Fundamental concepts in linguistics

1. Fundamental Concepts
in Linguistics
Lecturer at Department of English Language & Literature
University of the Punjab , Lahore Pakistan

3. Aspects of Language
Language
Langue Parole
Language Language Performance

4. Langue
• The following rules & conventions constitute
langue:
– The combination of Sounds & Pronunciation
(Phonetic, Phonology)
– Formation of Words (Morphology)
– Construction of Sentences (Syntax)
– Contextual Meanings (Pragmatics)
– Words Relationship (Semantics)

5. Grammatical System
To Saussure:
• Language is a grammatical system
– That exists in the brains of a group of individuals
– In the form of word-image & knowledge of
conventions
• Language exists perfectly
– within a society/ collectivity
– Not in any individual speaker

6. Product of Social Agreement
• There is a similarity of:
–Sounds
–Words
–Meaning
–among the native speakers of a language
• They have the same images and signs in their
minds
–The social bond constitutes language

7. Parole
•Parole belongs to the individual
•It is the concrete physical manifestation
• of the abstract langue
•That exist in mind
•An individual makes use of this knowledge
•To produce actual sentence i.e. parole

9. Langue vs. Parole
Langue is Social
•A set of conventions & rules
– Shared by all the
speakers of a language
Parole is Individual
• Individual performance
of language
– In speech or writing

10. Langue vs. Parole
Langue is Abstract
•These conventions exist in the
minds of the speakers
– Who belong to that
society
– That has created the
language
Parole is Concrete
• It is physical, makes use of
the physiological
mechanism:
– Speech organs
– In uttering words and
sentences

11. Langue vs. Parole
Underlying system
• Which makes the individual
performance (parole)
meaningful
If we hear unknown language
We can’t understand
As we do not share the langue
Performance
• Sound and sentence
Parole cant be a mean of
communication &
understood without langue

12. Langue vs. Parole
Language System
• Consist of stable:
Conventions
Rules
Codes
Language Behaviour
• Production of sentences :
Unpredictable
Heterogeneous
Whimsical (capricious)
Variable

13. Langue vs. Parole
Legislative side of
Language
• Like law langue is relatively
fixed
It does not change with
each individual
• Langue maintains:
The social order
Homogeneity of the
language
Executive side of
Language
• It uses the law or code
the language
• It executes langue
through Individual acts
of speaking and writing

14. Langue vs. Parole
Language can be studied
• It is well defined
• Homogenous object
• It is in form of written
symbols
So, it can be studied
Parole can not be studied
• Unpredictable mass of
speech act
• It cannot be accurately
represented
• It is heterogeneous
So variable that cannot
be studied

15. Analogy of a Game of Chess
Rules are determined
Understood by all the players
But each game is different
Depends on the individual performance
Which differ from player to player

17. Unreal Dichotomies
• Langue and Parole are interrelated not
separate
– Speech has both an individual & social side
– We cannot conceive of one without the other
• Parole is not possible or effective without
Langue
• Langue also changes gradually under the effect
of parole

18. Parole has Social Aspect
• It is concerned with the language use in social
situation
– Has some systematic & predictable features in
social situations
– It has effect on langue
• Gives a useful insight into language process
– Can obtain the data ,gives better understanding of
langue
• It is now easy to study through recording
– Audio, video devices

20. Competence vs. Performance
Speaker’s Knowledge
• Native language (structure)
• Mastery of the system of
rules
– Is speaker’s linguistic
competence
Speaker’s Production
• Production of actual
sentences use in real-life
situation
• The way of using
linguistic competence is
linguistic performance

21. Competence vs. Performance
Set of Code
• Competence is set of
principals/code which a
speaker masters
• The abstract/internal
grammar which enables a
speaker to utter &
understand infinite number
of utterances
Encoding/Decoding
• Performance is what a
speaker does
• It is the act of encoding
or decoding

22. Competence vs. Performance
Free from Interference
• Due to slips of memory
Lapses of attention
Easy to study
• It is ideal thus gives
coherent picture of the
language
• Can be studied easily
Prone to Interference
• It reflects many such
lapses
Difficult to study
• It is difficult to get a
direct coherent record of
performance
• Difficult to study

