1. Gender-Sensitive Language
www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/gender.html
What this handout is about
This handout will explain some of the current thinking on gender issues and writing and
will provide suggestions to help you appropriately express gender relationships as you
write.
What is "gender-sensitive language" and why should I
use it?
English speakers and writers have traditionally been taught to use masculine nouns and
pronouns in situations where the gender of their subject(s) is unclear or variable, or when
a group to which they are referring contains members of both sexes. For example, the US
Declaration of Independence states that " . . . all men are created equal . . ." and most of
us were taught in elementary school to understand the word "men" in that context
includes both male and female Americans. In recent decades, however, as women have
become increasingly involved in the public sphere of American life, writers have
reconsidered the way they express gender identities and relationships. Because most
English language readers no longer understand the word "man" to be synonymous with
"people," writers today must think more carefully about the ways they express gender in
order to convey their ideas clearly and accurately to their readers.
Moreover, these issues are important for people concerned about issues of social
inequality. There is a relationship between our language use and our social reality. If we
"erase" women from language, that makes it easier to maintain gender inequality. As
Professor Sherryl Kleinman (2000:6) has argued,
[M]ale-based generics are another indicator—and, more importantly, a reinforcer—of a
system in which "man" in the abstract and men in the flesh are privileged over women.
Words matter, and our language choices have consequences. If we believe that women
and men deserve social equality, then we should think seriously about how to reflect that
belief in our language use.
If you're reading this handout, you're probably already aware that tackling gender
sensitivity in your writing is no small task, especially since there isn't yet (and there may
never be) a set of concrete guidelines on which to base your decisions. Fortunately, there
are a number of different strategies the gender-savvy writer can use to express gender
relationships with precision. This handout will provide you with an overview of some of
those strategies so that you can "mix and match" as necessary when you write.
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2. Pronouns
A pronoun is a word that substitutes for a noun. The English language provides pronoun
options for references to masculine nouns (for example, "he" can substitute for "Tom"),
feminine nouns ("she" can replace "Lucy"), and neutral/non-human nouns ("it" stands in
for "a tree"), but no choice for sex-neutral third-person singular nouns ("the writer," "a
student," or "someone"). Although most of us learned in elementary school that
masculine pronouns (he, his, him) should be used as the "default" in situations where the
referent (that is, the person or thing to which you're referring) could be either male or
female, that usage is generally considered unacceptable now. So what should you do
when you're faced with one of those gender-neutral or gender-ambiguous situations?
Well, you've got a few options . . .
1. Use "they"
This option is currently much debated by grammar experts, but most agree that it works
well in at least several kinds of situations. In order to use "they" to express accurately
gender relationships, you'll need to understand that "they" is traditionally used only to
refer to a plural noun. For example,
Sojourner Truth and Elizabeth Cady Stanton were famous "first-wave" American
feminists. They were also both involved in the Abolitionist movement.
In speech, though, we early twenty-first century Americans commonly use "they" to refer
to a singular referent. According to many grammar experts, that usage is incorrect, but
here's an example of how it sounds in our everyday speech:
If a student wants to learn more about gender inequality, they should take Intro to
Women's Studies.
Note that in this example, "a student" is singular, but it is replaced in the second sentence
by "they," a plural pronoun. In speech, we often don't notice such substitutions of the
plural for the singular, but in writing, some will find such substitutions awkward or
incorrect. Some people argue that "they" should become the default gender-neutral
pronoun for English writing, but since that usage can still sound awkward to many
readers, its best to use "they" only in plural situations. Thus, one other option the gender-
savvy writer may choose to employ is to make her/his sentence plural. Here's one way
that can work:
A student's beliefs about feminism may be based on what he has heard in the popular
media.
can become
Students' beliefs about feminism may be based on what they have heard in the popular
media.

3. 2. Use she or he or she/he.
Another, simpler option the gender-savvy writer can use to deal with situations in which
the gender of the referent is unknown or variable is to write out both pronoun options as
"she or he" or "she/he". For example,
Each student who majors in Women's Studies major must take a course in Feminist
Theory. She or he may also get course credit for completing an internship at a local
organization that benefits women.
OR
Each student who majors in Women's Studies major must take a course in Feminist
Theory. She/he may also get course credit for completing an internship at a local
organization that benefits women.
3. Alternate genders and pronouns
You may also choose to alternate gendered pronouns. This option will work only in
certain situations, though—usually hypothetical situations in which the referent is equally
likely to be a male or a female. For example, both male and female students use the
Writing Center's services, so the author of our staff manual chose to alternate between
masculine and feminine pronouns when writing the following tutoring guidelines:
• Respond as a reader, explaining what and how you were/are thinking as you read
her texts so that she can discover where a reader might struggle with her writing.
• Ask him to outline the draft to reveal the organization of the paper.
• Ask her to describe her purpose and audience and show how she has taken them
into account in her writing.
• Explain a recurring pattern and let him locate repeated instances of it.
Of course, this author could also have included both pronouns in each sentence by
writing "her/his" or "her/him," but in this case, alternating "he" and "she" conveys the
same sense of gender variability and is likely a little easier on the reader, who won't have
to pause to process several different options every time a gendered pronoun is needed in
the sentence. This example also provides a useful demonstration of how gender-savvy
writers can take advantage of the many different options available by choosing the one
that best suits the unique requirements of each piece of writing they produce.
4. Eliminate the pronoun altogether
Finally, you can also simply eliminate the pronoun. For example,
Allan Johnson is a contemporary feminist theorist. This writer and professor gave a
speech at UNC in the fall of 2007.

