1. Language Training Manual
Training & Development Team

2. DAY 1
 Correct use of punctuation marks
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3. Comma
 The comma is a valuable useful punctuation device
because it separates the structural elements of sentences
into manageable segments.
 The rules provided here are those found in traditional
handbooks, however in certain rhetorical contexts and for
specific purposes, these rules may be broken.
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4. Comma
 Use comma to separate independent clauses when they
are joined by any of these seven coordinating
conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet
 Examples:
 The game was over, but the crowd refused to leave
 The student explained her question, yet the instructor still
didn’t seem to understand
 Yesterday was her brother’s birthday, so she took him out
to dinner
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5. Comma
 Use comma after introductory a) clauses, b) phrases or c)
words that come before the main clause
 Common starter words for introductory clauses that should
be followed by a comma include after, although, as,
because, if since, when, while
 Examples:
 While I was eating, that car scratched at the door.
 Because her alarm clock was broken, she was late for class
 If you are ill, you ought to see a doctor
 When the snow stops falling, we’ll shovel the driveway
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6. Comma
 However, don’t put a comma after the main clause when a
dependent (subordinate) clause follows it (except for cases of
extreme contrast)
 Example:
 She was late for class, because her alarm clock was broken
(Incorrect)
 The car scratched at the door, while I was eating (Incorrect)
 She was still quite upset, although she had won the Oscar
(correct, extreme contrast)
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7. Comma
 Common introductory phrases that should be followed by
a comma include participial and infinitive phrases,
absolute phrases, nonessential appositive phrases, and
long prepositional phrases (over four words).
 Examples:
 Having finished the test, he left the room.
 To get a seat, you’d better come early.
 After the test but before lunch, I went jogging.
 The sun radiating intense heat, we sought shelter in the
café.
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8. Comma
 Common introductory words that should be followed by
a comma include yes, however, well.
 Examples:
 Well, perhaps he meant no harm.
 Yes, the package should arrive tomorrow morning
 However, you may not be satisfied with the results
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9. Comma
 Use a pair of commas in the middle of a sentence to set off clauses,
phrases and words that are not essential to the meaning of the
sentence. Use one comma before to indicate the beginning of the
pause and one at the end to indicate the end of the pause.
 Here are some clues to help your decide whether the sentence
element is essential
 If you leave out the clause, phrase or word, does the sentence still
make sense?
 Does the clause, phrase or word interrupt the flow of words in the
original sentence?
 If you move the element to a different position in the sentence, does
the sentence still make sense?
 If you answer “YES” to one or more of these questions, then the
element in question is nonessential and should be set of with
commas.
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10. Comma
 Clause: That Tuesday, which happens to be my birthday, is
the only day when I am available to meet.
 Phrase: This restaurant has an exciting atmosphere. The
food, on the other hand, is rather bland.
 Word: I appreciate your hard work. In this case, however,
you seem to have overexerted yourself.
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11. Comma
 Do not use commas to set off essential elements of the
sentence, such has clauses beginning with that (relative
clauses). That clauses after nouns are always essential. That
clauses following a verb expressing mental action are always
essential.
 That clauses after nouns:
 The book that I borrowed from you is excellent.
 That apples that fell out of the basket are bruised.
 That clauses following a verb expressing mental action:
 She believes that she will be able to earn an A.
 He is dreaming that he can fly.
 I contend that I was wrong to mislead her.
 They wished that warm weather would finally arrive.
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12. Comma
 Examples of other essential elements (no commas):
 Students who cheat only harm themselves.
 The baby wearing a yellow jumpsuit is my niece.
 The candidate who had the least money lost the election.
 Examples of non essential elements (set off by commas):
 Fred, who often cheats, is harming himself.
 My niece, wearing a yellow jumpsuit, is playing in the living
room.
 The Green party candidate, who had the least money, lost the
election.
 Apples, which are my favorite fruit, are the main ingredient in
this recipe.
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13.  Use commas to separate three or more words, phrases or
clauses written in a series:
 Examples:
 The constitution establishes the legislative, executive, and judicial
branches of government.
 The candidate promised to lower taxes, protect the environment,
reduce crime, and end unemployment.
 The prosecutor argues that the defendant, who was the scene of
the crime, who had a strong revenge motive, and who had access
to the murder weapon, was guilty of homicide.
