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Chapter 1Chapter 1
Organization of theOrganization of the
BodyBody

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Anatomy and PhysiologyAnatomy and Physiology
• Anatomy and physiology are branches ofAnatomy and physiology are branches of
biology concerned with the form and functionsbiology concerned with the form and functions
of the bodyof the body
• Anatomy - study of the structure of an organismAnatomy - study of the structure of an organism
and the relationship of its partsand the relationship of its parts
• PhysiologyPhysiology –– is the science that deals with theis the science that deals with the
functions of the living organism and its parts.functions of the living organism and its parts.

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Anatomy and PhysiologyAnatomy and Physiology
• Gross anatomyGross anatomy——study of the body and its partsstudy of the body and its parts
using only the naked eye (Figure 1-2)using only the naked eye (Figure 1-2)
• Microscopic anatomyMicroscopic anatomy——study of body partsstudy of body parts
using a microscopeusing a microscope
– CytologyCytology——study of cellsstudy of cells
– HistologyHistology——study of tissuesstudy of tissues

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Anatomy and PhysiologyAnatomy and Physiology
• Developmental anatomyDevelopmental anatomy——study of humanstudy of human
growth and developmentgrowth and development
• Pathological anatomyPathological anatomy——study of diseased bodystudy of diseased body
structuresstructures
• Systemic anatomySystemic anatomy——study of the bodystudy of the body
by systemsby systems

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Anatomy and PhysiologyAnatomy and Physiology
• PhysiologyPhysiology——science of the functions ofscience of the functions of
organisms; subdivisions named according toorganisms; subdivisions named according to
– Organism involvedOrganism involved——human or plant physiologyhuman or plant physiology
– Organizational levelOrganizational level——molecular or cellularmolecular or cellular
physiologyphysiology
– Systemic functionSystemic function——respiratory, neurovascular, orrespiratory, neurovascular, or
cardiovascular physiologycardiovascular physiology

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Characteristics of LifeCharacteristics of Life
– ResponsivenessResponsiveness
– ConductivityConductivity
– GrowthGrowth
– RespirationRespiration
– DigestionDigestion
– AbsorptionAbsorption
– SecretionSecretion
– ExcretionExcretion
– CirculationCirculation
– ReproductionReproduction
• Characteristics of life considered most
important in humans:

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Characteristics of LifeCharacteristics of Life
• Responsiveness – permits an organism to sense,Responsiveness – permits an organism to sense,
monitor and respond to changes in its externalmonitor and respond to changes in its external
environmentenvironment
– Example: withdrawing from a painful stimulus, i.e.Example: withdrawing from a painful stimulus, i.e.
pinprick…pinprick…
• Conductivity – capacity of living cells and tissuesConductivity – capacity of living cells and tissues
to selectively transmit a wave of excitation fromto selectively transmit a wave of excitation from
one point to anotherone point to another
– Nerve impulse conductionNerve impulse conduction

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Characteristics of LifeCharacteristics of Life
• Growth – result of a normal increase in the sizeGrowth – result of a normal increase in the size
or number of cellsor number of cells
– Hypertrophy or HyperplasiaHypertrophy or Hyperplasia
• Respiration – processes that result in theRespiration – processes that result in the
absorption, transport, utilization, or exchange ofabsorption, transport, utilization, or exchange of
respiratory gasesrespiratory gases
– O2/CO2 exchange in the lungsO2/CO2 exchange in the lungs

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Characteristics of LifeCharacteristics of Life
• Digestion – process by which complex foods areDigestion – process by which complex foods are
broken down into simpler substances that canbroken down into simpler substances that can
be absorbed by the bodies cellsbe absorbed by the bodies cells
– CatabolismCatabolism
• Absorption – movement of digested nutrientsAbsorption – movement of digested nutrients
through the wall of the digestive tract into thethrough the wall of the digestive tract into the
bodies fluidsbodies fluids
– Small bowel and nutrient absorptionSmall bowel and nutrient absorption