4. Note how the sentence used "this writer and professor" rather than "he."
Many people accept the negative stereotype that if a person is a feminist, she must hate
men.
could become
Many people accept the negative stereotype that feminist beliefs are based on hatred of
men.
Note how the second version of the sentence talks about the beliefs. By avoiding using
the pronoun "she," it leaves open the possibility that men may be feminists.
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Gendered nouns
Like gendered pronouns, gendered nouns can also provide a stumbling block for the
gender-savvy writer. The best way to avoid implications these words can carry is simply
to be aware of how we tend to use them in speech and writing. Because gendered nouns
are so commonly used and accepted by English writers and speakers, we often don't
notice them or the implications they bring with them. Once you've recognized that a
gender distinction is being made by such a word, though, conversion of the gendered
noun into a gender-savvy one is usually very simple.
"Man" and words ending in "-man" are the most commonly used gendered nouns, so
avoiding the confusion they bring can be as simple as watching out for these words and
replacing them with words that convey your meaning more effectively. For example, if
the founders of America had been gender-savvy writers, they might have written " . . . all
people are created equal" instead of " . . . all men are created equal . . .."
Another common gendered expression, particularly in informal speech and writing, is
"you guys." This expression is used to refer to groups of men, groups of women, and
groups that include both men and women. Although most people mean to be inclusive
when they use "you guys," this phrase wouldn't make sense if it didn't subsume women
under the category "guys." To see why "you guys" is gendered male, consider that "a
guy" (singular) is definitely a man, not a woman, and that most men would not feel
included in the expression "you gals" or "you girls."
Another example of gendered language is the way the words "Mr.," "Miss," and "Mrs."
are used. "Mr." can refer to any man, regardless of whether he is single or married—but
women are defined by their relationship to men (by whether they are married or not). A
way around this is to use "Ms." (which doesn't indicate marital status) to refer to women.
Sometimes we modify nouns that refer to jobs or positions to denote the sex of the person
holding that position. This often done if the sex of the person holding the position goes

5. against conventional expectations. To get a sense of these expectations, think about what
sex you would instinctively assume the subject of each of these sentences to be:
The doctor walked into the room.
The nurse walked into the room.
Many people assume that doctors are men and that nurses are women. Because of such
assumptions, someone might write sentences like "The female doctor walked into the
room" or "The male nurse walked into the room." Using "female" and "male" in this way
reinforces the assumption that most or all doctors are male and most or all nurses are
female. Unless the sex of the nurse or doctor is important to the meaning of the sentence,
it can be omitted.
As you work on becoming a gender-savvy writer, you may find it helpful to watch out for
the following gendered nouns and replace them with one of the alternatives listed below.
Check a thesaurus for alternatives to gendered nouns not included in this list.
gendered noun gender-neutral noun
man person, individual
freshman first-year student
mankind people, human beings, humanity
man-made machine-made, synthetic
the common man the average (or ordinary) person
to man to operate, to cover, to staff
chairman chair, chairperson, coordinator
mailman mail carrier, letter carrier, postal worker
policeman police officer
steward, stewardess flight attendant
congressman congress person, legislator, representative
Dear Sir: Dear Sir or Madam:, Dear Editor:, Dear Service
Representative:, To Whom it May Concern:
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Proper nouns

6. Proper nouns can also give gender-savvy writers pause, but as with common nouns, it is
usually very easy to use gender-neutral language once you've noticed the gendered
patterns in your own writing. And the best way to avoid any confusion in your use of
proper nouns is to use the same rules to discuss of women subjects as you already use
when you're writing about men. In the examples below, notice how using different
conventions for references to male and female subjects suggests a difference in the
amount of respect being given to individuals on the basis of their gender.
1. Refer to women subjects by only their last names—just as you would do for men
subjects.
For example, we would never refer to William Shakespeare as just "William;" we call
him "Shakespeare" or "William Shakespeare." Thus, you should never refer to Jane
Austen simply as "Jane;" you should write "Jane Austen" or "Austen."
2. In circumstances where you're writing about several people who have the same last
name, try using the full name of the person every time you refer to him/her.
For example, if you're writing about George and Martha Washington, referring to him as
"Washington" and her as "Martha" conveys a greater respect for him than for her. In
order to express an equal amount of respect for these two historical figures, simply refer
to each subject by her/his full name: "George Washington" and "Martha Washington."
This option may sound like it could get too wordy, but it actually works very well in most
situations.
3. Refer to women subjects by their full titles, just as you would refer to men subjects.
For example, you wouldn't call American President Reagan "Ronald," so you wouldn't
want to refer to British Prime Minister Thatcher as "Margaret." Simply call her "Prime
Minister Thatcher," just as you would write "President Reagan" to refer to him.
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Checklist for gender revisions
To ensure that you've used gender savvy language in your piece of writing, try asking
yourself the following questions:
1. Have you used "man" or "men" or words containing one of them to refer to people
who may be female? If so, consider substituting another word. For example,
instead of "fireman," try "firefighter."
2. If you have mentioned someone's gender, was it necessary to do so? If you
identify someone as a female architect, for example, do you (or would you) refer
to someone else as a "male architect"? And if you then note that the woman is an
attractive blonde mother of two, do you mention that the man is a muscular,
square-jawed father of three? Unless gender and related matters—looks, clothes,
parenthood—are relevant to your point, leave them unmentioned.

7. 3. Do you use any occupational stereotypes? Watch for the use of female pronouns
for elementary school teachers and male ones for scientists, for example.
4. Do you use language that in any way shows a lack of respect for either sex?
5. Have you used "he," "him," "his," or "himself" to refer to people who may be
female?
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Works consulted
We consulted these works while writing the original version of this handout. This is not a
comprehensive list of resources on the handout's topic, and we encourage you to do your
own research to find the latest publications on this topic. Please do not use this list as a
model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you
are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation
tutorial.
Harris, Muriel. Prentice Hall Reference Guide to Grammar and Usage. 3rd Ed. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1997.
Kleinman, Sherryl. (September, 2000). Why sexist language matters. The Center Line, a
newsletter of the Orange County Rape Crisis Center, pp. 6-7.
Kolln, Martha. Rhetorical Grammar: Grammatical Choices, Rhetorical Effects. 2nd Ed.
Lunsford, Andrea and Robert Connors. The St. Martin's Handbook. 3rd Ed. New York:
St. Martin's Press, 1991.
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Sociological gender en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_identity
Gender identity is the gender a person self-identifies as. The concept of being a woman is
considered to have more challenges, due to society not only viewing women as a social
category but also as a felt sense of self, a culturally conditioned or constructed subjective
identity.[16] The term "woman" has chronically been used as a reference to and for the
female body; this usage has been viewed as controversial by feminists, in the definement
of "woman". There are qualitative analyses that explore and present the representations of
gender; feminists challenge the dominant ideologies concerning gender roles and sex.
Social identity refers to the common identification with a collectivity or social category
which creates a common culture among participants concerned.[17] According to social
identity theory,[18] an important component of the self-concept is derived from
memberships in social groups and categories; this is demonstrated by group processes

