
decoder will activate aural or visual indication of incoming call to the
pilot
• Ground station is able to select the aircraft they wish to call.
• Same principle with telephone number.

TCNV 214
Slide 58
Audio Control Panel

TCNV 214
Slide 59
Project A-39
Communication Systems
• Objective : To identify type and understand available aircraft communication
systems, and their components location onboard the aircraft.
– List available communication systems onboard the aircraft.
– Identify the location of the communication components and equipments
1. Boeing 777
2. Boeing 747
3. Boeing 737
4. Airbus 330
5. Airbus 320

TCNV 214
Slide 60
Navigation
Systems
Day 4

TCNV 214
Slide 61
ADF
Auto Directional Finder
• Purpose: To assist the pilot in determining the direction of the airport or
the position of the aircraft.
• Modern navigation systems taking over the function.
• However, widely used in GA and smaller airports with no other radio
aids for navigations.
• The systems terms:
– ADF refers to aircraft equipment.
– NDB (Non-Directional Beacon), refers to ground-based equipment.
• ADF Systems – refers to both ADF and NDB
• Normally installed in remote airport or less developed country where no
possibility of having update in navigation facility.
• Operating Frequency
– ADF receiver  190 – 1,800 kHz
• 190 – 500 kHz  used for aircraft navigation (NDB)
• 550 – 1,800 kHz  band used for commercial AM broadcast station
• Therefore, AM broadcast station may and can be used for navigation.
• Noted on the navigation chart.
• Propagation: Ground Wave – reliable at low altitude

TCNV 214
Slide 62
ADF Components
Ground Transmitter
1. Non-Directional Beacon (NDB)
transmits 190 – 500 kHz
2. Broadcasting Stations transmit
550 – 1,800 kHz
• Min. two stations as an alternate
to NDB
Airborne Equipment
1. ADF receivers
– Receives 190 – 1,800 kHz
2. ADF control panels
3. ADF antennas – 2 antennas
– Directional/Loop Antenna
– Sense Antenna
4. ADF Indicator
– 3 types
• Fixed Card Indicator
• Movable Card Indicator
• Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI)
– Magnetic heading of aircraft
– Magnetic bearing of two stations
– Provides visual information.
– Easier navigation thru graphical.

TCNV 214
Slide 63
ADF Operation
Using NDB
To determine the heading of the airport, the pilot tuned the ADF to NDB
frequency of the airport and manually rotate the loop antenna until the
NULL or ZERO position is determined.
NULL position indicates the airport’s NDB. However, there will be two
NULL positions in 360° rotation. Flying towards or away.
To offset the ambiguity, Sense antenna will generate antiphase / out of
phase to eliminate the other NULL position.
This will cause the RMI pointer to stop moving and pointing towards the
airport/airfield.
Alternate NDB using two broadcast stations.
Tune to two radio station frequencies. Thus, will move two RMI
pointers.
Two pointers provide bearings of two radio stations read from the
compass card and gives magnetic bearings of the stations on the
navigation chart.
Location of the aircraft is determined by the intersection point of the two
bearings and gives the aircraft coordinate / angular position.
In new generation aircraft, ADF is used to align aircraft to the runway in ILS.
Located between Outer Marker (OM) and Middle Marker (MM).
This NDB is also called ‘Compass Locator’.

TCNV 214
Slide 64
ADF Antenna
Requires two antennas
• Directional/Loop Antenna
– Determine aircraft heading
towards/away from station.
– Strength of received signal depends
on angle between plane of the loop
and direction of EM wave.
– Minimum (null) when perpendicular
to show station direction of either
direction at 180° each.
– Maximum when parallel.
• Sense Antenna
– Determine direction of the station.
– Solve the true direction of the
station.
Modern aircraft, both antennas in one
unit.
• Flat oval / Teardrop shape

TCNV 214
Slide 65
ADF Indicators

TCNV 214
Slide 66
ADF Bearing
Definition of Relative and Magnetic Bearing

TCNV 214
Slide 67
VOR
VHF Omni Range
• Purpose : Provide course guidance to the aircraft
• Operating Frequency : 108.0 – 117.95 MHz (VHF)
• Propagation : Space Wave – Limited to line-of-sight
• Advantages :
– Provides an infinite number of radials or course indications.
– Reduces the amount of indication errors from adverse atmospheric
conditions.
– Accurately provides directional information.
• Systems Components :
1. VOR Ground Station
2. VOR Airborne Equipment
When combined as VOR/DME
provides course and distance
information.