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Characteristics of LifeCharacteristics of Life
• Secretion – production and delivery ofSecretion – production and delivery of
specialized substancesspecialized substances
– Digestive juices or hormonesDigestive juices or hormones
• Excretion – removal of waste productsExcretion – removal of waste products
produced during the bodies functionsproduced during the bodies functions
– CO2 exhaledCO2 exhaled

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Characteristics of LifeCharacteristics of Life
• Circulation – movement of body fluids andCirculation – movement of body fluids and
many other substances from one place in themany other substances from one place in the
body to anotherbody to another
– O2 to the bodies cellsO2 to the bodies cells
• Reproduction – formation of new cells or a newReproduction – formation of new cells or a new
individualindividual
– MitosisMitosis

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Levels of OrganizationLevels of Organization
• Chemical levelChemical level——basis for lifebasis for life
– Organization of chemical structures separates livingOrganization of chemical structures separates living
material from nonliving materialmaterial from nonliving material
– Combinations of atoms form moleculesCombinations of atoms form molecules
– Combinations of molecules and atoms formCombinations of molecules and atoms form
macromolecules results in living mattermacromolecules results in living matter
– The complex relationship between these form a gelThe complex relationship between these form a gel
called cytoplasmcalled cytoplasm
• The essential material to human lifeThe essential material to human life

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Levels of OrganizationLevels of Organization
• Organelle levelOrganelle level
– Chemical structures organize to form organelles that performChemical structures organize to form organelles that perform
individual functionsindividual functions
– The functions of the organelles that allow the cell to liveThe functions of the organelles that allow the cell to live
– Dozens of organelles have been identified, including theDozens of organelles have been identified, including the
following:following:
• MitochondriaMitochondria
• Golgi apparatusGolgi apparatus
• Endoplasmic reticulumEndoplasmic reticulum

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Levels of OrganizationLevels of Organization
• Cellular levelCellular level
– Cells are the smallest and most numerous units thatCells are the smallest and most numerous units that
possess and exhibit characteristics of lifepossess and exhibit characteristics of life
– A cells nucleus is surrounded by cytoplasm within aA cells nucleus is surrounded by cytoplasm within a
limiting membranelimiting membrane
– Cells differentiate to perform unique functionsCells differentiate to perform unique functions

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Levels of OrganizationLevels of Organization
• Tissue levelTissue level
– Tissue consist of an organization of similar cells specializedTissue consist of an organization of similar cells specialized
to perform a certain functionto perform a certain function
– Tissue cells are surrounded by nonliving matrix and are theTissue cells are surrounded by nonliving matrix and are the
fabric of the bodyfabric of the body
– Four major tissue types:Four major tissue types:
• Epithelial tissueEpithelial tissue
• Connective tissueConnective tissue
• Muscle tissueMuscle tissue
• Nervous tissueNervous tissue

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Levels of OrganizationLevels of Organization
• Organ levelOrgan level
– An organ is several different kinds of tissues thatAn organ is several different kinds of tissues that
combine to perform a special functioncombine to perform a special function
– Organs represent discrete and functionally complexOrgans represent discrete and functionally complex
operational unitsoperational units
– Each organ has a unique size, shape, appearance,Each organ has a unique size, shape, appearance,
and placement in the bodyand placement in the body

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Levels of OrganizationLevels of Organization
• System levelSystem level
– SystemSystem –– the most complex organizational unit of the bodythe most complex organizational unit of the body
– The system level involves varying numbers and kinds ofThe system level involves varying numbers and kinds of
organs arranged to perform complex functions (Table 1-1):organs arranged to perform complex functions (Table 1-1):
• Outer protectionOuter protection
• Support and movementSupport and movement
• Communication, control, and integrationCommunication, control, and integration
• Transportation and defenseTransportation and defense
• Respiration, nutrition, and excretionRespiration, nutrition, and excretion
• Reproduction and developmentReproduction and development

