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BIOLOGY

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Introduction
• Biological studies deal with organisms
which show variety
• We cannot rely on a single measurement
and so we must take a sample
• This sample of data must be summarised
and analyzed to find out if it is reliable

Spacebar to continue
Summarising data
• MEAN Sum of samples ÷ sample size
x

÷

n

• MEDIAN Middle number in a list when
arranged in rank order: 2, 5, 7, 7, 8, 23, 31
• MODE The measurement which occurs
most frequently ; 2, 5, 7, 7, 8, 23, 31
Spacebar to continue
Distribution Curves
• A visual summary of data
• They can be produced by;
1. Collect data
2. Split results into equal size classes
3. Make a tally chart
4. Plot a histogram of frequency against size class

• Data can show normal distribution or
skewed distribution
Spacebar to continue
Distribution curves
• Normal distribution
• Symmetrical bell
shaped curve around
the mean
• Use parametric tests to
analyse data

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14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0

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Distribution curves
• Skewed data
• Asymmetrical curve
around the mode
• Use non-parametric
tests to analyse data

18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0

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Standard Deviation
• Standard deviation (SD) is a measure of the
spread of the data

Large SD
Small SD
Standard deviation
• A high SD indicates data which shows great
variation from the mean
• A low SD indicates data which shows little
variation from the mean value
• By definition, 68% of all data values lie
within the range MEAN 1SD
• 95% of all values lie within 2SD
Spacebar to continue
SD and confidence limits
14

•

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

68%
95%
Calculating SD
• Can only be used for normally distributed
data
• Calculate as follows;
–
–
–
–
–

Sum the values for x2 ie ( x2)
Sum the values for x, then square it ie ( x)2
Divide ( x)2 by n
Take one from the other and divide by n
Take the square root of this.
(see hand-out)
Spacebar to continue
Calculating SD

S=

x2 - (( x)2/n)
n

Spacebar to continue
Confidence limits
• 95% of all values lie within 2SD of the
mean
• Any value which lies outside this range is
said to be significantly different from the
others
• We say that we are working to 95%
confidence limits or to a 5% significance
level.
Spacebar to continue
Comparison tests
• To compare two samples of data we look at
the overlap between the two distribution
curves.
• This depends on;
– The distance between the two mean values
– The spread of each sample (standard deviation)

• The greater the overlap, the more similar
the two samples are.
Spacebar to continue
Comparison tests
Mean
Mean

Sample 2
Overlap
Sample 1

Spacebar to continue
Comparison tests
When the SD is small, the overlap is less;

Sample 2
Overlap
Sample 1

Spacebar to continue
The null hypothesis
• In order to compare two sets of data we
must first assume that there is no difference
between them.
• This is called the null hypothesis
• We must also produce an alternative
hypothesis which states that there is a
difference.
Spacebar to continue
The t-test
• Used to compare the overlap of two sets of
data
• Samples must show normal distribution
• Sample size (n) should be greater than 30

• This tests for differences between two sets
of data
Spacebar to continue
The t-test
• To calculate t;
– Check data is normally distributed by drawing a
tally chart
– Work out difference in means |x1 – x2|
– Calculate variance for each set of data (this is s2
n)
– Put these into the equation for t:

Spacebar to continue
The t-test
|x1 – x2|
t=

s12
n1

s22
n2

Spacebar to continue
The t-test
• Compare the value of t with the critical value
at n1 + n2 – 2 degrees of freedom
• Use a probability value of 5%
• If t is greater than the critical value we can
reject the null hypothesis…
• … there is a significant difference between the
two sets of data
• … there is only a 5% chance that any
similarity is due to chance
Mann-Whitney u-test
• Compares two sets of data
• Data can be skewed
• Sample size can be small;

5<n<30
• For details refer to stats book

Spacebar to continue
Chi squared
• Some data is categoric
• This means that it belongs to one or more
categories
• Examples include
– eye colour
– presence or absence data
– texture of seeds

• For these we use a chi squared test 2
• This tests for an association between two or more
variables
Chi squared
• Draw a contingency table
• These are the observed values
Blue eyes