Please note that serial comma is only used in US English.
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14. Comma
 Use commas to separate two or more coordinate
adjectives that describe the same noun. Be sure never to
add an extra comma between the final adjective and the
noun itself or to use commas with coordinate adjectives.
 Coordinate adjectives are adjectives with equal (“co”-
ordinate) status in describing the noun; neither adjective
is subordinate to the other. You can decide if two
adjectives in a row are coordinate by asking the following
questions:
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15. Comma
 Does the sentence make sense if the adjectives are written in
reverse order?
 Does the sentence make sense if the adjectives are written with
and between them?
 If you answer yes to these questions, then the adjectives are
coordinate and should be separated by a comma. Here are
some examples of coordinate and non-coordinate adjectives:
 He was a difficult, stubborn child (coordinate)
 They lived in a white frame house (non-coordinate)
 She often wore a gray wool shawl (non-coordinate)
 Your cousin has an easy happy smile (coordinate)
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16. Comma
 Use a comma near the end of a sentence to separate
contrasted coordinate elements or to indicate a distinct
pause or shift:
 He was merely ignorant, not stupid.
 The chimpanzee seemed reflective, almost human.
 You’re one of the senators close friend, are’nt you?
 The speaker seemed innocent, even gullible.
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17. Comma
 Use commas to set off phrases at the end of the sentence that
refer back to the beginning or middle of the sentence. Such
phrases are free modifiers that can be placed anywhere in the
sentence without causing confusion. (if the placement of the
modifier causes confusion, then it is not “free” and must
remain “bound” to the word it modifies).
 Nancy waved enthusiastically at the docking ship, laughing
joyously (correct)
 Lisa waved at Nancy, laughing joyously (incorrect)
 Laughing joyously, Lisa waved at Nancy (correct).
 Lisa waved at Nancy, who was laughing joyously (correct).
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18. Comma
 Use commas, to set off all geographical names, items in
dates (except the month and day), addresses (except
street number and name) and titles in names.
 Birmingham, Alabama, gets its name from Birmingham,
England.
 July 22, 1959, was a momentous day in his life.
 Who lives at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, DC?
 Rachel B Lake, MD, will be the principal speaker.
 (When you use just the month and the year, no comma is
necessary after the year: “The average temperatures for
July 1998 are the highest on record for that month.”)
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19. Comma
 Use a comma to shift between the main discourse and a
quotation.
 John said without emotion. “I’ll see you tomorrow.”
 “I was able,” she answered, “to complete the assignment.”
 In 1848, Marx wrote, “Workers of the world unite!”
 Use commas wherever necessary to prevent possible
confusion or misreading.
 To George, Harrison had been a sort of idol.
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20. Comma
 Comma abuse
 Commas in the wrong place can break sentence into
illogical segments or confuse readers with unnecessary and
unexpected pauses.
 Don’t use a comma to separate a subject from a verb.
 An eighteen year old in California, is now considered an adult
(incorrect).
 The most important attribute of a ball player, is quick reflex
actions. (incorrect).
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21. Comma
 Don’t put a comma between two verbs or verb phrases in a
compound predicate
 We laid out our music and snacks, and began to study (incorrect).
 I turned the corner, and ran smack into a patrol car (incorrect).
 Don’t put a comma between the two nouns, noun phrases, or
noun clauses in a compound subject or compound object.
 The music teacher from your high school, and the football coach
from mine are married (incorrect compound subject)
 Jeff told me that the job was still available, and that the manager
wanted to interview me (incorrect compound subject)
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22. Comma
 Don’t put a comma after the main clause when a
dependent (subordinate) clause follows it (except for
cases of extreme contrast.
 She was late for class, because her alarm clock was broken
(incorrect).
 The cat scratched the door, while I was eating (incorrect).
 She was still quite upset, although she had won the Oscar
(correct extreme contrast).
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23. The Semicolon
 The semicolon is another important tool you can use
when you write. There are two ways to use this
punctuation mark: as a connector between two
sentences and as a supercomma.
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24. The Semicolon
 To Connect two sentences
 The semicolon is most often used to connect two
sentences. Obviously, the sentences ought to be relatively
close in content, but other than that you can connect any
two sentences with a semicolon.