8. and how inter-group relationships impact significantly on individuals' self perception and
behaviors. The groups to which people belong will therefore provide their members with
the definition of who they are and how they should behave in the social sphere.[19]
Categorizing males and females into social roles creates binaries, in which individuals
feel they have to be at one end of a linear spectrum and must identify themselves as man
or woman. Globally, communities interpret biological differences between men and
women to create a set of social expectations that define the behaviors that are
"appropriate" for men and women and determine women’s and men’s different access to
rights, resources, and power in society. Although the specific nature and degree of these
differences vary from one society to the next, they typically favor men, creating an
imbalance in power and gender inequalities in all countries.[20]
Western philosopher Michel Foucault claimed that as sexual subjects, humans are the
object of power, which is not an institution or structure, rather it is a signifier or name
attributed to "complex strategical situation".[21] Because of this, "power" is what
determines individual attributes, behaviors, etc. and people are a part of an ontologically
and epistemologically constructed set of names and labels. Such as, being female
characterizes one as a woman, and being a woman signifies one as weak, emotional, and
irrational, and is incapable of actions attributed to a "man". Judith Butler said gender and
sex are more like verbs than nouns. She reasoned that her actions are limited. "I am not
permitted to construct my gender and sex willy-nilly," she said. "[This] is so because
gender is politically and therefore socially controlled. Rather than 'woman' being
something one is, it is something one does."[22] There are more recent criticisms of Judith
Butler's theories which critique her writing for reinforcing the very conventional
dichotomies of gender.[23]
[edit] Social assignment and idea of fluidity
Gender can have ambiguity and fluidity. [24] There are two contrasting ideas regarding the
definition of gender, and the intersection of both of them is definable as below:
Gender is the result of socially constructed ideas about the behavior, actions, and roles a
particular sex performs. The beliefs, values and attitude taken up and exhibited by them is
as per the agreeable norms of the society and the personal opinions of the person is not
taken into the primary consideration of assignment of gender and imposition of gender
roles as per the assigned gender. Intersections and crossing of the prescribed boundaries
have no place in the arena of the social construct of the term "gender".
The assignment of gender involves taking into account the physiological and biological
attributes assigned by nature followed by the imposition of the socially constructed
conduct. The social label of being classified into one or the other sex is obligatory to the
medical stamp on the birth certificate. The cultural traits typically coupled to a particular
sex finalize the assignment of gender and the biological differences which play a role in
classifying either sex is interchangeable with the definition of gender within the social
context.

9. In this context, the socially constructed rules are at a cross road with the assignment of a
particular gender to a person. Gender ambiguity deals with having the freedom to
choose,manipulate and create a personal niche within any defined socially constructed
code of conduct while gender fluidity is outlawing all the rules of cultural gender
assignment. It does not accept the prevalence of two rigidly defined genders "Female and
Male" and believes in freedom to choose any kind of gender with no rules, no defined
boundaries and no fulfilling of expectations associated with any particular gender.
Both these definitions are facing opposite directionalities with their own defined set of
rules and criteria on which the said systems are based.
[edit] Social categories
Mary Frith ("Moll Cutpurse") scandalised 17th century society by wearing male clothing,
smoking in public, and otherwise defying gender roles.
Sexologist John Money coined the term gender role in 1955. "The term gender role is
used to signify all those things that a person says or does to disclose himself or herself as
having the status of boy or man, girl or woman, respectively. It includes, but is not
restricted to, sexuality in the sense of eroticism."[25] Elements of such a role include
clothing, speech patterns, movement, occupations, and other factors not limited to
biological sex. Because social aspects of gender can normally be presumed to be the ones
of interest in sociology and closely related disciplines, gender role is often abbreviated to
gender in their literature.

10. "Rosie the Riveter" was an iconic symbol of the American homefront in WWII and a
departure from gender roles due to wartime necessity.
Most societies have only two distinct, broad classes of gender roles—masculine and
feminine—and these correspond with biological sexes male and female. However, some
societies explicitly incorporate people who adopt the gender role opposite to their
biological sex, for example the Two-Spirit people of some indigenous American peoples.
Other societies include well-developed roles that are explicitly considered more or less
distinct from archetypal female and male roles in those societies. In the language of the
sociology of gender they comprise a third gender,[26] more or less distinct from biological
sex (sometimes the basis for the role does include intersexuality or incorporates eunuchs).
[27]
One such gender role is that adopted by the hijras of India and Pakistan.[28][29] Another
example may be the Muxe (pronounced [ˈmuʃe]), found in the state of Oaxaca, in
southern Mexico, "beyond gay and straight."[30]
The Bugis people of Sulawesi, Indonesia have a tradition incorporating all of the features
above.[31] Joan Roughgarden argues that in some non-human animal species, there can
also be said to be more than two genders, in that there might be multiple templates for
behavior available to individual organisms with a given biological sex.[32]
[edit] Feminism and gender studies
The neutrality of this section is disputed. Please see the discussion on the talk
page. Please do not remove this message until the dispute is resolved. (September
2009)
The philosopher and feminist Simone de Beauvoir applied existentialism to women's
experience of life: "One is not born a woman, one becomes one."[33] In context, this is a
philosophical statement. However, it may be analyzed in terms of biology — a girl must
pass puberty to become a woman — and sociology, as a great deal of mature relating in
social contexts is learned rather than instinctive.[citation needed]
Within feminist theory, terminology for gender issues developed over the 1970s. In the
1974 edition of Masculine/Feminine or Human, the author uses "innate gender" and
"learned sex roles",[34] but in the 1978 edition, the use of sex and gender is reversed.[35] By