TCNV 214
Slide 68
VOR Ground Station
• Located along the airways at the highest ground level.
• Components :
– 2 VOR Transmitter (Tx)
– 2 DME Transmitter (Tx)
• Transmits two types of VHF radio signal :
– A fix / reference signal
• Constant FM pulse signal
– A rotating / variable signal.
• AM signal which electronically rotated at 1800 rpm.
• VOR station signal is called ‘Radials’ or ‘Radio Beams’ transmit
360° radials with 1° sensitivity.

TCNV 214
Slide 69
VOR Airborne Equipment
VOR Receiver / Control Panel
• Located in cockpit instrument panel.
• Allow tuning in even tenth at VHF
• Measures phase difference for direction.
• In-phase due north.
VOR Antenna (VHF)
• Horn Type Antenna
– Located on vertical stabilizer
• Flush Metallic Antenna
VOR Indicator
• Located in cockpit instrument panel.
• Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI) Man
• Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI) Auto
VOR operation terms
• Inboard  toward / to
• Outboard  from
VOR will be activated by the pilot when aircraft at cruising speed.

TCNV 214
Slide 70
VOR Equipment Check
• FAR’s
– VOR equipment must be routinely check if flown under IFR.
• FAR Part 91 – VOR equipment check
– No person may operate civil aircraft under IFR conditions using VOR
systems unless VOR equipment of that aircraft:
• Is maintained, checked and inspected under approved procedure; or
• Has been operationally checked within preceding 30 days and was found within
the limits of bearing error set forth below.
• The check must use one of followings:
– An approved FAA or Repair Station ground test signal – ± 4°
– Designated VOR checkpoint on the airport surface – ± 4°
– Designated airborne checkpoint – ± 6°
– An airborne check using a VOR radial and prominent ground point that can be seen
from the air as established by the person doing the check – ± 6°
– If two separate VOR receivers are installed, they may be checked against each other –
± 4°
– Maintained record entry in aircraft log and sign it.
• Enter Date
• Place
• Bearing Error
– Or, Repair Station Certificate bearing transmitted and date into aircraft log.

TCNV 214
Slide 71
DME
Distance Measuring Equipment
• Purposes are to provide:
– Slant range distance in nautical miles (n.m.).
– Associated with VOR/DME or VORTAC to provide groundspeed, time enroute to the
station and course guidance.
• Operating Frequency : 960 – 1,215 MHz (UHF)
• DME frequencies are paired with VOR frequencies – Frequency Pairing
• Tuning VOR frequencies will automatically tuned DME frequencies.
– VOR identifier is repeated three or four times.
– Followed by single-coded DME identifier every 30 seconds indicates DME is
functioning.
• DME components :
1. Interrogator Unit – Airborne Unit (Transceiver)
– Transmit interrogator signal
– Measure total time taken for the signal to transmit and receive/replied back to the aircraft.
– Convert the total time into slant range distance in nautical miles.
1. Transponder Unit – Ground Unit
– Inside VOR ground station.
– Measure the time of interrogator signal reach the station.
– Reply signal to the airborne unit.

TCNV 214
Slide 72
DME Operation
• Operations
– Airborne transceiver sent interrogator signal to tuned
station.
– Transponder measure time taken and reply signal.
– Transceiver receive signal and measure the round
trip time taken, and compute distance in nautical
miles for display digitally.
– Upon altitude and line-of-sight, reliable for 200 n.m.
• Slant Range Distance
– Not measure horizontal distance.
– Difference not significant if at least 1 mile from
station for every 1000 feet altitude.
– Results of 2 components, horizontal and vertical
distance.
– Accurate within ½ mile or 3% of actual distance.
• Angle between slant range distance and
VOR/DME stations – called Bearing
• When directly above the station, DME indicates
altitude in nautical miles on HSI.