Green eyes

Row totals

Fair hair

a

b

a+b

Ginger hair

c

d

c+d

Column
totals

a+c

b+d

a+b+c+d
Chi squared
• Now work out the expected values:
• Where,

(Row total) x (Column total)
E=
(Grand total)
Chi squared
Blue eyes
Fair hair
Ginger hair

Column
totals

Green eyes

(a+b)(a+c)
(a+b+c+d)
(c+d)(a+c)
(a+b+c+d)

(a+b)(b+d)
(a+b+c+d)
(c+d)(b+d)
(a+b+c+d)

a+c

b+d

Row totals
a+b
c+d
a+b+c+d
Chi squared
• For each box work out (O-E)2 E
• Find the sum of these to get 2

(O-E)2
2

=

E
Chi squared
• Compare 2 with the critical value at 5% confidence
limits
• There will be
(no. rows – 1) x (no. columns – 1)
degrees of freedom
• If 2 is greater than the critical value we can say

that the variables are associated with one
another in some way
• We reject the null hypothesis
Spearman Rank
• Two sets of data may show a correlation
• The data can be plotted on a scatter graph:

Negative correlation

Positive correlation

No correlation
Spearman Rank
• We calculate the correlation by assigning a
rank to the values:
Data 1 Rank

Data 2 Rank

12

24

14

29

18

29

18

38
Spearman Rank
• We calculate the correlation by assigning a
rank to the values:
Data 1 Rank
12
14

1

Data 2 Rank
This is the
Lowest value –
So we call it
rank 1

24
29

18

29

18

38
Spearman Rank
• We calculate the correlation by assigning a
rank to the values:
Data 1 Rank
12
14
18
18

Data 2 Rank

1
2

24
This is the
2nd lowest
value – so we
call it rank 2

29
29
38
Spearman Rank
• We calculate the correlation by assigning a
rank to the values:
Data 1 Rank
12

1

14

2

18

?

18

?

Data 2 Rank
These should be
rank 3 & 4 – but
they are the
same. We find
the average of 3
+ 4 and give
them this rank

24
29
29
38
Spearman Rank
• We calculate the correlation by assigning a
rank to the values:
Data 1 Rank

Data 2 Rank

12

1

24

14

2

29

18

3.5

29

18

3.5

(3+4)/2 = 3.5

38
Spearman Rank
• We calculate the correlation by assigning a
rank to the values:
Data 1 Rank

Data 2 Rank

12

1

14

2

18

3.5

29

18

3.5

38

Similarly on this
side

24
29
Spearman Rank
• We calculate the correlation by assigning a
rank to the values:
Data 1 Rank

Data 2 Rank

12

1

24

14

2

29

18

3.5

29

18

3.5

38

1
Spearman Rank
• We calculate the correlation by assigning a
rank to the values:
Data 1 Rank

Data 2 Rank

12

1

24

1

14

2

29

2.5

18

3.5

29

2.5

18

3.5

The average
of 2 & 3

38
Spearman Rank
• We calculate the correlation by assigning a
rank to the values:
Data 1 Rank

Data 2 Rank

12

1

24

1

14

2

29

2.5

18

3.5

29

2.5

18

3.5

38

4
Spearman Rank
•
•
•
•

Find the difference D between each rank
Square this difference
Sum the D2 values
Calculate the Spearman Rank Correlation
Coefficient rs

6 D2
rs = 1 - n(n2-1)
Spearman Rank
• Compare rs with the critical value at the 5% level
• If it is greater than the critical value (ignoring the
sign) then we reject the null hypothesis
• … there is a significant correlation between the
two sets of data
• If the value is positive there is a positive
correlation
• If it is negative then there is a negative correlation
Quick guide
Is your data interval data or is it
categoric data (it can only be placed in
a number of categories)

Interval

Categoric
Quick guide
Are you looking for a correlation
between two sets of data – eg the rate
of photosynthesis and light intensity

Yes

No
Quick guide
Use the Chi squared test

Back

End

Chi squared
Quick guide
Use the Spearman Rank test

Back

End

Chi squared
Quick guide
Are you comparing data from two
populations?

Yes

No
Quick guide
Is your data normally distributed?