 SENTENCE; SENTENCE
 As a communicator, you are always putting together
complex terms in your prose and showing how they relate
to one another. A semicolon is an economical way to join
two sentences, and therefore two ideas, so that your
reader sees the relationship. For example, you may write
any of the following sentences:
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25. The Semicolon
 Jim is a good typist; he makes few mistakes.
 The AFC corporation is an excellent company to invest in; its investments
have risen sharply and steadily over each of the last ten years.
 Ms. Sanchez is a successful real estate salesperson; however, she was
unable to sell her own house.
 Each of the three examples above contains two sentences glued together
by a semicolon. The second part of each sentence makes a comment on
the first. Certainly each sentence could be written as two sentences, but
you wouldn’t be expressing the close relationship between two parts that
you do when you use a semicolon. With two separate sentences, the
reader must stop at the period of the first sentence and then begin to read
the second; with two sentences connected by a semicolon, the reader does
not come to a full stop and, therefore, the relationship seems that much
closer. Also this type of sentence allows you to express your ideas
economically.
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26. The Semicolon
 The important point to remember is that you must have a
complete sentence on both sides of the semicolon. If your
second sentence begins with a conjunction (and, but, or, etc.),
you do not need a semicolon because the conjunction and the
comma that usually goes with it are equivalent to a semicolon.
Instead, combine two full sentences with a semicolon.
 Sometimes, a sentence may begin with words like however,
therefore, and nevertheless. If your second sentence begins
with one of these words, and if it is indeed a full sentence, you
still must use a semicolon to connect the two. The sentence
about Ms. Sanchez illustrates this use.
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27. The Semicolon
 A word of caution: never glue two sentences together
with only a comma. Grammarians call this sentence error
a comma splice. Here is an example of two sentences
connected with only a comma:
 The banking community became quite upset at the rise in
the prime rate, bankers felt that they would ultimately lose
a considerable amount of money.
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28. The Semicolon
 A comma splice is considered ungrammatical because the
reader begins reading the second sentence before
realizing that the first sentence is completed. Readers are
used to stopping at the end of a sentence, and they
become disoriented when they find that they have
unknowingly left one sentence and entered a new one.
This is why effective writers avoid the comma splice. Here
are two additional examples of comma splices:
 Ms. Linccini is a fine worker, she meets are her deadlines.
 Our sales have increased by twenty percent, our inventory
has been reduced by thirty percent.
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29. The Semicolon
 Each of the examples above constitutes two sentences glued
together with a comma. You can correct a comma splice by
inserting a semicolon between two sentences, by adding a
comma to your conjunction, or, of course, by punctuating
them as two sentences. Whichever way you choose, however,
you must make sure your final drafts do not contain comma
splices.
 There is one instance where a comma splice is considered
acceptable. Occasionally, you may have a list of items that
could stand alone as full sentences. You may use commas to
attach these items so long as it is clear to the reader that this
is a list of relatively equal items. Here is an example:
 I opened the safe door, I took out the money pouch, and I
concealed it in my desk drawer.
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30. The Semicolon
 The example above shows a list of three items and
illustrates a step-by-step process. Even though the items
all constitute full sentences, it is acceptable to use
commas to attach them but only because they are
members of a larger list. If you are unsure about using
commas to connect sentences in a list, perhaps it is best
to rewrite the sentence. Do, however, stay alert for any
two sentences in your prose that are connected by only a
comma.
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31. The Semicolon
 Related to the comma splice is the run-on sentence. Run-
on sentences, often called “fused” sentences, are two
sentences punctuated as if they were one. In other
words, a run-on is a comma splice without the comma –
two sentences smashed together with no punctuation
between them. Here are two sample run-ons:
 Chu Lie is the foreman Joseph Garcia is the Line Boss.
 I knew that the new personnel policy would cause
problems the union is reacting quite vehemently.
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32. The Semicolon
 As you can see, each of the two samples above is
composed of two sentences. The writer should have
connected the sentences with a semicolon or punctuated
then as separate sentences. Again, you don’t have to
worry about such matters until the proofreading stage,
but you must make sure your final draft doesn’t contain
run-on sentences.
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33. The Semicolon
 As Supercomma
 As you know, you normally separate the members of a list
with commas, as in this sentence:
 I have just bought shares in IBM, USAG, ITT.
