Tourism Resources

Tourism Resources
© Ramakrishna Kongalla
1R'tist @ Tourism , Pondicherry University

RESOURCE
• A resource is a source or supply from which benefit is
produced
• Typically resources are materials or other assets that
are transformed to produce benefit and in the process
may be consumed or made unavailable
• From a human perspective a natural resource is
anything obtained from the environment to satisfy
human needs and wants.
• From a broader biological or ecological perspective a
resource satisfies the needs of a living organism
• Resources have three main characteristics:
– 1) utility, 2) limited availability, and 3) potential
for depletion or consumption.

On the basis of origin
– Abiotic resources comprise non-living things
(e.g., land, water, air and minerals such as gold,
iron, copper, silver).
– Biotic resources are obtained from the biosphere.
Forests and their products, animals, birds and
their products, fish and other marine organisms
are important examples. Minerals such as coal
and petroleum are sometimes included in this
category because they were formed from
fossilized organic matter, though over long periods
of time.

On the stage of development
• Potential Resources are known to exist and may be used in the
future. For example, petroleum may exist in many parts of India
having sedimentary rocks, but until the time it is actually drilled out
and put into use, it remains a potential resource.
• Actual resources are those that have been surveyed, their quantity
and quality determined, and are being used in present times. For
example, petroleum and natural gas is actively being obtained from
the Mumbai High Fields.
• The development of an actual resource, such as wood
processing depends upon the technology available and
the cost involved. That part of the actual resource that can be
developed profitably with available technology is called a reserve
resource, while that part that can not be developed profitably
because of lack of technology is called a stock resource.

On the basis of renewability
• Non-renewable Resources are formed over very
long geological periods. Minerals and fossils are included in
this category. Since their rate of formation is extremely
slow, they cannot be replenished once they are depleted.
Out of these, the metallic minerals can be re-used by
recycling them, but coal and petroleum cannot be recycled.
• Renewable resources, such as forests and fisheries, can be
replenished or reproduced relatively quickly. The highest
rate at which a resource can be used sustainably is
the sustainable yield.
• Some resources, like sunlight, air, and wind, are
called perpetual resources because they are available
continuously, though at a limited rate.

based on distribution and ownership
• Ubiquitous Resources are found everywhere
(e.g., air, light, water).
• Localized Resources are found only in certain
parts of the world (e.g., copper and iron ore,
geothermal power).
• On the basis of ownership, resources can be
classified as
– individual,
– community,
– national, and
– international

TOURIST ATTRACTION
• A tourist attraction is a place of interest
where tourists visit, typically for its inherent or
exhibited cultural value, historical significance,
natural or built beauty, or amusement
opportunities.
• Eg:
– Historicalplaces, monuments, zoos, aquaria, museums
and art galleries, botanical gardens, buildings and
structures
– (e.g., castles, libraries,former prisons, skyscrapers, bridges),national
parks and forests, theme parks and carnivals, living history
museums, ethnic enclave communities, historic trains and cultural
events

UNIQUE FEATURES OF TOURISM PRODUCTS
• Intangible
• Irreversible
• Inseparable
• Perishable
• Lack of ownership

NATURAL TOURISM RESOURCES IN INDIA

Name State
Height
(ft)
Lamkhaga Pass Himachal Pradesh 17,336
Marsimik La Jammu and Kashmir 18,314
Mayali Pass
Nama Pass Uttarakhand 18,045
Namika La Jammu and Kashmir 12,139
Nathu La Sikkim 14,140
Palakkad Gap Kerala 1,000
Rohtang Pass Himachal Pradesh 13,051
Sasser Pass Jammu and Kashmir 17,753
Sela Pass Arunachal Pradesh 14,000
Sin La Uttarakhand 18,028
Tanglang La Jammu and Kashmir 17,583
Traill's Pass Uttarakhand 17,100
Zojila Pass Jammu and Kashmir
12,400
Mountain passes of India
Name State Height (ft)
Asirgarh Madhya Pradesh
Banihal Pass Jammu and Kashmir 9,291
Bara-lacha-la Himachal Pradesh 16,400
Changla Pass Jammu and Kashmir 17,800
Debsa Pass Himachal Pradesh 17,520
Dongkhala Sikkim 12,000
Dhumdhar Kandi
Pass
Fotu La Jammu and Kashmir 13,451
Goecha La Sikkim 16,207
Haldighati Rajasthan
Indrahar Pass Himachal Pradesh 14,473
Jelep La Sikkim 14,300
Khardung La Jammu and Kashmir 18,380
Kunjum Pass Himachal Pradesh 14,931
Lungalacha La Jammu and Kashmir 16,600 10R'tist @ Tourism , Pondicherry University