24. Langue vs. Competence
Same & Social
• It is same with every
language user
• It has social
aspect/agreement/bond
Different & Individual
• Based on inbuilt LAD
enables a person:
To acquire
competence
To internalize the
rules of the language
To generate an
infinite number of
sentences
• Speaker A may be more
competent than B
Though share the
same conventions of
language

26. Linguistic Sign
• It is a physical marker –carries some
information
– Direct
– Brief
– Precise (only this not other)

27. Parts of Sign
• The linguistic sign is consist of two parts:
Sign
The signifier The signified
The word The concept
which signifies The object

28. Word Represents Concept
• Word does not represents the actual object in
real life
– But the concept/image of the object we have in our
minds
– If the word tree represents the real object (tree)
– The word for this object in all languages would
have been the same
• We see an object and form a concept of it in
our minds

29. Word/Concept Relationship
• We invent a word consisting of some sound-images
– That represents the concept exists in mind
• The relationship between the sounds/words and the
concept they signify
– An arbitrary
– No logical reason why we choose a certain word
• To represent the concept
• Since signs are arbitrary
– They differ from language to language
– Every society constructs its own concepts of the real world
– Links these concepts to certain signifiers & signified
(chosen arbitrarily)

30. Validity of Sign
• This relationship once establish as social fact
– Continues over a long period of time
• Social agreement gives it validity

31. Relational Entity
• Signs are the relational entities
• Exist in terms of complex relationships to each
other
• Signs make up the whole system of a language

32. Symbol
• A kind of sign that signifies several concepts
– on the basis of the primary relationship of
signifier/signified
• Thus the word “tree” signifies concept of tree
(primary relationship) may also signify:
– Life, growth etc becomes not only sign but also symbol
• Symbol means more information e.g. waving one’s
hand
– Symbolic of farewell
– Dismissal etc.

34. Language Quality
Language Quality
Substance Form
Raw Material Particular Order
Meaningless Meaningful

35. Substance
Phonic Graphic
Phonemes Morphemes Graphemes
sounds letters alphabets
/k/ /b/ /t/ -tion, -able, -co. A, d, c, h

36. Form
• All distinct sounds &written scripts are the substance
of a language
– It is meaningless (only noisy)
– Required some form to become meaningful
• When sounds, letters, words are arranged in a certain
way i.e.
– We can see some meaning in them
– It becomes form of a language
• It is just like a shapeless log of wood
– The carpenter makes a chair / table out of it
– He changes substance into form

37. Saussure’s Term
Language Quality
Substance Form
Signifier Signified
Mere sound/words Meaningful/ Concept

38. Specific Arrangement makes Form
• Sounds when arranged in particular order
– Signify something meaningful
• Words when arranged in a particular order
– Express some meaningful idea/action
• The arrangement itself gives form to the
substance of the language

39. Levels of Form
Form
Expression Content
Shape/form of Elements Level of Meanings
Regardless of Meanings Grammar &
Semantics
The bachelor gave birth to a baby

40. Linguistic Study
To sum up we say:
• Substance is element/ raw material of language
• Form is the associative order
– In which elements are brought together in a
meaningful way
• So, form is the concern of linguistic study, not
substance
• Form makes it study substance

42. Language
Structured System of Systems
Elements are inter-related A System
(At each level of its structure)
Phonological Morphological Syntactic
Sounds words word-classes
Elements of sounds/words/class are inter-related

43. Structure
• An ordered composition of many
elements/parts
– Each part being related to the whole
– Also related to other elements within it
• Inter-relationship of elements constitute
SYSTEM
– Within each system, elements are selected &
combined to build up structure

44. The Phonological System: Word Structure
– To build up a word such as “TAKE”
1. We will select some sounds
Out of several possible sounds
2. We combine them in a particular order
decide which one is to occur 1st, which later

45. Structure: Process of Selection
Certain rules operate:
• We can select only one element from a class of
similar elements
– A particular consonant from same class
– A noun from a class of nouns
• /k/ /b/ /t/ all are consonants

46. Structure: Process of Combination
Certain rules operate:
• We combine the chosen elements in a
particular order
• We can combine:
– /t/ + /eI/ + /k/ but not /eI/ + /t/
• These elements are combined in a particular
sequence

47. Language Structure : Orchestra
• The member of an orchestra
are all related to each other
as a whole
– By their specific roles
• Smaller groups (violinists, bass
player) perform their function
in relation to other
• Players cannot be added or
taken away without
changing its quality