 The commas let the reader know where one item ends
and the next begins. Sometimes, however, you have a list
of complex items and one (or more) of the items already
contains a comma. In such a case, the reader is likely to
get confused about what is really a member of the list
and what is not. You can avoid this confusion by making
the semicolon a sort of “supercomma”.
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34. The Semicolon
 Look at the sentence below to see how the supercomma
works:
 Suncom Corporation has subsidiaries in four cities: New York,
New York, Wilmington, Ohio, Houston, Texas, and San Francisco,
California.
 This sentence contains so many commas, both between the
members of the list and within them, that readers are likely to
become confused. Instead you can make the semicolon a
supercomma between each of the members so that your
meaning is clear:
 Suncom Corporation has subsidiaries in four citites: New York,
New York; Wilmington, Ohio; Houston, Texas; and San Francisco,
California.
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35. The Semicolon
 The second sentence is clearer than the first because the
reader knows exactly where the members of the list begin
and end. You probably will not need to use a semicolon as
a supercomma often, but if your sentence contains a list
of items, one(or more) of which already contains a
comma, you can clarify your meaning by using the
supercomma.
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36. The Colon
 You might be surprised to learn that the colon is one of the most
helpful and easiest to use of all the punctuation marks. You don't
need to remember six or seven rules to understand how a colon
works. In prose, a colon really does only one thing: it introduces. It
can introduce just about anything: a word, a phrase, a sentence, a
quotation, or a list. You'll notice that we've used colons in the two
preceding sentences to introduce a sentence, in the first case, and a
list, in the second case. This is how simple the colon is. Let's look at
some other examples:
 Joe has only one thing on his mind: profit.
 Joe has only one thing on his mind: his stock portfolio.
 Joe has only one thing on his mind: he wants to get rich.
 Joe has three things on his mind: Stocks, bonds, and certificates of
deposit.
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37. The Colon
 We have used a colon in these four sentences to introduce various kinds of things: a word, a
phrase, a sentence, and a list. You can use a colon in your prose in any place where you must
directly introduce something. A colon gives special emphasis to whatever you're introducing
because readers must first come to a stop, and so they pay more attention to it. For example,
let's say you are writing a letter describing a product, and you want to emphasize above all
that this product, the Jacobsen lawn mower, is reliable. You could very well write:
 The Jacobsen lawn mower beats its competitors especially in the key area of reliability.
 While this sentence gets the point across, it doesn't place much emphasis on reliability. A
sentence using a colon is much more emphatic:
 The Jacobsen lawn mower beats its competitors especially in one key area: reliability.
 Notice that the second example places clear emphasis on the point that the writer is trying to
communicate to his or her reader: that the Jacobsen lawn mower is above all reliable. The
writer of this sentence has used the colon effectively.
 Perhaps the most common way to use a colon is to introduce a list of items, as in this
sentence:
 This report reviews five main criteria to determine whether to purchase the reliability.
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38. The Colon
 IBM PC: hardware, software, maintenance agreements, service, and customer
support.
 If you aren't sure whether you need a colon in a particular sentence, here is a
handy test: read the sentence, and when you reach the colon, substitute the word
namely; if the sentence reads through smoothly, then there's a good chance that
you do need a colon. For example, you can read any of the example sentences
above with the word namely in the place of the colon:
 Joe has only one thing on his mind [namely] profit.
 Joe has only one thing on his mind [namely] his stock portfolio.
 Joe has only one thing on his mind [namely] he wants to get rich.
 Joe has three things on his mind [namely] stocks, bonds, and certificates of deposit.
 This test may not work 100 percent of the time, but it is a fairly reliable indicator of
whether you need a colon.
 One word of caution: do not place the colon after the verb in a sentence, even
when you are introducing something, because the verb itself introduces and the
colon would be redundant. For example, you would not write:
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39. The Colon
 My three favorite friends are: Evelyn, Marlyne, and Ronni.
 The colon is not necessary in the sentence above because the
verb does the work of introducing the three friends. You can
check this sentence by using the test we just mentioned. It
would seem awkward to read this sentence, "My three
favorite friends are, namely, Evelyn, Marlyne, and Ronni." The
fact that the sentence is awkward when you read it with
namely is an indication that the colon is unnecessary.
Remember, the colon shows emphasis and, therefore, you
want the reader to stop at the colon before preceding on to
whatever it is you are introducing.
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