Mountain ranges
• Agasthyamalai Hills,
• Aravalli Range,
• Anamalai Hills,
• Camore Hills,
• Cardamom Hills.
• Eastern Ghats
• Garo Hills,
• Great IndianHimalayas
• Jaintia Hills
• Karakoram Range
• Khasi Hills
• Manipur Hills
• Mizo Hills
• Naga Hills
• Nag Tibba Range
• Nilgiri Hills
• Palani Hills
• Patkai Hills
• Pir Panjal Range
• Purvanchal Range
• Satpura Range
• Sahyadri
• Shivalik Hills
• Vindhya Range
• Western Ghats
• Zaskar Range

Deserts in India
Thar Desert
• Great Indian Desert, is 496 miles long
and 248 miles wide
• Rajasthan to southeast Pakistan and
some of Gujarat
• annual rainfall is less than 10 inches
• Jodhpur, Jaisalmer and Bikaner
• historical palace Mehrangarh
• the most colorful desert in the world
• contains sand dunes, marshes, gravel
and hillocks. Paleontologists have
discovered fossils as old as 300
million years
Kutch Deserts
• western tip of the state of Gujrat
• Bordered by the Arabian Sea, the
Kutch deserts are salty, muddy
grasslands and swamps that flood in
monsoon season
• myriad wildlife, including desert cats,
gazelles, cranes, falcons, pelicans and
the wild Asiatic ass
• Raan of Kutch, a wetland within the
desert, is crossed by the river Lun
and is home to 18 tribes of
indigenous people.
• Because of rapid deforestation and
salt extraction, the ecosystem of the
Kutch has come under threat
• The Kutch Desert Wildlife Sanctuary
of Gujarat, the largest in the country,
and a biosphere reserve house many
rare and endangered animals
including vultures and eagles.

Desert Tours
• Camel and jeep safaris
• city to city
• historic buildings and
sites
• meeting residents
• camp in mud huts or
tents
• participate in local
festivals and activities
• prepared for very hot
• very cold nights , bring a
large supply of water
• most popular safari circuit
takes visitors to the cities
of Jaisalmer, Bikaner and
Jodhpur, encompassing
villages, palaces, lakes
and historic forts and
other sites along the way
• The Desert National Park,
which is 20 percent sand
dunes, provides a glimpse
into the deserts'
ecosystems

islands of India
Lakshadweep
• lie 200 to 300 km (124 to 186 miles)
off the coast of Kerala in the Arabian
Sea with an area of 32 km² (11 sq mi).
They consist of 12 atolls, 3 reefs and
5 submerged banks, with a total of
about 36 islands and islets.
Diu
• Portuguese enclave; Majuli, Asia's
largest freshwater island;
• Elephanta in the Bombay Harbour
• Sriharikota barrier island in Andhra
Pradesh.
• Forty-two islands in the Gulf of Kutch
constitute the Marine National Park.
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
• consist of 572 isles, lying in the Bay of
Bengal near the Myanmar coast. It is
located 1255 km (780 miles) from
Kolkata (Calcutta)
• two island groups, the Andaman
Islands and the Nicobar Islands
• 204 small islands with a total length
of 352 km
• India's only active volcano, Barren
Island
• Narcondum is a dormant volcano
• mud volcano at Baratang. Indira Point
• Salsette Island is India's most
populous island on which the city of
Mumbai (Bombay) is located.

