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Putting Biology
into some context
Scientific inquiry
Scientific inquiry
Scientific
Inquiry
1.5 - 1.8,
0.3 - 0.4
Scientific
Inquiry
Comparing
thoughts
with reality
Scientific inquiry
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, •••
Inductive
Reasoning
Specific to General
1, 2, 4, 8, 16, •••
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, •••
Deductive
Reasoning
General to Specific
Forensics
The
Scientific
Process
Scientific inquiry
A template
for learning about
the physical world
Observation
Look
Listen
Smell
Touch
(Taste)
Hypothesis
Hypotheses
must be
falsifiable
Scientific inquiry
Scientific inquiry
Scientific inquiry
Scientific inquiry
Scientific inquiry
Absence of evidence
isn’t
evidence of absence.
The Black Swan
Scientific inquiry
Scientific findings should be
independently verifiable
Water boils at
100C at 1atm
for everyone
Atrazine
Herbicide
Widely used
Inexpensive
Increases yields 1-6%
Scientific inquiry
Tyrone
      Hayes
http://www.nationalgeographic.com/
field/explorers/tyrone-hayes.html
How would you figure out
if Atrazine has any effect on frogs?
Scientific inquiry
Make Observations

 Form Hypotheses

Perform Experiments

   Analyze Data

       ???
Dissemination of
Scientific Findings
Scientific inquiry
Scientific inquiry
Scientific inquiry
Scientific inquiry
Kinds of
Sources
Primary Sources
publish original research
Scholarly journal articles, dissertations
Secondary Sources
refer to, review, comment on or critique
primary sources
Popular press articles, textbooks,
encyclopedias, science books
Scientific
Journals
Articles in scientific journals are...
submitted by researchers,
considered by editors and
peer-reviewed.
Hermaphroditic, demasculinized frogs after exposure
to the herbicide atrazine at low ecologically
relevant doses
Tyrone B. Hayes*, Atif Collins, Melissa Lee, Magdelena Mendoza, Nigel Noriega, A. Ali Stuart, and Aaron Vonk
Laboratory for Integrative Studies in Amphibian Biology, Group in Endocrinology, Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, Department of Integrative Biology,
University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720-3140

Communicated by David B. Wake, University of California, Berkeley, CA, March 1, 2002 (received for review December 20, 2001)

Atrazine is the most commonly used herbicide in the U.S. and                  human choriogonadotropin (1,000 international units) 6 h before
probably the world. It can be present at several parts per million in         harvesting gametes. Eggs were manually stripped from the
agricultural runoff and can reach 40 parts per billion (ppb) in               female and fertilized in vitro in 0.3       modified mammalian
precipitation. We examined the effects of atrazine on sexual                  Ringer’s solution by using the sperm obtained from the dissected
development in African clawed frogs (Xenopus laevis). Larvae were             testes of the three males. The embryos were allowed to hatch.
exposed to atrazine (0.01–200 ppb) by immersion throughout                    After 4 days, the larvae were all mixed and netted into tanks 5
larval development, and we examined gonadal histology and                     at a time repeatedly, until all tanks contained 30 larvae. Larvae
laryngeal size at metamorphosis. Atrazine (>0.1 ppb) induced                  were reared in 4 liters of aerated 10% Holtfreter’s solution (15)
hermaphroditism and demasculinized the larynges of exposed                    and fed a solution of ground Purina rabbit chow daily. Food
males (>1.0 ppb). In addition, we examined plasma testosterone                levels were adjusted as the animals grew to maximize growth.
levels in sexually mature males. Male X. laevis suffered a 10-fold
decrease in testosterone levels when exposed to 25 ppb atrazine.              Dosing. In Exp. 1, we exposed larvae to atrazine at nominal
We hypothesize that atrazine induces aromatase and promotes the               concentrations of 0.01, 0.1, 1.0, 10.0, and 25 parts per billion
conversion of testosterone to estrogen. This disruption in steroi-            (ppb), whereas the second experiment used 0.1, 0.4, 0.8, 1.0, 25,
dogenesis likely explains the demasculinization of the male larynx            and 200 ppb atrazine. Concentrations were confirmed by two
and the production of hermaphrodites. The effective levels re-                independent laboratories (PTRL West, Richmond, CA, and the
ported in the current study are realistic exposures that suggest that         Iowa Hygienic Laboratory, Univ. of Iowa, Iowa City, IO). All
other amphibian species exposed to atrazine in the wild could be              stock solutions were made in ethanol (10 ml), mixed in 15-gallon
at risk of impaired sexual development. This widespread com-                  containers, and dispensed into treatment tanks. Controls were
pound and other environmental endocrine disruptors may be a                   treated with ethanol such that all tanks contained 0.004%
factor in global amphibian declines.                                          ethanol. Water was changed and treatments were renewed once
                                                                              every 72 h. Each treatment was replicated 3 times with 30