16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0

Yes

No
Quick guide
Use a t-test

t-test

Back
Quick guide
Use a Mann-Whitney U test

Back

Exit

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Statisticsforbiologists colstons

  • 2. Introduction • Biological studies deal with organisms which show variety • We cannot rely on a single measurement and so we must take a sample • This sample of data must be summarised and analyzed to find out if it is reliable Spacebar to continue
  • 3. Summarising data • MEAN Sum of samples ÷ sample size x ÷ n • MEDIAN Middle number in a list when arranged in rank order: 2, 5, 7, 7, 8, 23, 31 • MODE The measurement which occurs most frequently ; 2, 5, 7, 7, 8, 23, 31 Spacebar to continue
  • 4. Distribution Curves • A visual summary of data • They can be produced by; 1. Collect data 2. Split results into equal size classes 3. Make a tally chart 4. Plot a histogram of frequency against size class • Data can show normal distribution or skewed distribution Spacebar to continue
  • 5. Distribution curves • Normal distribution • Symmetrical bell shaped curve around the mean • Use parametric tests to analyse data 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Spacebar to continue
  • 6. Distribution curves • Skewed data • Asymmetrical curve around the mode • Use non-parametric tests to analyse data 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Spacebar to continue
  • 7. Standard Deviation • Standard deviation (SD) is a measure of the spread of the data Large SD Small SD
  • 8. Standard deviation • A high SD indicates data which shows great variation from the mean • A low SD indicates data which shows little variation from the mean value • By definition, 68% of all data values lie within the range MEAN 1SD • 95% of all values lie within 2SD Spacebar to continue
  • 9. SD and confidence limits 14 • 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 68% 95%
  • 10. Calculating SD • Can only be used for normally distributed data • Calculate as follows; – – – – – Sum the values for x2 ie ( x2) Sum the values for x, then square it ie ( x)2 Divide ( x)2 by n Take one from the other and divide by n Take the square root of this. (see hand-out) Spacebar to continue
  • 11. Calculating SD S= x2 - (( x)2/n) n Spacebar to continue
  • 12. Confidence limits • 95% of all values lie within 2SD of the mean • Any value which lies outside this range is said to be significantly different from the others • We say that we are working to 95% confidence limits or to a 5% significance level. Spacebar to continue
  • 13. Comparison tests • To compare two samples of data we look at the overlap between the two distribution curves. • This depends on; – The distance between the two mean values – The spread of each sample (standard deviation) • The greater the overlap, the more similar the two samples are. Spacebar to continue
  • 15. Comparison tests When the SD is small, the overlap is less; Sample 2 Overlap Sample 1 Spacebar to continue
  • 16. The null hypothesis • In order to compare two sets of data we must first assume that there is no difference between them. • This is called the null hypothesis • We must also produce an alternative hypothesis which states that there is a difference. Spacebar to continue
  • 17. The t-test • Used to compare the overlap of two sets of data • Samples must show normal distribution • Sample size (n) should be greater than 30 • This tests for differences between two sets of data Spacebar to continue
  • 18. The t-test • To calculate t; – Check data is normally distributed by drawing a tally chart – Work out difference in means |x1 – x2| – Calculate variance for each set of data (this is s2 n) – Put these into the equation for t: Spacebar to continue
  • 19. The t-test |x1 – x2| t= s12 n1 s22 n2 Spacebar to continue
  • 20. The t-test • Compare the value of t with the critical value at n1 + n2 – 2 degrees of freedom • Use a probability value of 5% • If t is greater than the critical value we can reject the null hypothesis… • … there is a significant difference between the two sets of data • … there is only a 5% chance that any similarity is due to chance