Flora and Fauna, India
• Project Tiger was started in 1973
• now covers 27 Tiger Reserves and an
area of 37,761 sq.km
• Corbett National Park in Uttaranchal
is one of the oldest national parks in
India and where Project Tiger started.
Kanha National Park, Ranthambor
National Park, Bandhavgarh National
Park are some of the best
• Kaziranga National Park and Manas in
Assam are also famous as they are
home to the One Horned Indian
Rhinoceros.
• The Gir forest in Gujarat is the last
refuge of the Asiatic Lion.
• the Annamalais, which are in the high
ranges and Periyar National Park in
Kerala
• Bandipur National Park in Karnataka
(866 sq. kms), Nagarahole National
Park (643 sq. kms), Mudumalai
National Park (321 sq. kms) and
Wayanaad in Kerala, Mukurthi
National Park (80 sq. kms) and Silent
Valley National Park (78 sq. kms) are
the forests which form the Nilgiri
Biosphere Reserve, which
encompasses over 5500 sq. kms and
was the first biosphere reserve to be
set up in India.
• It has the largest population of Asiatic
elephants in the world and is also
home to the Royal Bengal tiger and
other large mammals such as the
Indian Bison or Gaur.

R'tist @ Tourism , Pondicherry University 17

Trekking in India
• the high altitude regions of Indian
Himalayas
• Indian Himalayas
• Ladakh
• J&K
• Darjeeling
• Sikkim
• Trekking Places in India:
• Ladakh-Zanskar Via Lahaul
• Manali to Beas Kund
• Garhwal Trekking
• Himachal-Manikaran To Spiti
• Dodi Tal
• Khatling Saharatal Trek
• Gangotri Nandvan Trek
• Kinner-Kailash Parikrama
• Manimahesh Chui Yatra
• Jagatsukh To Base of Deo Tibba
• Adi Kailash Trek
• Hemkund Trek

Skiing Holidays India
• Kufri, H.P
• Narkanda, H.P.
• Manali, H.P.
• Auli, Uttaranchal
• Mundali, Uttaranchal
• Munsiyari, Uttaranchal
• Dayara Bugyal,
Uttaranchal

Mountaineering in India
• Ladakh, the Nun-Kun
Massif, Jammu and Kashmir,
in hills of Manali in
Himalayas and Uttranchal
are the best destinations for
enjoying mountaineering in
India.
• Idle sights
– Garhwal and Kumaon
Himalaya
Sahasratal trek, Garhwal
Himalaya, Hills of UP
– Khatling glacier trek, Garhwal
Himalaya, Hills of UP
– Ladakh, Lahaul, Spiti /
Kinnaur
• Destinations For
Mountaineering
– Himalayas of North India
– Himachal and Uttranchal Ranges
– peaks of Kanchenjunga
– North East Ranges
• Rhododendron trek -
Mountaineering on the hills of
Darjeeling

CAR RELLIES OF INDIA
• India-ASEAN Car Rally
– Guwahati - 250 participants
– 8,000 km rally from Guwahati to
Batam Island in Indonesia
• Great Arc Rally
– Kochi in the south to Mussorie in
the north
• Blind Man Car Rally
– raise funds for national theme
'Freedom through Education‘in
partnership with National
Association for the Blind (NAB)
• Monsoon Rally
– from Kolkata
• Himalayan Car Rally
– New Delhi to New Delhi
• Maruti Suzuki Desert Storm Car
Rally
– one of the toughest motorsports
– terrains of Thar Desert
– rocky mountains of Aravalli
– slippery white sands of Rann of
Kutch
• Indian National Rally
Championship
– organized by Federation
Internationale de l’Automobile
(FIA) and Motorsports Association
of India (MAI)
• Vintage Car Rally
– Delhi up to Sohna (Haryana)
• Women Car Rally by NGO
‘Uthaan’
• Kalinga Green Car Rally
– Kalinga Motor Sports Club (KMSC)

RIVER RAFTING IN INDIA
• Himacha Pradesh, Ladakh
in Jammu & Kashmir, the
Garhwal Himalayas in
Uttaranchal, the Beas
River of Himachal Pradesh
and Teesta River in
Sikkim.
• River Rafting in
Uttarakhand, River
Rafting in Himachal
Pradesh,
• River Rafting in Ladakh,
River Rafting in Sikkim,
River Rafting in Kashmir
in River Ganga ,
Alaknanda River, Bhagirati
River, Indus River, Zanskar
River, Kali Sarda River and
Brahmaputra River.