TCNV 214
Slide 73
RNAV
ARea NAVigation
• Allows pilot to fly direct to destination without need to overfly VOR or ground
based facilities.
• Achieve shorter fly distance and travel time.
• Limited to overland, cannot be applied for over ocean navigation.
• Also known as Direct Navigation Systems.
• Other available systems
– VORTAC based
– LORAN
– INS
– GPS
– FMS
• In RNAV, courses are defined by waypoints.
• Waypoints – predetermined geographical positions used for route and
instrument approach for reporting purposes.
• Related to VOR/DME or VORTAC stations in terms of latitude/longitude
coordinates.
• RNAV inputs requirements :
– Course guidance from VOR/DME station.
– Barometric altitude from Air Data Computer (ADC)
– Slant Range Distance from DME
– Bearing of aircraft from VOR

TCNV 214
Slide 74
RNAV
Example Flight Plan

TCNV 214
Slide 75
RNAV Operating Mode
• Mode terms
1. Rho  Distance (Slant Range)
2. Theta  Bearing
3. Phantom route  Planned route deviates from VOR/DME or ground based
station/s.
• RNAV can operates under 3 mode :
1. Rho – Theta Mode
– Requires only ONE VOR/DME station.
– Three inputs to determine the waypoint are :
– Rho
– Theta
– Barometric Altitude
1. Rho – Rho Mode
– Requires TWO VOR/DME stations.
– Two DME distance inputs to compute the waypoint.
1. Theta – Theta Mode
– Requires TWO VOR/DME stations.
– Two VOR bearing inputs to compute the waypoint.

TCNV 214
Slide 76
TACAN
TACtical Air Navigation
• Military version of DME.
• More advance than DME.
• Purpose :
– Provide distance information.
• Widely used in United States.

TCNV 214
Slide 77
VORTAC
• A combination of VOR and TACAN facility.
• Provide distance and course guidance for area navigation (RNAV).
• Using course-line computer (CLC) that creates phantom waypoints for
direct route of flight.
• CLC requirements :
– DME to calculate the location of the waypoint.
– VOR/DME or VORTAC tuned frequency.
• CLC established waypoint as a direction and distance from a VOR or
DME sites.
– Example: Waypoint OMN 240/25  25 n.m. southwest (240°) of OMN sites.
• Pilot designed a flight plan by selecting number of waypoints along
desired path.
• Aircraft must be able to receive usable signal from VORTAC sites.
• Waypoint is limited to line-of-sight of VOR facility or must fly direct route
within VOR or VORTAC sites.
• Other limitations, the direct routes must be approved by ATC due
congested air traffic areas.

TCNV 214
Slide 78
RNAV
Example Flight Plan

TCNV 214
Slide 79
LORAN
LOng RAnge Navigation
• Uses land-based radio transmitters originally provide weather navigation for
mariners.
• Along U.S. coast and Great Lakes
• For use in aviation, LORAN coastal facilities extended across U.S. continent.
• LORAN – C
– Used for IFR navigation.
– Accurate within 0.25 nautical mile.
– Define aircraft position in terms latitude and longitude.
– GPS is overtaking LORAN function.
– Ground transmitter
• Operates at 100 kHz. (Ground Wave)
• 1000 ft high
• Power of 4,000,000 watts
– Chain consist of ONE master station and TWO slave stations of hundred miles apart.
– Sequenced signal from master follows by slaves.
– Aircraft LORAN-C receivers measure time separation to compute aircraft location
relative to transmission sites
– Accuracy of 400 – 1000 ft.
– Advantage – signals can be received at any altitude even on ground and does not
required tuning since operates at 100 kHz at all time.