11. 1980, most feminist writings had agreed on using gender only for socioculturally adapted
traits.
In gender studies the term gender is used to refer to proposed social and cultural
constructions of masculinities and femininities. In this context, gender explicitly excludes
reference to biological differences, to focus on cultural differences.[36] This emerged from
a number of different areas: in sociology during the 1950s; from the theories of the
psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan; and in the work of French psychoanalysts like Julia
Kristeva, Luce Irigaray, and American feminists such as Judith Butler. Those who
followed Butler came to regard gender roles as a practice, sometimes referred to as
"performative".[37]
Hurst states that some people think sex will “automatically determine one’s gender
demeanor and role (social) as well as one’s sexual orientation (sexual attractions and
behavior).”[38] Gender sociologists believe that people have cultural origins and habits for
dealing with gender. For example, Michael Schwalbe believes that humans must be
taught how to act appropriately in their designated gender in order to properly fill the role
and that the way people behave as masculine or feminine interacts with social
expectations. Schwalbe comments that humans "are the results of many people
embracing and acting on similar ideas".[39] People do this through everything from
clothing and hairstyle to relationship and employment choices. Schwalbe believes that
these distinctions are important, because society wants to identify and categorize people
as soon as we see them. They need to place people into distinct categories in order to
know how we should feel about them.
Hurst comments that in a society where we present our genders so distinctly, there can
often be severe consequences for breaking these cultural norms. Many of these
consequences are rooted in discrimination based on sexual orientation. Gays and lesbians
are often discriminated against in our legal system due to societal prejudices.[citation needed]
Hurst describes how this discrimination works against people for breaking gender norms,
no matter what their sexual orientation is. He says that "courts often confuse sex, gender,
and sexual orientation, and confuse them in a way that results in denying the rights not
only of gays and lesbians, but also of those who do not present themselves or act in a
manner traditionally expected of their sex".[38] This prejudice plays out in our legal
system when a man or woman is judged differently because he or she does not present the
"correct" gender. How people present and display their gender has consequences in
everyday life, but also in institutionalized aspects of our society.
Recent critiques of feminist theory by Warren Farrell[40][41] have given broader
consideration to findings from a ten-year study of courtship by Buss.[42] Both perspectives
on gendering are integrated in Attraction Theory, a theoretical framework developed by
Dr Rory Ridley-Duff illustrating how courtship and parenting obligations (rather than
male dominance) act as a generative mechanism that produces and reproduces a range of
gender identities.[43][44]

12. [edit] Society and behaviors
Many of the more complicated human behaviors are influenced by both innate factors
and by environmental ones, which include everything from genes, gene expression, and
body chemistry, through diet and social pressures. A large area of research in behavioral
psychology collates evidence in an effort to discover correlations between behavior and
various possible antecedents such as genetics, gene regulation, access to food and
vitamins, culture, gender, hormones, physical and social development, and physical and
social environments.
A core research area within sociology is the way human behavior operates on itself, in
other words, how the behavior of one group or individual influences the behavior of other
groups or individuals. Starting in the late 20th century, the feminist movement has
contributed extensive study of gender and theories about it, notably within sociology but
not restricted to it.
Spain's desperate situation when invaded by Napoleon enabled Agustina de Aragón to
break into a closely guarded male preserve and become the only female professional
officer in the Spanish Army of her time (and long afterwards).
Social theorists have sought to determine the specific nature of gender in relation to
biological sex and sexuality,[citation needed] with the result being that culturally established
gender and sex have become interchangeable identifications which signify the allocation
of a specific 'biological' sex within a categorical gender.[citation needed] The second wave
feminist view that gender is socially constructed and hegemonic in all societies, remains
current in some literary theoretical circles, Kira Hall and Mary Bucholtz publishing new
perspectives as recently as 2008.[69]
Contemporary socialisation theory proposes the notion that when a child is first born it
has a biological sex but no social gender.[citation needed] As the child grows, "society provides
a string of prescriptions, templates, or models of behaviors appropriate to the one sex or
the other"[70] which socialises the child into belonging to a culturally specific gender.[citation
needed]
There is huge incentive for a child to concede to their socialisation[citation needed] with
gender shaping the individual’s opportunities for education, work, family, sexuality,
reproduction, authority,[citation needed] and to make an impact on the production of culture and

13. knowledge.[71] Adults who do not perform these ascribed roles are perceived from this
perspective as deviant and improperly socialised.[72]
Some believe society is constructed in a way in which gender is split into a dichotomy by
social organisations which constantly invent and reproduce cultural images of gender.
Joan Ackner (The Gendered Society Reader) believes gendering occurs in at least five
different interacting social processes:[73]
• The construction of divisions along the lines of gender, such as those which are
produced by labor, power, family, the state, even allowed behaviors and locations
in physical space
• The construction of symbols and images such as language, ideology, dress and the
media, that explain, express and reinforce, or sometimes oppose, those divisions
• Interactions between men and women, women and women and men and men
which involve any form of dominance and submission. Conversational theorists,
for example, have studied the way in which interruptions, turn taking and the
setting of topics re-create gender inequality in the flow of ordinary talk
• The way in which the preceding three processes help to produce gendered
components of individual identity. i.e. the way in which they create and maintain
an image of a gendered self
• Gender is implicated in the fundamental, ongoing processes of creating and
conceptualising social structures.
Looking at gender through a Foucauldian lens, gender is transfigured into a vehicle for
the social division of power.[citation needed] Gender difference is merely a construct of society
used to enforce the distinctions made between that which is assumed to be female and
male,[citation needed] and allow for the domination of masculinity over femininity through the
attribution of specific gender-related characteristics.[citation needed] "The idea that men and
women are more different from one another than either is from anything else, must come
from something other than nature… far from being an expression of natural differences,
exclusive gender identity is the suppression of natural similarities."[74]
Gender conventions play a large role in attributing masculine and feminine characteristics
to a fundamental biological sex.[citation needed] Socio-cultural codes and conventions, the rules
by which society functions, and which are both a creation of society as well as a
constituting element of it, determine the allocation of these specific traits to the sexes.
These traits provide the foundations for the creation of hegemonic gender difference. It
follows then, that gender can be assumed as the acquisition and internalisation of social
norms. Individuals are therefore socialised through their receipt of society’s expectations
of ‘acceptable’ gender attributes which are flaunted within institutions such as the family,
the state and the media. Such a notion of ‘gender’ then becomes naturalised into a
person’s sense of self or identity, effectively imposing a gendered social category upon a
sexed body.[75]
The conception that people are gendered rather than sexed also coincides with Judith
Butler’s theories of gender performativity. Butler argues that gender is not an expression