Canoeing & Kayaking
• Kayaking is just like
backpacking on an off beaten
path, except that this time
your adventure is on the sea
• Kayaks look like small fishing
boat and are not a new thing
in the Indian coastal sites, but
they are fastly picking up as a
favourite water sport in India
• Lake Paradise, Nanital
• Mumbai
• Dal Lake, Srinagar
• Nagin Lake, Srinagar
• Manasbal Lake, Srinagar
• canoeing presents quiet a
unique combination of
exploration. Paddle through
the amazing sea caves, explore
offshore islands, and snorkel
the marine reserves that are
filled with abundant marine
treasures
• the beaches of Goa, Karnataka
and Kerala
• In j&k and uttaranchal

India Surf Spots
• India has 7,000 km of
coastline
• Sea, the Indian Ocean and
the Bay of Bengal
• waves in India all year
round averaging 3 to 5 feet
but the season for big
waves [8feet plus] is May
through September
• pre-monsoon and monsoon
season. At this time the surf
will range from 8 to 15 feet
and bigger
• On the westcoast - 200
surfable river mouths
• Except for a few beaches
around Goa, Gokaran,
Varkala, Kovalam,
Pondicherry and
Mahabalipuram
• KanyaKumari ,
KovalamBeach,
Rameswaram, Tiruchendur,
Varkala, Mahe, Krishna
River , Auroville, Vizag,
Dwarka, Jagannatha Puri,
Gokarna, Goa

Dive Sites of India
• Lakshadweep Islands
– Kadmat Island
• Goa
– S.S. Rita
• Bangalore
• Andaman Islands
– Havelock Island
– Minerva Ledge
– South Button Island
– Neil Island
– South Andamans

Parasailing in India
• 3 methods of parasailing currently being
offered to consumers around the world.
Winchboat Parasailing, Beach Parasailing and
Platform Palasailing. However, Winchboat
Parasailing is the most popular and widely
accepted method.

Hot Air Ballooning
• India also has its own hot-air balloons and the
Ballooning Club of India organizes international
balloon festivals and demonstration flights
annually. There are Ballooning clubs in Guwahati,
Dehradun, Bangalore and Jaipur.
• Ballooning Places in India:
– Agra, UP
– Pushkar, Rajasthan
– Beneshwar, Rajasthan
– Nagaur, Rajasthan

Hang Gliding
• Most Indian hang gliding sites have been highly rated and those in
the lower regions of the Himalaya are among the best the world
has. Hang gliding clubs in India are located at Pune, Delhi, Mumbai,
Chandigarh, Shimla, Devlali and Bangalore.
• Hang Gliding Places in India:
– Billing, HP
– Dharamkot, HP
– Pune, Maharashtra
– Delhi
– Mumbai, Maharashtra
– Mumbai, Maharashtra
– Chandigarh
– Shimla, HP
– Devlali, Maharashtra
– Bangalore, Karnataka
– Kalahatty, Ooty

Para gliding in India
• Paragliding Places in India:
– Billing, HP
– Kullu, HP
– Solang, HP
– Lahaul & Spiti, HP
– Naukutchiyatal, Nainital
– Dayara Bugyal, Garhwal
– Dhanolti Ridge, Garhwal
– Bedni Bugyal, Kumaon
– Jaipur, Rajasthan
– Jaisalmer, Rajasthan
– Jodhpur, Rajasthan
– Udaipur, Rajasthan
– Bikaner, Rajasthan
– Matheran, Maharashtra