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Levels of OrganizationLevels of Organization
• Organism levelOrganism level
– The living human organism is greater than the sumThe living human organism is greater than the sum
of its partsof its parts
– All of the components (chemicalAll of the components (chemical –– system) worksystem) work
together to allow the human to survive and flourishtogether to allow the human to survive and flourish

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Anatomical PositionAnatomical Position
• Reference position for A&P and PositioningReference position for A&P and Positioning
• Body erect or standing, with arms at sides, palmsBody erect or standing, with arms at sides, palms
turned forward, and the head and feet pointingturned forward, and the head and feet pointing
forwardforward

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Anatomical
Position

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Anatomical PositionAnatomical Position
• Bilateral symmetry is a term meaning that right and leftBilateral symmetry is a term meaning that right and left
sides of body are mirror imagessides of body are mirror images
– Bilateral symmetry confers balanced proportionsBilateral symmetry confers balanced proportions
– There is remarkable correspondence of size and shapeThere is remarkable correspondence of size and shape
between body parts on opposite sides of the bodybetween body parts on opposite sides of the body
– Ipsilateral structures are on the same side of the body inIpsilateral structures are on the same side of the body in
anatomical positionanatomical position
– Contralateral structures are on opposite sides of the body inContralateral structures are on opposite sides of the body in
anatomical positionanatomical position

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Body CavitiesBody Cavities
• Ventral body cavityVentral body cavity
– Thoracic cavityThoracic cavity
• Right and left pleural cavitiesRight and left pleural cavities
• MediastinumMediastinum
– Abdominopelvic cavityAbdominopelvic cavity
• Abdominal cavityAbdominal cavity
• Pelvic cavityPelvic cavity

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Body CavitiesBody Cavities
• Dorsal body cavityDorsal body cavity
– Cranial cavityCranial cavity
– Spinal cavitySpinal cavity

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Body RegionsBody Regions
• Abdominopelvic quadrantsAbdominopelvic quadrants
– Right upper quadrantRight upper quadrant
– Left upper quadrantLeft upper quadrant
– Right lower quadrantRight lower quadrant
– Left lower quadrantLeft lower quadrant

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Body RegionsBody Regions
• Abdominal regionsAbdominal regions
– Right hypochondriac regionRight hypochondriac region
– Epigastric regionEpigastric region
– Left hypochondriac regionLeft hypochondriac region
– Right lumbar regionRight lumbar region
– Umbilical regionUmbilical region
– Left lumbar regionLeft lumbar region
– Right iliac (inguinal) regionRight iliac (inguinal) region
– Hypogastric regionHypogastric region
– Left iliac (inguinal) regionLeft iliac (inguinal) region

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Terms Used in Describing BodyTerms Used in Describing Body
StructureStructure
• Directional termsDirectional terms
– SuperiorSuperior
– InferiorInferior
– Anterior (ventral)Anterior (ventral)
– Posterior (dorsal)Posterior (dorsal)
– MedialMedial
– LateralLateral
– ProximalProximal
– DistalDistal
– SuperficialSuperficial
– DeepDeep

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Terms Used in Describing BodyTerms Used in Describing Body
StructureStructure
• Superior – towards the headSuperior – towards the head
• Inferior – towards the feetInferior – towards the feet
• Anterior – frontAnterior – front
• Posterior – backPosterior – back
• Medial – toward the midlineMedial – toward the midline
• Lateral – away from the midlineLateral – away from the midline

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Terms Used in Describing BodyTerms Used in Describing Body
StructureStructure
• Proximal – toward the nearest point ofProximal – toward the nearest point of
attachment or the trunk of the bodyattachment or the trunk of the body
• Distal – away or furthest from the point ofDistal – away or furthest from the point of
attachment or trunkattachment or trunk
• Superficial – nearer the surfaceSuperficial – nearer the surface
• Deep – farther from the surfaceDeep – farther from the surface