  • 21. Mann-Whitney u-test • Compares two sets of data • Data can be skewed • Sample size can be small; 5<n<30 • For details refer to stats book Spacebar to continue
  • 22. Chi squared • Some data is categoric • This means that it belongs to one or more categories • Examples include – eye colour – presence or absence data – texture of seeds • For these we use a chi squared test 2 • This tests for an association between two or more variables
  • 23. Chi squared • Draw a contingency table • These are the observed values Blue eyes Green eyes Row totals Fair hair a b a+b Ginger hair c d c+d Column totals a+c b+d a+b+c+d
  • 24. Chi squared • Now work out the expected values: • Where, (Row total) x (Column total) E= (Grand total)
  • 25. Chi squared Blue eyes Fair hair Ginger hair Column totals Green eyes (a+b)(a+c) (a+b+c+d) (c+d)(a+c) (a+b+c+d) (a+b)(b+d) (a+b+c+d) (c+d)(b+d) (a+b+c+d) a+c b+d Row totals a+b c+d a+b+c+d
  • 26. Chi squared • For each box work out (O-E)2 E • Find the sum of these to get 2 (O-E)2 2 = E
  • 27. Chi squared • Compare 2 with the critical value at 5% confidence limits • There will be (no. rows – 1) x (no. columns – 1) degrees of freedom • If 2 is greater than the critical value we can say that the variables are associated with one another in some way • We reject the null hypothesis
  • 28. Spearman Rank • Two sets of data may show a correlation • The data can be plotted on a scatter graph: Negative correlation Positive correlation No correlation
  • 29. Spearman Rank • We calculate the correlation by assigning a rank to the values: Data 1 Rank Data 2 Rank 12 24 14 29 18 29 18 38
  • 30. Spearman Rank • We calculate the correlation by assigning a rank to the values: Data 1 Rank 12 14 1 Data 2 Rank This is the Lowest value – So we call it rank 1 24 29 18 29 18 38
  • 31. Spearman Rank • We calculate the correlation by assigning a rank to the values: Data 1 Rank 12 14 18 18 Data 2 Rank 1 2 24 This is the 2nd lowest value – so we call it rank 2 29 29 38
  • 32. Spearman Rank • We calculate the correlation by assigning a rank to the values: Data 1 Rank 12 1 14 2 18 ? 18 ? Data 2 Rank These should be rank 3 & 4 – but they are the same. We find the average of 3 + 4 and give them this rank 24 29 29 38
  • 33. Spearman Rank • We calculate the correlation by assigning a rank to the values: Data 1 Rank Data 2 Rank 12 1 24 14 2 29 18 3.5 29 18 3.5 (3+4)/2 = 3.5 38
  • 34. Spearman Rank • We calculate the correlation by assigning a rank to the values: Data 1 Rank Data 2 Rank 12 1 14 2 18 3.5 29 18 3.5 38 Similarly on this side 24 29
  • 35. Spearman Rank • We calculate the correlation by assigning a rank to the values: Data 1 Rank Data 2 Rank 12 1 24 14 2 29 18 3.5 29 18 3.5 38 1
  • 36. Spearman Rank • We calculate the correlation by assigning a rank to the values: Data 1 Rank Data 2 Rank 12 1 24 1 14 2 29 2.5 18 3.5 29 2.5 18 3.5 The average of 2 & 3 38
  • 37. Spearman Rank • We calculate the correlation by assigning a rank to the values: Data 1 Rank Data 2 Rank 12 1 24 1 14 2 29 2.5 18 3.5 29 2.5 18 3.5 38 4
  • 38. Spearman Rank • • • • Find the difference D between each rank Square this difference Sum the D2 values Calculate the Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient rs 6 D2 rs = 1 - n(n2-1)
  • 39. Spearman Rank • Compare rs with the critical value at the 5% level • If it is greater than the critical value (ignoring the sign) then we reject the null hypothesis • … there is a significant correlation between the two sets of data • If the value is positive there is a positive correlation • If it is negative then there is a negative correlation
  • 40. Quick guide Is your data interval data or is it categoric data (it can only be placed in a number of categories) Interval Categoric
  • 41. Quick guide Are you looking for a correlation between two sets of data – eg the rate of photosynthesis and light intensity Yes No
  • 42. Quick guide Use the Chi squared test Back End Chi squared
  • 43. Quick guide Use the Spearman Rank test Back End Chi squared
  • 44. Quick guide Are you comparing data from two populations? Yes No
  • 45. Quick guide Is your data normally distributed? 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Yes No
  • 46. Quick guide Use a t-test t-test Back
  • 47. Quick guide Use a Mann-Whitney U test Back Exit