TCNV 214
Slide 80
INS
Inertial Navigation Systems
• Self-contained system developed by MIT based on Newton’s Law of motion.
• Does not rely on external radio inputs.
• Generates its own inputs to navigate from waypoint to waypoint.
• Starting point is determined by latitude and longitude and INS computer unit will determine
new position by measuring the inertial forces acting on aircraft.
• Accelerometer  to measure the continuous acceleration in flight.
• When accelerates, the signal is amplified to increase the sensitivity of the system and fed
the time integer to change to VELOCITY and get the DISTANCE.
• From DISTANCE, the pilot can plot the location of the aircraft.
• In INS, 3 accelerometers are required.
– Longitudinal
– Lateral
– Vertical
• False acceleration  cause by flitting a ‘nose-up’ attitude.
• Gyroscope  stable platform to mount the accelerometers to avoid false acceleration.
• False acceleration signal is fed back to torque/spin the gyro. Movement of gyro will produce
electrical signal to drive the gyro motor platform proportionately to the false signal to level
state.
• Components:
1. A stable element – Gyro
2. 3 Accelerometers
3. Analog and Digital Computer
• Also fed information for Autopilot systems
• Drift error accumulations after usage – Updating process using other navigation source.
(VOR)

TCNV 214
Slide 81
INS Mode of operation
INS operates in 5 Modes.
1. OFF – No power supply to INS components.
2. STANDBY – Power supply is supplied to heat up the navigation unit and allow
gyro to spin.
3. ALIGN
• Aircraft must be stationary.
• Performs system leveling and orientation. (10 minutes)
• INS align to True North (TN).
• Pilot inputs the initial position of aircraft in Latitude / Longitude.
• True North – between Magnetic North and Geographical North.
1. NAVIGATION
• Green Light illumination indicator.
• Inputs of 8 waypoints is allowed.
1. ATTITUDE
• When any INS components failed.
• Digital computer is de-activated
Generated Output : POSITION, GROUND SPEED, DISTANCE & HEADING, TIME
to destination

TCNV 214
Slide 82
IRS
Inertial Reference Signal
• Improved INS systems using Ring-Laser Gyro (Strap-down Gyro) as
stable element.
• Laser gyro advantage is that the gyro has no moving parts.
– Uses pair of white light as a transmitting medium.
• LASER stand for
– L  Light
– A  Amplification by
– S  Simulated
– E  Emissions of
– R  Radiation
• IRS or INS also referred as ‘Reference Computer’ for other systems.
(Autopilot, HSI)

TCNV 214
Slide 83
GPS
Global Positioning System
• Indicates aircraft position globally using NAVSTAR satellite using ranging and
triangulation method.
• GPS systems consists of three segments:
– Space
• 24 geostatically satellite at 10,900 miles high.
• 21 is operational, and 3 for back up purpose.
• At any point on earth, only 5 satellites is visible.
• Navigation purpose requires 4 satellites for accuracy.
• Transmit radio signals which controlled by atomic clock for accuracy.
• Frequency range in 1.6 GHz.
• Provide position and time signals
– Control
• One master control and monitoring stations.
• Master control at Falcon Air Force Base in Colorado Springs, Colorado.
• Control, update and maintain GPS constellation.
– User
• 1. Antenna 2. Receivers 3. Processors
• Received 4 satellite signals.
• Calculate aircraft Position, Speed, Altitude, Heading, Time for pilot/s.
• GPS receivers calculates its own position, distance, bearing and estimated time enroute to the
next waypoint.
• Extremely accurate system for 100 m (328 ft) to 20 m (65 ft) without Selective
Availability.
• Selective Availability introduced by Department of Defense for national security
reason. Removed as of May 1, 2000.

TCNV 214
Slide 84
GPS

TCNV 214
Slide 85
Transponders
• Transponder is a secondary radar equipment on the aircraft.
• Aircraft transponder using two different frequencies
– Transmit at 1090 MHz
– Receive at 1030 MHz
• Useful for air traffic controller to identify the aircraft to prevent mid-air
collision and provide guidance for aircraft.
• Related to radar operation :
– RADAR – radio detection and ranging
– Transmit synchronized radio wave and process their reflections for display.
– Primary Radar – sends out EM wave pulse travel outward and bounce off
metal parts (aircraft). This reflected echo produces spot on radarscope.
Range is by total time taken to travel and back. Angle is by position of
rotating antenna.
– Secondary Radar – able to determine the aircraft. When radar pulse
interrogator hit aircraft, airborne secondary equipment will sends coded
signal for identification
– After World War II, primary and secondary used by ATC facilities.