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Terms Used in Describing BodyTerms Used in Describing Body
StructureStructure
• Terms related to organsTerms related to organs
– Lumen (luminal)Lumen (luminal)
– CentralCentral
– PeripheralPeripheral
– Medullary (medulla)Medullary (medulla)
– Cortical (cortex)Cortical (cortex)
– Apical (apex)Apical (apex)
– Basal (base)Basal (base)
• Many directional terms are listed inside the frontMany directional terms are listed inside the front
cover of the bookcover of the book

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Body Planes and SectionsBody Planes and Sections
• Planes are lines of orientation along which cutsPlanes are lines of orientation along which cuts
or sections can be made to divide the body, or aor sections can be made to divide the body, or a
body part, into smaller piecesbody part, into smaller pieces

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Body Planes and SectionsBody Planes and Sections
• There are three major planes, which lie at right anglesThere are three major planes, which lie at right angles
to each other:to each other:
– Sagittal plane runs front to back so that sections through thisSagittal plane runs front to back so that sections through this
plane divide body (or body part) into right and left sidesplane divide body (or body part) into right and left sides
• If section divides body (or part) into symmetrical right and left halves,If section divides body (or part) into symmetrical right and left halves,
the plane is called midsagittal or median sagittalthe plane is called midsagittal or median sagittal
– Frontal (coronal) plane runs lengthwise (side to side) andFrontal (coronal) plane runs lengthwise (side to side) and
divides body (or part) into anterior and posterior portionsdivides body (or part) into anterior and posterior portions
• If section divides the body into equal anterior or posterior portions,If section divides the body into equal anterior or posterior portions,
the plane is calledthe plane is called midcoronal
– Transverse (horizontal) plane is aTransverse (horizontal) plane is a ““crosswisecrosswise”” planeplane——itit
divides body (or part) into upper and lower partsdivides body (or part) into upper and lower parts

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Body TypesBody Types
• Somatotype—category of body build or physiqueSomatotype—category of body build or physique
• Endomorph—heavy, rounded physique with accumulationEndomorph—heavy, rounded physique with accumulation
of fatof fat
– ““Apple-shaped” endomorph has more accumulation ofApple-shaped” endomorph has more accumulation of
fat in the waist than hipfat in the waist than hip
• Waist-to-hip ratio >0.9 for women and >1.0 for menWaist-to-hip ratio >0.9 for women and >1.0 for men
• Higher risk for health problems than “pear shape”Higher risk for health problems than “pear shape”
– ““Pear-shaped” endomorph has more accumulation of fatPear-shaped” endomorph has more accumulation of fat
in hips than in waistin hips than in waist
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Body Type and DiseaseBody Type and Disease
(Figure 1-11)(Figure 1-11)
• Mesomorph—muscularMesomorph—muscular
physiquephysique
• Ectomorph—thin, oftenEctomorph—thin, often
fragile physiquefragile physique
with little fatwith little fat
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HomeostasisHomeostasis
• Term homeostasis coined by the AmericanTerm homeostasis coined by the American
physiologist Walter B. Cannonphysiologist Walter B. Cannon
• Homeostasis is the term used to describe theHomeostasis is the term used to describe the
relatively constant states maintained by therelatively constant states maintained by the
bodies internal environmentbodies internal environment
• The body maintains homeostasis throughThe body maintains homeostasis through
feedback systemsfeedback systems

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HomeostasisHomeostasis
• Examples of homeostasis:Examples of homeostasis:
– Temperature regulationTemperature regulation
– Regulation of blood carbon dioxide levelRegulation of blood carbon dioxide level
– Regulation of blood glucose levelRegulation of blood glucose level
• Body adjusts important variables from a normalBody adjusts important variables from a normal
““set pointset point”” in to get the body back into anin to get the body back into an
acceptable or normal range (blood pressure)acceptable or normal range (blood pressure)