14. of what one is, but rather something that one does.[76] It follows then, that if gender is
acted out in a repetitive manner it is in fact re-creating and effectively embedding itself
within the social consciousness. Contemporary sociological reference to male and female
gender roles typically uses masculinities and femininities in the plural rather than
singular, suggesting diversity both within cultures as well as across them.
From the 'evidence', it can only be concluded that gender is socially constructed and each
individual is unique in their gender characteristics, regardless of which biological sex
they are as every child is socialised to behave a certain way and have the ‘proper’ gender
attributes. If individuals in society do not conform to this pressure, they are destined to be
treated as abnormal; therefore it is personally greatly beneficial for them to cooperate in
the determined ‘correct’ ordering of the world. In fact, the very construct of society is a
product of and produces gender norms. There is bias in applying the word ‘gender’ to
anyone in a finite way; rather each person is endowed with certain gender characteristics.
The world cannot be egalitarian while there are ‘assigned’ genders and individuals are
not given the right to express any gender characteristic they desire.
[edit] Gender and development
Gender, and particularly the role of women is widely recognized as vitally important to
international development issues.[citation needed] This often means a focus on gender-equality,
ensuring participation, but includes an understanding of the different roles and
expectation of the genders within the community. [citation needed]
The Overseas Development Institute has highlighted that policy dialogue on the
Millennium Development Goals needs to recognise that the gender dynamics of power,
poverty, vulnerability and care link all the goals.[78]
As well as directly addressing inequality, attention to gender issues is regarded as
important to the success of development programs, for all participants.[citation needed] For
example, in microfinance it is common to target women, as besides the fact that women
tend to be over-represented in the poorest segments of the population, they are also
regarded as more reliable at repaying the loans.[citation needed]
Some organizations working in developing countries and in the development field have
incorporated advocacy and empowerment for women into their work. The United Nations
Food and Agriculture Organization adopted in November 2009 a 10-year strategic
framework that includes the strategic objective of gender equity in access to resources,
goods, services and decision-making in rural areas, and mainstreams gender equity in all
FAO's programmes for agriculture and rural development.[79] The Association for
Progressive Communications (APC) has developed a Gender Evaluation Methodology
for planning and evaluating development projects to ensure they benefit all sectors of
society including women.[80]

15. The Gender-related Development Index (GDI), developed by the United Nations (UN),
aims to show the inequalities between men and women in the following areas: long and
healthy life, knowledge, and a decent standard of living.
[edit] Spirituality
Further information: Gender and religion
yin and yang
In Taoism, yin and yang are considered feminine and masculine, respectively:
yin and yang semantics
Tao semantic
lightness
sun
yang sunshine
god
heaven
darkness
dark
yin
ghost
hill

16. [edit] Linguistics
Main article: Grammatical gender
Natural languages often make gender distinctions. These may be of various kinds.
• Grammatical gender is a property of some languages in which every noun is
assigned a gender, often with no direct relation to its meaning. For example, the
word for "girl" is muchacha (grammatically feminine) in Spanish, Mädchen
(grammatically neuter) in German, and cailín (grammatically masculine) in Irish.
• The term “grammatical gender” is often applied to more complex noun class
systems. This is especially true when a noun class system includes masculine and
feminine as well as some other non-gender features like animate, edible,
manufactured, and so forth. An example of the latter is found in the Dyirbal
language. A system traditionally called “gender” is found in the Ojibwe language
which distinguishes between animate and inanimate, but since this does not
exhibit a masculine/feminine distinction it might be better described by “noun
class”. Likewise, Sumerian distinguishes between personal (human and divine)
and impersonal (all other) noun classes, but these classes have traditionally been
known as genders.
• Several languages attest the use of different vocabulary by men and women, to
differing degrees. See, for instance, Gender differences in spoken Japanese. The
oldest documented language, Sumerian, records a distinctive sub-language only
used by female speakers. Conversely, many Indigenous Australian languages
have distinctive registers with limited lexis used by men in the presence of their
mothers-in-law (see Avoidance speech).
• Most languages include terms that are used asymmetrically in reference to men
and women. Concern that current language may be biased in favor of men has led
some authors in recent times to argue for the use of a more Gender-neutral
vocabulary in English and other languages.
• [
[edit] References
[edit] Footnotes
1. ^ For example, the definition and use of the term in G. Argyrous and Frank
Stilwell, Economics as a Social Science: Readings in Political Economy, 2nd ed.,
(Pluto Press, 2003), in the feminist economics section, pages 238-243, especially
pages 233 and 234.
2. ^ "What do we mean by "sex" and "gender"?". World Health Organization.
http://www.who.int/gender/whatisgender/en/index.html. Retrieved 2009-09-29.
3. ^ Anne Fausto-Sterling, Myths of Gender: Biological Theories about Men and
Women (New York: Basic Books, 1992), 8.