48. Structure Constitute System
• Structure: an order composition of many parts
Order Composition of
many parts
Brass
Woodwi
nds
Violin
Harp
Springs
Cello
Piano
Drum
Flute

49. Elements’ Relationships
Relationship
Paradigmatic Syntagmatic

50. Paradigmatic Relationship
• The relationship between those elements which are similar as
belong to same class/category is PR
– Which holds between several elements of same class within
a system
• Elements can be replaced by another elements within the same
system and class
The phonological system The syntactic system
The relationship between The relationship
Plosive Consonants between nouns

51. Syntagmatic Relationship
• The particular sequence between elements is
syntagmatic relationship
• In syntagmatic relationship, the elements have
to be combined in the proper sequence
• We cannot violate the sequential order

53. Significance of these Relationships
• These relationships are like two intersecting
threads
– That build up the fabric of language
• On the basis of these relationships, the rules of
selection & combination operate and constitutes
the structure of a language
• Language has duality of structure
– Selection of elements at one level
– Combination of these elements at another level
– To form a structure unit
• Limited number of elements can construct large
number of combinations

54. Variation & Flexibility
• Both selection (paradigmatic) & combination
(syntagmatic) processes unable us to construct
different sentences

55. TO SUM UP
System Set of Paradigmatic R (in elements)
Structure set of Syntagmatic R (each level)
Phonological System Phonological Structure
Vowels/ Consonants Combination of it
Syntactic System Syntactic Structure
Word-classes Combination of it
Sound Level
Sentence Formation

57. Language Study
Synchronic Diachronic (traces)
Chronos Historical development Records
Time Language Changes
Language at particular time in between
successive point
in time
(as a living whole/ state)

58. Synchronic Approach
• This state of language is:
– Accumulation of all the linguistic activities of
language community

59. Irrelevant time Factor
To study language linguists:
• Collect samples of language as it exists
• Describe it regardless of any historical
considerations
– Which may have influenced the language at any
previous time
– Once linguists have isolated a focal point for
synchronic description
– The time factor becomes irrelevant

60. Main Focus of Study
• The system of language
– as it exists i.e.:
• The system of inter-relationships
– that bind together co-existing items
– in the collective mind of the community

61. Diachronic Approach
Equivalent to historical:
• It investigates language changes
– as they have occurred from time to time
• The evolution of languages

62. Inter-relationship of Synchronic & Diachronic
• CD is synchronic axis (static)
– All the facts of language co-exist at a
particular time
• AB is diachronic axis of successions
– AB is an imaginary line moving through
time
– The historical path through which
language has travelled & will continue
travelling
• CD can intersect AB at any point
– because at any given time there will be a
number of facts about language co-
existing
• X is the point on AB
– where the particular point in time can be
isolated
– and the language can be described at that
point as it exists

63. Synchronic Approach is Prior
• Saussure make this distinction
• Gives priority in linguistics to the synchronic
approach
• He explained this priority by analogy with the
game of chess

64. Analogy of the Game of Chess
• Chessboard constantly
changes with each move
• During the game at any
moment a 3rd person can
understand the state of game
by looking at the position of
pieces
• Regardless what kind of
moves & how many moves
have been made before
arriving at this stage
• The game can be described
without reference to the earlier
moves

65. Analogy of the Game of Chess
Game Rules
• Which are determined
before the game
– Continue to operate with
each move
Language Rules
• Similarly rules exist in
language too

66. Analogy of the Game of Chess
Value of Pieces
•Depends on their position on
the chess board
Value of Linguistic Term
• Derives its value from its
opposition to all the other
terms

67. Analogy of the Game of Chess
Changes in Game
• To pass from one stage
to the next
• Only one piece needs to
be moved at a time
• Succession of moves
can change the outcome
of the game
Changes in Language
• In language change
effects only isolated
elements
• Not the whole language
• These changes ultimately
do result in changing the
language

68. Conclusion
• Language can & should be described
synchronically
• On its own terms without reference to what it
has developed from or what it is likely to
develop into
• However, this does not mean that
diachronic/historical study cannot be done
• To Saussure ,though the diachronic perspective
is not related to the language system
• It does affect/condition the system