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Homeostatic ControlHomeostatic Control
MechanismsMechanisms• A homeostatic control mechanism is a device for maintaining or restoringA homeostatic control mechanism is a device for maintaining or restoring
homeostasis by self-regulation through feedback control loopshomeostasis by self-regulation through feedback control loops
• The basic components of control mechanisms:The basic components of control mechanisms:
– Sensory mechanism (receptor)Sensory mechanism (receptor) –– are specific sensors that detect and react toare specific sensors that detect and react to
any changes from normalany changes from normal
• NerveNerve
– Integrating, or control, centerIntegrating, or control, center –– where information is analyzed and integrated,where information is analyzed and integrated,
and then, if needed, a specific action is initiatedand then, if needed, a specific action is initiated
• CNS or ThyroidCNS or Thyroid
– Effector mechanismEffector mechanism——effectors directly influence controlled physiologicaleffectors directly influence controlled physiological
variablesvariables
• Muscle or glandMuscle or gland
– Feedback system - processes information about a variable constantly sendsFeedback system - processes information about a variable constantly sends
information back from the sensor to the integrator (control)information back from the sensor to the integrator (control)

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Feedback
System
Example

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Homeostatic ControlHomeostatic Control
MechanismsMechanisms
• Negative feedback control systemNegative feedback control system –– reverses a changereverses a change
in a controlled conditionin a controlled condition
– Are inhibitoryAre inhibitory
– Stabilize physiological variablesStabilize physiological variables
– Produce an action that is opposite to the change thatProduce an action that is opposite to the change that
activated the systemactivated the system
– Are responsible for maintaining homeostasisAre responsible for maintaining homeostasis
– Are much more common than positive feedback controlAre much more common than positive feedback control
systemssystems
– Example: Body Temperature Control or Blood PressureExample: Body Temperature Control or Blood Pressure

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Homeostatic ControlHomeostatic Control
MechanismsMechanisms
• Positive feedback control systemPositive feedback control system –– the effectorthe effector
produces a physiological responses that reinforces theproduces a physiological responses that reinforces the
initial change in the controlled conditioninitial change in the controlled condition
– Are stimulatoryAre stimulatory
– Amplify or reinforce the change that is occurringAmplify or reinforce the change that is occurring
– Tend to produce destabilizing effects and disruptTend to produce destabilizing effects and disrupt
homeostasishomeostasis
– Bring specific body functions to swift completionBring specific body functions to swift completion
– Example: Childbirth, Clotting, Immune Response, or SneezeExample: Childbirth, Clotting, Immune Response, or Sneeze

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Homeostatic ControlHomeostatic Control
MechanismsMechanisms
• Levels of controlLevels of control
– Intracellular controlIntracellular control
• Regulation within cellsRegulation within cells
• Genes or enzymes can regulate cell processesGenes or enzymes can regulate cell processes
– Intrinsic control (autoregulation)Intrinsic control (autoregulation)
• Regulation within tissues or organsRegulation within tissues or organs
• May involve chemical signalsMay involve chemical signals
• May involve otherMay involve other ““built-inbuilt-in”” mechanismsmechanisms
– Extrinsic controlExtrinsic control
• Regulation from organ to organRegulation from organ to organ
• May involve nerve signalsMay involve nerve signals
• May involve endocrine signals (hormones)May involve endocrine signals (hormones)

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• Structure and function of body undergo changesStructure and function of body undergo changes
over the early years (developmental processes)over the early years (developmental processes)
and late years (aging processes)and late years (aging processes)
• Infancy and old age are periods of time whenInfancy and old age are periods of time when
the body functions least wellthe body functions least well
Cycle of Life:Cycle of Life:
Life Span ConsiderationsLife Span Considerations

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Cycle of Life:Cycle of Life:
Life Span ConsiderationsLife Span Considerations
• Young adulthood is period of greatestYoung adulthood is period of greatest
homeostatic efficiencyhomeostatic efficiency
• AtrophyAtrophy——term to describe the wasting effectsterm to describe the wasting effects
of advancing ageof advancing age

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Questions?Questions?