I n the last 10 years, a great deal of attention has focused on the
  global presence of endocrine-disrupting contaminants in the
environment (1, 2). Similarly, a great deal of attention has
                                                                              animals per replicate (total of 90 animals per treatment) in both
                                                                              experiments. All treatments were systematically rotated around
                                                                              the shelf every 3 days to ensure that no one treatment or no one
focused on global amphibian declines (3, 4). In the case of                   tank experienced position effects. Experiments were carried out
amphibian declines, efforts focus on identifying causes (5),                  at 22°C with animals under a 12-h 12-h light dark cycle (lights
Scientific inquiry
Popular press
can be misleading
Scientific inquiry
ARTICLE


Audible Television and Decreased Adult Words,
Infant Vocalizations, and Conversational Turns
A Population-Based Study
Dimitri A. Christakis, MD, MPH; Jill Gilkerson, PhD; Jeffrey A. Richards, MA; Frederick J. Zimmerman, PhD;
Michelle M. Garrison, PhD; Dongxin Xu, PhD; Sharmistha Gray, PhD; Umit Yapanel, PhD



Objective: To test the hypothesis that audible televi-       Outcome Measures: Adult word counts, child vocal-
sion is associated with decreased parent and child           izations, and child conversational turns.
interactions.
                                                             Results: Each hour of audible television was associated
Design: Prospective, population-based observational          with significant reductions in age-adjusted z scores for child
study.                                                       vocalizations (linear regression coefficient, −0.26; 95% con-
                                                             fidence interval [CI], −0.29 to −0.22), vocalization dura-
Setting: Community.                                          tion (linear regression coefficient, −0.24; 95% CI, −0.27
                                                             to −0.20), and conversational turns (linear regression co-
Participants: Three hundred twenty-nine 2- to 48-            efficient, −0.22; 95% CI, −0.25 to −0.19). There were also
month-old children.                                          significant reductions in adult female (linear regression
                                                             coefficient, −636; 95% CI, −812 to −460) and adult male
Main Exposures: Audible television. Children wore
                                                             (linear regression coefficient, −134; 95% CI, −263 to −5)
                                                             word count.
a digital recorder on random days for up to 24
months. A software program incorporating automatic
                                                             Conclusions: Audible television is associated with de-
speech-identification technology processed the               creased exposure to discernible human adult speech and
recorded file to analyze the sounds the children were        decreased child vocalizations. These results may ex-
exposed to and the sounds they made. Conditional lin-        plain the association between infant television exposure
Finding
Primary-Source
Information
Scientific inquiry
Scientific inquiry
Title
Abstract
Introduction
Methods
Results
Discussion
Conclusion
Title
Abstract
Introduction
Methods
Results
Discussion
Conclusion
Laboratory for Integrative Studies in Amphibian Biology, Group in Endocrinology, Museum of Vertebrate Zoolo
University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720-3140

Communicated by David B. Wake, University of California, Berkeley, CA, March 1, 2002 (received for review Dece

Atrazine is the most commonly used herbicide in the U.S. and                  human choriogonadotropin
probably the world. It can be present at several parts per million in         harvesting gametes. Eggs
agricultural runoff and can reach 40 parts per billion (ppb) in               female and fertilized in
precipitation. We examined the effects of atrazine on sexual                  Ringer’s solution by using t
development in African clawed frogs (Xenopus laevis). Larvae were             testes of the three males.
exposed to atrazine (0.01–200 ppb) by immersion throughout                    After 4 days, the larvae w
larval development, and we examined gonadal histology and                     at a time repeatedly, until
laryngeal size at metamorphosis. Atrazine (>0.1 ppb) induced                  were reared in 4 liters of a
hermaphroditism and demasculinized the larynges of exposed                    and fed a solution of gro
males (>1.0 ppb). In addition, we examined plasma testosterone                levels were adjusted as the
levels in sexually mature males. Male X. laevis suffered a 10-fold
decrease in testosterone levels when exposed to 25 ppb atrazine.              Dosing. In Exp. 1, we exp
We hypothesize that atrazine induces aromatase and promotes the               concentrations of 0.01, 0.
conversion of testosterone to estrogen. This disruption in steroi-            (ppb), whereas the second
dogenesis likely explains the demasculinization of the male larynx            and 200 ppb atrazine. Co
and the production of hermaphrodites. The effective levels re-                independent laboratories (
ported in the current study are realistic exposures that suggest that         Iowa Hygienic Laboratory
other amphibian species exposed to atrazine in the wild could be              stock solutions were made
at risk of impaired sexual development. This widespread com-                  containers, and dispensed
pound and other environmental endocrine disruptors may be a                   treated with ethanol suc
factor in global amphibian declines.                                          ethanol. Water was change
                                                                              every 72 h. Each treatm