TCNV 214
Slide 86
ATC Transponder
• Radar systems used by Air Traffic Controller
• Operating Frequency : 2.7 GHz
• Operation:
– ATC send interrogator code signal in digital (binary)
– Airborne equipment (transponder) answer/reply proper reply signal.
– Transponder control allows pilot to select among 4906 numerical codes in
octal coding. ( 0000 to 7777 )
– Computer on ground radar identify the aircraft by their flight assigned code.
• Transponder Code
0000 – Military
1200 – Operating under VFR (not in ATC control)
7500, 7600, 7700 – Emergency situation
7700 – Hijacked situation

TCNV 214
Slide 87
Transponder Operations
Transponder Control
• Four Knobs – To select code
• Selector Switch
• IDT (IDENT) Button
• Code Display (Numerical)
Operation Mode
• MODE 3/A – Basic transponder
• MODE C – plus coded message
(aircraft pressure altitude)
• MODE S – able sent additional
messages on CRT or printed.
– ATC instructions
– Weather Reports
– Increase identification code > 1 mill.
– TCAS info
Transponder Test
• Avoid accidental activation the
transponder during maintenance
unless for transponder test purposes.
• Tested and inspected every 24
calendar months

TCNV 214
Slide 88
ILS
Instrument Landing System
• Assist the pilot by providing
guidance during landing
approach.
• System components are:
– Localizer Tx
– Glide Slope Tx
– Compass Locator (NDB)
– Marker Beacon
– Indicator
– Runway Lights
• Provide visibility to pilot.
• Located surround the airways.
• Visible in night/fog/rain

TCNV 214
Slide 89
ILS
Localizer
• Consists of transmitter unit.
• Located 1000 ft from end of runway.
• Radio signal transmit at 108.1 MHz to 111.9 MHz. (VHF)
• Transmits horizontal signals in two lobes.
– Right Lobe  150 Hz
– Left Lobe  90 Hz
• Provide horizontal approach guidance towards the runway.
• Beams coverage
– Forward  27 miles
– Aft / Back  17 miles

TCNV 214
Slide 90
ILS
Glide Slope
• Consists of transmitter unit.
• Located at 15 % of the runway length at threshold center.
• Operates at 329 MHz to 339 MHz (UHF)
• Provide vertical guidance to pilot to prevent overshooting or
undershooting the landing runway.
• Provide vertical approach guidance
in two lobes.
– Bottom Lobe  150 Hz
– Top Lobe  90 Hz
• Coverage up to vertical distance
of 10 miles.

TCNV 214
Slide 91
ILS
NDB – Compass Locator
• The same NDB of ADF.
• Provide signal to the aircraft to align themselves with the
runway.
• Operates at radio frequency range of 190 – 500 kHz.
• Located between Outer Marker and Middle Marker of the
approach path.

TCNV 214
Slide 92
ILS
Marker Beacons
• Provides distance of aircraft from the runway.
• Located along the approach path.
• Beacons transmit vertical radio signal.
• Visual and Aural indicator to pilot.
• Consist three (3) marker position.
– Outer Marker (OM)
• 4 to 5 nm. from runway edge
• Produce 400 Hz audio tone
• Indefinite 2 dashes
• Illuminates BLUE light
– Middle Marker (MM)
• 3000 ft from runway edge
• Alternate dots and dashes
• Illuminates AMBER light
– Inner Marker (IM)
• 1300 ft from runway edge
• Identified by 6 dots per second
• Illuminate WHITE light
• Known as Frequency Modulator / Z marker
• All beacons transmit at 75 MHz vertically

TCNV 214
Slide 93
ILS
Indicator
• Use to assist pilot during landing by giving information of the
location and approach status of the aircraft towards the runway.
• Using aural and visual indication
• Glide Slope Indicator
– Combine both vertical and horizontal
approach attitude.
• Marker Indicator
– Aural and Visual
– OM – BLUE – 2 Dashes
– MM – AMBER – Dot and Dash
– IM – WHITE – 6 dots per second