17. 4. ^ "In the Teutonic word, as in Latin genus and Greek γένος three main senses
appear, (1) race or stock, (2) class or kind, (3) gender or sex ; the last, found in
OE. and early ME., but not later, is the only sense in mod. Du., Da., and Sw."
'kin', in Oxford English Dictionary.
5. ^ Julius Pokorny, 'gen', in Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, (Bern:
Francke, 1959, reprinted in 1989), pp. 373-75.
6. ^ 'genə-', in 'Appendix I: Indo-European Roots', to The American Heritage
Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition, (Boston: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2000).
7. ^ Your Dictionary.com, 'Gen', reformatted from AHD.
8. ^
A fourth rule is to observe Protagoras' classification of nouns into male, female
and inanimate.
—Aristotle
9. ^ Fowler's Modern English Usage, 1926: p. 211.
10. ^ Usage note: Gender, The American Heritage Dictionary of the English
Language, Fourth Edition, (2000).
11. ^ a b David Haig, 'The Inexorable Rise of Gender and the Decline of Sex: Social
Change in Academic Titles, 1945–2001', Archives of Sexual Behavior 33 (2004):
87–96. Online at PubMed and Questia.
12. ^ "People defaulting on bank loans? Use eunuchs to recover: Pak SC". The
Economic Times (Bennett Coleman). December 24, 2009.
http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/news-by-industry/et-cetera/People-
defaulting-on-bank-loans-Use-eunuchs-to-recover-Pak-
SC/articleshow/5370938.cms. Retrieved 2009-12-23.
13. ^ Masood, Salman (December 23, 2009). "Pakistan: A Legal Victory for
Eunuchs". The New York Times.
http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/24/world/asia/24webbriefs-
ALEGALVICTOR_BRF.html. Retrieved 2009-12-23.
14. ^ See translation of Judith Butler's Gender Trouble
15. ^ distinguishes
16. ^ Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. Thinking Gender.
New York & London: Routledge, 1990
17. ^ Snow, D.A. and Oliver, P.E. (1995). "Social Movements and Collective
Behavior: Social Psychological Dimensions and Considerations." In Karen Cook,
Gary A.Fine, and James S.House (eds) Sociological Perspectives on Social
Psychology, pp.571-600. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
18. ^ Taifel, H. & Turner, J.C. (1986). The social identity of intergroup relations. In
S. Worchel & W.G. Austin (eds), The psychology of intergroup relations, pp.7-
24. Chicago: Nelson-Hall.
19. ^ Terry, D.J., Hogg, M.A. (1996). Group norms and the attitude-behavior
relationship: A role for group identification. Personality and Social Psychology
Bulletin, 22, 776-793.

18. 20. ^ Winnie Byanyima's sabbatical period at the African Gender Institute, University
of Cape Town : narrative report.http://idl-
bnc.idrc.ca/dspace/handle/123456789/27243,2005.
21. ^ Tong, Rosemarie.Feminist thought : a more comprehensive introduction /
Rosemarie Tong.Boulder, Colo. : Westview Press, 2009.
22. ^ Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. Thinking Gender.
New York & London: Routledge, 1990.
23. ^ Vigo, Julian. 'The Body in Gender Discourse: The Fragmentary Space of the
Feminine.' La femme et l’écriture. Meknès, Maroc, 1996.
24. ^ Gender Outlaw - On Men, Women and the rest of us, pg. 51-52
25. ^ John Money, "Hermaphroditism, gender and precocity in hyperadrenocorticism:
Psychologic findings', Bulletin of the Johns Hopkins Hospital 96 (1955): 253–
264.
26. ^ Gilbert Herdt (ed.), Third Sex Third Gender: Beyond Sexual Dimorphism in
Culture and History, 1996. ISBN 0942299825. OCLC 35293440.
27. ^ Will Roscoe, Changing Ones: Third and Fourth Genders in Native North
America, Palgrave Macmillan, 2000. ISBN 0-312-22479-6
28. ^ Nanda, Serena (1998). Neither Man Nor Woman: The Hijras of India.
Wadsworth Publishing. ISBN 0-534-50903-7
29. ^ Reddy, Gayatri (2005). With Respect to Sex: Negotiating Hijra Identity in South
India. (Worlds of Desire: The Chicago Series on Sexuality, Gender, and Culture),
University Of Chicago Press (July 1, 2005). ISBN 0-226-70756-3
30. ^ "A lifestyle distinct: the Muxe of Mexico," New York Times, December 6, 2008
[1].
31. ^ Sharyn Graham, Sulawesi's Fifth Gender, Inside Indonesia April-June, 2001.
32. ^ Joan Roughgarden, Evolution's Rainbow: Diversity, Gender, and Sexuality in
Nature and People, University of California Press, 2004. ISBN 0-520-24073-1
33. ^ Simone de Beauvoir, The Second Sex, 1949, as translated and reprinted 1989."
34. ^ Chafetz, JS. Masculine/Feminine or Human? An Overview of the Sociology of
Sex Roles. Itasca, Illinois: F. E. Peacock, 1974.
35. ^ Chafetz, JS. Masculine/Feminine or Human? An Overview of the Sociology of
Sex Roles. Itasca, Illinois: F. E. Peacock, 1978.
36. ^ Stephanie Garrett, Gender, (1992), p. vii.
37. ^ Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity,
(1999), p. 9.
38. ^ a b [Hurst, C. Social Inequality: Forms, Causes, and Consequences. Sixth
Edition. 2007. 131, 139-142]
39. ^ [Schwalbe, M. The Sociologically Examined Life: Pieces of the Conversation
Third Edition. 2005. 22-23]
40. ^ Farrell, W. (1988) Why Men Are The Way They Are, New York: Berkley Books.
41. ^ Farrell, W. & Sterba, J (2008) Does Feminism Discriminate Against Men? A
Debate, Oxford University Press
42. ^ Buss, D.M. (2002) Human mating strategies. Samdunfsokonemen, 4: 48-58.
43. ^ Ridley-Duff, R. J. (2008) "Gendering, Courtship and Pay Equality: Developing
Attraction Theory to Understand Work-Life Balance and Entrepreneurial
Behaviour", paper to the 31st ISBE Conference, 5th-7th November, Belfast