I   n the last 10 years, a great deal of attention has focused on the
    global presence of endocrine-disrupting contaminants in the
                                                                              animals per replicate (tota
                                                                              experiments. All treatmen
Find a scientific article
and read the abstract.
Scientific findings should be
independently verifiable
Scientific findings should be
independently reproducible
AtrazineLovers.com
Atrazine.com
Theory
“...a unifying
explanation
for a broad range
of phenomena.’’
“A collection of
related hypotheses
that have been
tested many times
and not rejected...’’
“There is no absolute
truth in science, however,
only varying degrees
of uncertainty.’’
The
Science
of   Life
1.1 - 1.4, 1.9

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Scientific inquiry

  • 9. 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, •••
  • 12. 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, •••
  • 13. 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, •••
  • 19. A template for learning about the physical world
  • 32. Scientific findings should be independently verifiable
  • 33. Water boils at 100C at 1atm for everyone
  • 37. Tyrone Hayes http://www.nationalgeographic.com/ field/explorers/tyrone-hayes.html
  • 38. How would you figure out if Atrazine has any effect on frogs?
  • 40. Make Observations Form Hypotheses Perform Experiments Analyze Data ???
  • 47. Primary Sources publish original research Scholarly journal articles, dissertations
  • 48. Secondary Sources refer to, review, comment on or critique primary sources Popular press articles, textbooks, encyclopedias, science books
  • 50. Articles in scientific journals are... submitted by researchers, considered by editors and peer-reviewed.
  • 51. Hermaphroditic, demasculinized frogs after exposure to the herbicide atrazine at low ecologically relevant doses Tyrone B. Hayes*, Atif Collins, Melissa Lee, Magdelena Mendoza, Nigel Noriega, A. Ali Stuart, and Aaron Vonk Laboratory for Integrative Studies in Amphibian Biology, Group in Endocrinology, Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720-3140 Communicated by David B. Wake, University of California, Berkeley, CA, March 1, 2002 (received for review December 20, 2001) Atrazine is the most commonly used herbicide in the U.S. and human choriogonadotropin (1,000 international units) 6 h before probably the world. It can be present at several parts per million in harvesting gametes. Eggs were manually stripped from the agricultural runoff and can reach 40 parts per billion (ppb) in female and fertilized in vitro in 0.3 modified mammalian precipitation. We examined the effects of atrazine on sexual Ringer’s solution by using the sperm obtained from the dissected development in African clawed frogs (Xenopus laevis). Larvae were testes of the three males. The embryos were allowed to hatch. exposed to atrazine (0.01–200 ppb) by immersion throughout After 4 days, the larvae were all mixed and netted into tanks 5 larval development, and we examined gonadal histology and at a time repeatedly, until all tanks contained 30 larvae. Larvae laryngeal size at metamorphosis. Atrazine (>0.1 ppb) induced were reared in 4 liters of aerated 10% Holtfreter’s solution (15) hermaphroditism and demasculinized the larynges of exposed and fed a solution of ground Purina rabbit chow daily. Food males (>1.0 ppb). In addition, we examined plasma testosterone levels were adjusted as the animals grew to maximize growth. levels in sexually mature males. Male X. laevis suffered a 10-fold decrease in testosterone levels when exposed to 25 ppb atrazine. Dosing. In Exp. 1, we exposed larvae to atrazine at nominal We hypothesize that atrazine induces aromatase and promotes the concentrations of 0.01, 0.1, 1.0, 10.0, and 25 parts per billion conversion of testosterone to estrogen. This disruption in steroi- (ppb), whereas the second experiment used 0.1, 0.4, 0.8, 1.0, 25, dogenesis likely explains the demasculinization of the male larynx and 200 ppb atrazine. Concentrations were confirmed by two and the production of hermaphrodites. The effective levels re- independent laboratories (PTRL West, Richmond, CA, and the ported in the current study are realistic exposures that suggest that Iowa Hygienic Laboratory, Univ. of Iowa, Iowa City, IO). All other amphibian species exposed to atrazine in the wild could be stock solutions were made in ethanol (10 ml), mixed in 15-gallon at risk of impaired sexual development. This widespread com- containers, and dispensed into treatment tanks. Controls were pound and other environmental endocrine disruptors may be a treated with ethanol such that all tanks contained 0.004% factor in global amphibian declines. ethanol. Water was changed and treatments were renewed once every 72 h. Each treatment was replicated 3 times with 30 I n the last 10 years, a great deal of attention has focused on the global presence of endocrine-disrupting contaminants in the environment (1, 2). Similarly, a great deal of attention has animals per replicate (total of 90 animals per treatment) in both experiments. All treatments were systematically rotated around the shelf every 3 days to ensure that no one treatment or no one focused on global amphibian declines (3, 4). In the case of tank experienced position effects. Experiments were carried out amphibian declines, efforts focus on identifying causes (5), at 22°C with animals under a 12-h 12-h light dark cycle (lights