TCNV 214
Slide 94
MLS
Microwave Landing System
• Option of ILS using microwave frequency.
– 5031 MHz to 5091 MHz
• Provide precision approach guidance
• Gives
– Azimuth (left/right)
– Elevation (glide slope)
– Range
• Requires separate airborne equipment.
• Airport upgrades to have Azimuth Station
at 100 ft beyond stop end
– Data transmission capability
– Elevation station
– Range station
– Back Azimuth Station
• Approach Azimuth Station  ±40°
• Elevation Guidance Station  up to 30°
• Range Guidance Station  Normal / Precision DME station

TCNV 214
Slide 95
ELT
Emergency Locator Transmitter
• Help to locate a crashed aircraft in remote or mountainous area.
• Self contained unit with own battery.
• Components
– Transmitter – dual frequency stress signal at 121.5 MHz (civil) or 243.0 MHz (military).
– Whip type antenna with coaxial cable.
– Battery for power supply.
• Located at the tail structure where minimal crash damage area.
• Activated by longitudinal impact of 5 G’s or more.
• Transmit swept tone stress signal for 48 hours for range of 100 miles, 10,000 ft
using power output of 75 mW
• ELT signal can be received by radio tuned to 121.5 MHz 0r 243.0 MHz. Omni
direction.
• Installation is mandatory for Airworthiness compliance.
• Test and Inspection
– Test can only be carry out for the first 5 minutes of every hour. Maximum 3 beeps and
tuned the radio to ELT frequency.
– Inspect battery by expiry date on battery data plate. Fully charged at all time. If used
more than 20 minutes, replacement is required.

TCNV 214
Slide 96
Cockpit Voice Recorders (CVR)
• Record all sounds/communications and activities inside the cockpit.
• Useful information for accident investigation when occur.
• Components:
– Hot Microphone – inside the cockpit
• Records voices, warning sound, engine noise, etc.
• Connected to intercom, radio.
– CVR Unit – tail section of the aircraft.
• Use magnetic tape for continuous recording for 30 minutes.
• Tape is 4 channel tape
• Waterproof, Impact and Fire Resistant
• Operation Mode
– Record – using 4 channel
– Test – test switch
– Monitoring
– Erase – on ground and parking brake is ON
• During crash, squat switch disconnect the power supply.

TCNV 214
Slide 97
Flight Data Recorders (FDR)
• Records parameters of aircraft systems for accident investigation when
occur.
• Installed at the tail section in famously known as Black Box that can
withstand:
– 1 ton crushing load
– Acceleration force for 100 G’s
– Soaked in fluid
– Temperature of 800°C for 15 minutes
• Components
1. Recorder 3. Trip and Date encoder
2. Power Supply 4. Accelerometer
• Recorder Type
– The recorder is 6” stainless steel metal foiled tape for 400 hours recording
time.
– Magnetic tape for last 25 flight hours
– Semiconductor memory chip
• RED light indicates FDR fail.

TCNV 214
Slide 98
FDR Parameters
1. Indicated Speed
2. Altitude
3. Magnetic Heading
4. Vertical Acceleration
5. Pitch Attitude
6. Roll Attitude
7. Stabilizer Trim Position
8. Pitch Control Position
9. Roll Attitude
10. N1, EPR or Prop RPM and Torque
11. Vertical Speed
12. Angle of Attack
13. Autopilot Engagement
14. TE Flap Position
15. LE Flap Position
16. Thrust Reverser Position
17. Spoiler/Speedbrake Position

TCNV 214
Slide 99
Radar Altimeter
• Display aircraft’s absolute altitude above ground level (AGL)
• Operating frequency : 4.3 GHz
• Using radio signal to measure absolute altitude rather than
using atmospheric pressure.
• Absolute Altitude : Total altitude measured with reference to
vacuum.
• Usable range is up to 2500 ft, mainly used during instrument
approach during bad weather.
• Also refer as ‘Radio Altimeters’
• Components:
– 2 Antennas – receive and transmit at bottom of aircraft.
– Transceiver – measure total time signal travel back to aircraft and
translate into altitude distance.
– Radio Altimeter Indicator – display altitude above ground