19. 44. ^ Ridley-Duff, R. J. (2007) Emotion, Seduction and Intimacy: Alternative
Perspectives on Organisation Behaviour, Bracknell: Men's Hour Books, ISBN
978-0-9754300-1-9
45. ^ John Money, 'The concept of gender identity disorder in childhood and
adolescence after 39 years', Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy 20 (1994): 163-
77.
46. ^ A Aron and LL Brown, 'Romantic Love: A Mammalian Brain System for Mate
Choice,' Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society: Biological Sciences 361
(2006): 2173–2186.
47. ^ David M Buss, The Dangerous Passion: Why Jealousy is as Necessary as Love
and Sex, (New York: Free Press, 2000. ISBN 0684850818. OCLC 42921362.
48. ^ David M Buss, 'Human nature and culture: An evolutionary psychological
perspective'. Journal of Personality 69 (2001): 955-978.
49. ^ White, GL and PE Mullen, Jealousy: Theory, Research, and Clinical Practice,
(New York, NY: Guilford Press, 1989). ISBN 0898623855. OCLC 19589484.
50. ^ Steven Goldberg, Why Men Rule, (Chicago, Illinois: Open Court Publishing
Company, 1993). ISBN 0812692365. OCLC 28722362.
51. ^ Michael Abrams, 'The Real Story on Gay Genes: Homing in on the science of
homosexuality—and sexuality itself', Discover June (2007).
52. ^ 'RedList', International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources official website.
53. ^ Amanda Schaffer, Pas de Deux: Why Are There Only Two Sexes?, Slate
updated 27 September 2007.
54. ^ Laurence D. Hurst, 'Why are There Only Two Sexes?', Proceedings: Biological
Sciences 263 (1996): 415-422
55. ^ ES Haag, 'Why two sexes? Sex determination in multicellular organisms and
protistan mating types', Seminars in Cell and Developmental Biology 18 (2007):
348-9.
56. ^ Patricia J. Schmidt, Wade C. Sherbrooke, Justin O. Schmidt, 'The
Detoxification of Ant (Pogonomyrmex) Venom by a Blood Factor in Horned
Lizards (Phrynosoma)', Copeia 198 (1989): 603-607.
57. ^ Leslie E. Orgel, 'The Origin of Life on the Earth', Scientific American October,
1994.
58. ^ "Each independently lost the ability for sexual reproduction after diverging".
Barbara H. Bowmana, Thomas J. Whitea and John W. Taylorb, "Human
Pathogeneic Fungi and Their Close Nonpathogenic Relatives", Molecular
Phylogenetics and Evolution 6 (1996): 89–96.
59. ^ H. Gee, JR Pickavance and JO Young, 'A comparative study of the population
biology of the American immigrant triclad Dugesia tigrina (Girard) in two British
lakes', Hydrobiologia 361 (1977): 135-143.
60. ^ "The speciose insect order Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies) and their closest
relatives, Trichoptera (caddis flies), share a female-heterogametic sex
chromosome system." W. Trauta, K. Saharab, F. Marecc, "Sex Chromosomes and
Sex Determination in Lepidoptera", Sexual Development 1 (2007): 332–346.

20. 61. ^ Jocelyn Selim (2005-04-25). "Sex, Ys, and Platypuses". Discover.
http://discovermagazine.com/2005/apr/sex-ys-platypuses0425/. Retrieved 2008-
05-07.
62. ^ Online Mendelian Inheritance of Man, HAIRY EARS, Y-LINKED, although
see HAIRY EARS.
63. ^ Richard J Haier, Rex E Jung and others, 'The Neuroanatomy of General
Intelligence: Sex Matters', NeuroImage 25 (2005): 320–327. Page 324 for
cerebrum difference of 8–10%.
64. ^ Michael A. McDaniel, 'Big-Brained People are Smarter: A Meta-Analysis of
the Relationship between In Vivo Brain Volume and Intelligence', Intelligence 33
(2005): 337–346.
65. ^ Richard J Haier, Rex E Jung and others, 'The Neuroanatomy of General
Intelligence: Sex Matters', NeuroImage 25 (2005): 320–327.
66. ^ Carol A. Tamminga, 'Brain Development, XI: Sexual Dimorphism', American
Journal of Psychiatry 156 (1999): 352.
67. ^ Alexandra M. Lopes and others,'Inactivation status of PCDH11X: sexual
dimorphisms in gene expression levels in brain', Human Genetics 119 (2006): 1–
9.
68. ^ "Even when men and women do the same chores equally well, they may use
different brain circuits to get the same result." Linda Marsha, 'He Thinks, She
Thinks', Discover July (2007).
69. ^ Gender Articulated. Routledge. http://books.google.com/books?
hl=en&lr=&id=6d37lDUcLYEC&oi=fnd&pg=PP11&dq=gender+is+socially+co
nstructed+and+hegemonic&ots=HUZ-
mpw39q&sig=ftcExbO8hip2u1J1yTAHXML9hMI. Retrieved 2008-09-21.
70. ^ Connell, R 1987, Gender & Power, Polity Press, Cambridge.
71. ^ Lorber, J & Farrell, S (eds.) 1991, The Social Construction of Gender, Sage,
Newbury Park.
72. ^ Wearing, B 1996, Gender: The Pain and Pleasure of Difference, Longman,
Melbourne.
73. ^ Acker, J 2000, ‘Hierarchies, Jobs, Bodies: A Theory of Gendered
Organizations’, in M Kimmel with A Aronson (eds), The Gendered Society
Reader, Oxford University Press, New York.
74. ^ Glover & Kaplan, 2000, p. xxi.
75. ^ Glover, D & Kaplan, C 2000, Genders, Routledge, New York.
76. ^ Lloyd, M 1999, ‘Performativity, Parody, Politics’ in CULT 19016
Contemporary Modes of Culture Resource Materials, Central Queensland
University, Rockhampton.
77. ^ See for example http://www.jstor.org/pss/201865
78. ^ "Gender and the MDGS". Overseas Development Institute. September 2008.
http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/odi-publications/briefing-papers/42-gender-
mdgs-poverty.pdf.
79. ^ "Gender equity". Food and Agriculture Organization. November 2009.
http://www.fao.org/gender/gender-home/gender-programme/gender-equity/en/.
80. ^ http://www.genderevaluation.net Gender Evaluation Methodology (GEM)