  • 53. Popular press can be misleading
  • 55. ARTICLE Audible Television and Decreased Adult Words, Infant Vocalizations, and Conversational Turns A Population-Based Study Dimitri A. Christakis, MD, MPH; Jill Gilkerson, PhD; Jeffrey A. Richards, MA; Frederick J. Zimmerman, PhD; Michelle M. Garrison, PhD; Dongxin Xu, PhD; Sharmistha Gray, PhD; Umit Yapanel, PhD Objective: To test the hypothesis that audible televi- Outcome Measures: Adult word counts, child vocal- sion is associated with decreased parent and child izations, and child conversational turns. interactions. Results: Each hour of audible television was associated Design: Prospective, population-based observational with significant reductions in age-adjusted z scores for child study. vocalizations (linear regression coefficient, −0.26; 95% con- fidence interval [CI], −0.29 to −0.22), vocalization dura- Setting: Community. tion (linear regression coefficient, −0.24; 95% CI, −0.27 to −0.20), and conversational turns (linear regression co- Participants: Three hundred twenty-nine 2- to 48- efficient, −0.22; 95% CI, −0.25 to −0.19). There were also month-old children. significant reductions in adult female (linear regression coefficient, −636; 95% CI, −812 to −460) and adult male Main Exposures: Audible television. Children wore (linear regression coefficient, −134; 95% CI, −263 to −5) word count. a digital recorder on random days for up to 24 months. A software program incorporating automatic Conclusions: Audible television is associated with de- speech-identification technology processed the creased exposure to discernible human adult speech and recorded file to analyze the sounds the children were decreased child vocalizations. These results may ex- exposed to and the sounds they made. Conditional lin- plain the association between infant television exposure
  • 61. Laboratory for Integrative Studies in Amphibian Biology, Group in Endocrinology, Museum of Vertebrate Zoolo University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720-3140 Communicated by David B. Wake, University of California, Berkeley, CA, March 1, 2002 (received for review Dece Atrazine is the most commonly used herbicide in the U.S. and human choriogonadotropin probably the world. It can be present at several parts per million in harvesting gametes. Eggs agricultural runoff and can reach 40 parts per billion (ppb) in female and fertilized in precipitation. We examined the effects of atrazine on sexual Ringer’s solution by using t development in African clawed frogs (Xenopus laevis). Larvae were testes of the three males. exposed to atrazine (0.01–200 ppb) by immersion throughout After 4 days, the larvae w larval development, and we examined gonadal histology and at a time repeatedly, until laryngeal size at metamorphosis. Atrazine (>0.1 ppb) induced were reared in 4 liters of a hermaphroditism and demasculinized the larynges of exposed and fed a solution of gro males (>1.0 ppb). In addition, we examined plasma testosterone levels were adjusted as the levels in sexually mature males. Male X. laevis suffered a 10-fold decrease in testosterone levels when exposed to 25 ppb atrazine. Dosing. In Exp. 1, we exp We hypothesize that atrazine induces aromatase and promotes the concentrations of 0.01, 0. conversion of testosterone to estrogen. This disruption in steroi- (ppb), whereas the second dogenesis likely explains the demasculinization of the male larynx and 200 ppb atrazine. Co and the production of hermaphrodites. The effective levels re- independent laboratories ( ported in the current study are realistic exposures that suggest that Iowa Hygienic Laboratory other amphibian species exposed to atrazine in the wild could be stock solutions were made at risk of impaired sexual development. This widespread com- containers, and dispensed pound and other environmental endocrine disruptors may be a treated with ethanol suc factor in global amphibian declines. ethanol. Water was change every 72 h. Each treatm I n the last 10 years, a great deal of attention has focused on the global presence of endocrine-disrupting contaminants in the animals per replicate (tota experiments. All treatmen
  • 62. Find a scientific article and read the abstract.
  • 63. Scientific findings should be independently verifiable
  • 64. Scientific findings should be independently reproducible
  • 67. “...a unifying explanation for a broad range of phenomena.’’
  • 68. “A collection of related hypotheses that have been tested many times and not rejected...’’
  • 69. “There is no absolute truth in science, however, only varying degrees of uncertainty.’’
  • 71. 1.1 - 1.4, 1.9