TCNV 214
Slide 100
GPWS
Ground Proximity Warning System
• Provide warning of dangerous terrain during approach to land.
• Components:
– Radio Altimeter (RA)
– Air Data Computer (ADC)
– ILS
– GPWC
– Monitors landing gear and flap position
• GPWC – Ground Proximity Warning Computer
– Provides visual warning (Lights) and Aural Audible Warning (8 Voices)
– Inputs from RA, Glide Slope, ADC (barometric altitude)
– 5 Modes Operation
MODE 1 – excessive sink rate
MODE 2 – excessive terrain closure rate
MODE 3 – descent after take-off
MODE 4 – wrong LG (A) or Flaps (B)
MODE 5 – inadvertent descent below glide slope

TCNV 214
Slide 101
• 8 Audio Message output based on priority and operation modes
• Visual indication when Light illuminates in MODE 1, 2,3, and 4.
• “Whoop Whoop Pull Up” message supercedes other messages.
• In MODE 5, tones will increase as approach closer to runway.
• GPWS only operates when aircraft 2500 ft and below.
GPWS
PRIORITY MESSAGE MODE
1 Whoop Whoop – Pull Up 1 & 2
2 Terrain – Terrain 2
3 Too Low – Terrain 4A & 4B
4 Too Low – Gear 4A
5 Too Low – Flaps 4B
6 Sink Rate 1
7 Don’t Sink 3
8 Glide Slope 5

TCNV 214
Slide 102
TCAS
Traffic Alert & Collision Avoidance System
• To alert pilot of its intruder in their vicinity and to avoid aircraft
collision.
• Generate alert and collision avoidance advisory messages:
• Two types of advisory:
– Traffic Alert / Advisory (TA)
• Audible warns pilot of the closing intruder/aircraft at 40 sec distant.
• ‘Traffic Traffic’
– Resolution Advisory (RA)
• Display when intruder/aircraft at 25 sec distant.
• Offers audible corrective or preventive maneuvers to avoid collision.
• ‘Climb Climb Climb’
• TCAS components:
– TCAS facility
– MODE S transponder facility
– ATC Radar Beacon Systems

TCNV 214
Slide 103
Weather Radar
• Airborne Weather Radar as ground based radar for weather avoidance
system.
• To display the pilot of weather condition ahead to ensure smooth flight and
passenger comfort.
• Operated using microwave frequencies:
– X Band ( 8 GHz – 12 GHz )
• In private jet for clear reception
• BUT, not reliable coverage behind existing condition
– C Band ( 4 GHz – 8 GHz )
• In commercial transport for greater distance coverage
• Penetrate ahead existing condition
• Components
– Transceiver Unit – located in Radome*
– Radar Scanner/Antenna – Located in Radome
– Radarscope
• Color display CRT
• Level 1  RED (severe weather)
• Level 2  YELLOW (mild weather)
• Level 3  GREEN (normal weather)

TCNV 214
Slide 104
STORMSCOPE
TM
• Weather avoidance system.
• Display condition of the weather.
• Also called as “All Weather Mapping”.
• Use to locate thunderstorm activities.
• Severity of weather shown by dense dot.
• Unlike radar, do not radiate radio signals.
• Instead, ONLY receive radio signals.
• The radio frequency signal received is produced by the lighting or
severe turbulence condition.

TCNV 214
Slide 105
Project A-40
Navigation Systems
• Objective : To identify type and understand available aircraft navigation systems,
their components and location onboard the aircraft.
– List available navigation systems onboard the aircraft.
– Identify the location of the navigation components and equipments.
1. Boeing 777
2. Boeing 737
3. Airbus 330
4. Airbus 320
6. Fokker 50

TCNV 214
Slide 106
Thank You
KP(JPS)5195/US/38
DCAM No. AO/0110/03

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