21. 81. ^ Chant. S. 2008. The ‘feminisation of poverty’ and the ‘feminisation’ of anti-
poverty programmes: Room for revision? Journal of development studies
44(2):165-197.
82. ^ "The Male-Female Hologram," Ashok Vohra, Times of India, March 8, 2005,
Page 9
[edit] Notations
• Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. Thinking Gender. New
York & London: Routledge, 1990.
[edit] Further reading
• Chafetz, JS. Masculine/Feminine or Human? An Overview of the Sociology of
Sex Roles. Itasca, Illinois: F. E. Peacock, 1974 (1st ed.), 1978 (2nd ed.).
ISBN 0875812317. OCLC 4348310.
• Lepowsky, Maria. Fruit of the Motherland: Gender in an Egalitarian Society.
New York: Columbia University Press, 1993. ISBN 0231081200.
OCLC 28183522.
• Lerro, Bruce "Power in Eden: The Emergence of Gender Hierarchies in the
Ancient World", 2005, Trafford Publishing . ISBN 1412021413.
Gender Issues in Languages
http://www.mindrelief.net/gender_issues_in_languages.html
The chapter “Language and Gender” that I have read explains how language can be
used to discriminate against individuals and groups on the basis of their sex. This
chapter also provides some helpful information, which certainly will help us teachers
to recognise and avoid discriminatory practices.
Using non-discriminatory language does not involve the conscious learning of a new
language in order to communicate; this is due to the fact that people continually learn
new words, expressions and constructions. Language is dynamic and reflects changes
in society and contributes to such changes. Using non-discriminatory language is, of
course, a part of this dynamic process.
Broadly speaking, in most cases, using non-discriminatory language means avoiding
certain expressions and selecting others that already exist in the language. Sometimes
it may involve combining existing words into a new compound word. Only in
exceptional cases a completely new word or expression has to be “created”.
Sexist language is language that favours one sex and treats the other sex in a
discriminatory manner. In many cases it favours men and goes against women. In
language, men are considered the “rule” for the human species, that is to say, their
characteristics, thoughts, beliefs and actions are seen as representing those of all

22. humans, male and female. This practice can make women imperceptible in language
or exclude them. The linguistic status of women often depends on the status of men.
Being women in a dependent, subordinate position, sexist language prevents women
and men from being shown as equal human beings.
Common forms of sexism in English include the use of “man” and “he / him / his”
as generics—that is to say, nouns and pronouns referring to both men and women—
the use of suffixes -man, -ette, -ess, -trix in occupational nouns and job titles,
asymmetrical naming practices, and stereotyped images of women and men as well as
descriptions of (mainly) women which denigrate them and their status. It is
recommended that women should be more evident and visible in language by avoiding
the use of “male-oriented” words in the generic sense.
man (generic sense) humans, human race, human beings, human
species, humanity, humankind
or
women and men, person(s), man and
woman, individual(s), people(s), etc.
English does not possess a third person singular pronoun which is gender-neutral.
Instead the “masculine” pronouns “he”, “him” and “his” are generally used to refer to
both men and women. This is confusing and inaccurate and makes women invisible.
There are many ways of replacing the “he / him / his” pronouns without distorting the
message or compromising style or readability. Here are some major strategies:
– recast the sentence in the plural
– leave out the pronoun
– repeat the noun
– use 'he or she', 'she or he' or in writing 's/he'
– recast the sentence and use another pronoun, for example, 'you', 'I' or 'we'
– recast the sentence to avoid pronouns
In speech it is common practice (however, considered ungrammatical) to use the
pronoun “they” as in: “If a student wants to get a practice test, they should come to my
office between 2 and 4 p.m. today”.
Occupational nouns and job titles ending in -man reduce the presence of women in
such professions and positions. There are various strategies for replacing -man
compounds. For example, the use of an existing gender-neutral term (police officer
instead of policeman), or of the -person alternative (layperson instead of layman) or
the explicit naming of both sexes (sportsmen and women instead of sportsmen) are
some of the possibilities. It is, of course, acceptable to use the -man compound to refer
to a man occupying the position if a woman in such a position is referred to by a
-woman compound (spokeswoman for a woman and spokesman for a man). However,
the practice of referring to a man by means of the –man compound and to a woman by
means of the -person compound is discriminatory. Here is a list of the most frequently
used alternatives: the alternatives marked [S] are gender-specific.

23. Avoid Alternatives
businessman business executive, business manager, business owner, business person,
entrepreneur, financier, investor, proprietor
[S] businesswoman, businessman, businessmen business community, business people,
[S] businessmen and businesswomen
cattleman cattle breeder, cattle owner, cattle producer, cattle raiser, cattle worker,
farmer
chairman the chair, chairperson, convener, coordinator, discussion leader, head (of) …
,
leader, moderator, person chairing a meeting, person in the chair, president,
presiding officer
[S] layman, laywoman
laymen laypeople, laypersons, lay community, laity
milkman milkdeliverer, milk supplier, 'milko' (informal)
policeman member of the police, police officer (term indicating rank)
[S] policewoman, policeman
postman letter carrier, mail carrier, mail deliverer, postal delivery officer, postal
worker,
'postie' (informal)
[S] postwoman, postman
salesman sales agent, sales associate, sales attendant, salesperson, sales representative,
salesworker, shop assistant, shop attendant
[S] salesman, saleswoman (not saleslady or sales girl)
spokesman (principal) advocate, offical, representative, (person) speaking on behalf of
… ,.speaker, spokesperson
[S] spokesman, spokeswoman
sportsman athlete, player, sports competitor, sportsperson
[S] sportswoman, sportsman
Do not use weathergirl if the forecaster is a woman.
workman worker, employee, working person
Occupational nouns and job titles, which refer exclusively to women, should also be
avoided. Often these have been derived from male job titles by adding such suffixes as
-ette, -ess and -trix. This practice reinforces the view that women's status is dependent
on, or derived from, that of men. Job titles like “girl friday” and “salesgirl” trivialise
the work women do.
Avoid Alternatives
cleaning lady / woman cleaner (house cleaner, office cleaner)
camera girl camera operator (see also 'cameraman' for other alternatives)
career girl professional, executive (or be specific about the profession)
matron (nursing) director of nursing
actress actor

24. comedienne comedian
manageress manager
poetess poet
waitress waiter