INDIAN NATIONAL PARKS AND WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES
• 100 Wildlife National Parks and more than 400 Wildlife Sanctuaries
• famous for its tigers and elephants but with more than 500 species of
mammals including leopard, the rare one-horned rhino, 2000 bird species
and subspecies
– Corbett National Park
– Nagarhole National Park
– Keoladeo Ghana (Bharatpur) National Park
– Nameri National Park
– Kanha National Park
– Kaziranga National Park
– Bandhavgarh National Park
– Gir National Park
– Ranthambore National Park
– Singalilla National Park
– Sundarbans National Park
– Periyar National Park (Thekkady National Park)
– Gorumara National Park
– Dibru-Saikhowa National Park
– Jaldapara National Park
– Manas National Park

Corbett National Park
• Uttartranchal
• 201 square mile park
• in 1973 and this park was
one of the first such tiger
reserves in the country
• 100 species of tree. It is
also home to 50 species
of mammal, 580 bird
species and 25 reptile
species
• four kinds of deer, wild
boar, the leopard cat,
jungle cat and fishing cat,
dhole (wild dog) gharial
crocodile and the mugger
crocodile
Keoladeo Ghana (Bharatpur)
National Park
• 350 species of birds find
refuge in Bharatpur's 11
square miles of shallow
lakes and woodland
• there are four species of
cormorants, eight species
of egrets, three ibises, 17
species of duck and geese,
and two species of crane.
• Siberian Crane is one of the
rarest species in the world
• huge rock pythons
• sambal deer and blue bull

Kanha National Park
• Mandla district of MP
• 2000 square km
• Mekal Hills
• Surpan River runs
• attraction is the tiger
• gray langur, porcupine,
mongoose and wild pig
• 175 varieties of birds
Bandhavgarh National Park
• Vindhyan mountains
• declared a park in 1968
• highest density of tiger
Sundarbans National Park
• part of the largest delta in
the world formed where
Ganges, Brahmaputra and
Meghna
• largest National Park in
India
• more than 250 tigers

Ranthambore National Park
• Eastern Rajasthan
• Aravali Hill ranges and the
Vindhyan plateau meet
• Chambal in the South and
Banas in the North bound the
Ranthambore National Park.
Six man made lakes
• 300 trees, 50 aquatic plants,
272 birds, 12 reptiles and
amphibians- including the
marsh crocodile - and 30
mammals
Jaldapara National Park
• West Bengal is situated in the
foothills of the Eastern
Himalayas in the Jalpaiguri
district
• formed in 1943 for the
protection of wildlife, in
particular the one-horned
rhino
• bisected by the River Torsha
Nameri National Park
• foothills of the eastern
Himalayas and is a haven for
many endangered animals, in
particular the Bengal tiger
• consists of hilly deciduous
forests flanking the Jia Bhoroli
river

Nagarhole National Park
• separated from the famous
Bandipur National Park by
the mighty Kabini river
• the Park was extended to
include the Mysore Forests
in 1974
Gorumara National Park
• located on the flood plains
of the Murti and Jaldhaka
rivers in the Dooars (rolling
hill slopes) region of
Jalpaiguri district in West
Bengal
• Asiatic one-horned rhino
Kaziranga National Park
• one horned rhinocerous
Gir National Park
• Asiatic lion is incredibly rare
and is the most endangered
large cat species in the
world. Sasangir (Gir)
National Park in Gujarat is
the only place where they
can be found in the wild
and only approximately 300
remain

Periyar National Park
(Thekkady National Park)
in the Western Ghats
Nilgiri Tahr, gaur (Indian bison)
100 species of butterfly and at
least 240 bird
Dibru-Saikhowa National Park
• biggest National Park in Assam
• one of the 19 biodiversity
hotspots in the world
Manas National Park
• along the Assam-Bhutan
border
• World Heritage Site
• Bengal florican and the Giant
hornbill
Dachigam National Park
• 22 kilometers
from Srinagar, Jammu and
Kashmir
• a National Park in the year
1981
• Hangul
• Musk Deer
• Leopard
• Himalayan Gray Langur
Dudhwa National Park
• Terai of Uttar Pradesh
• national park in January 1977
• In 1988, the park was
declared as a tiger reserve

Mudumalai National Park
• first wildlife sanctuaries
established in India. The
sanctuary is divided into 5
ranges - Masinagudi,
Thepakadu, Mudumalai,
Kargudi and Nellakota
• 48 tigers in the Nilgiri Reserve
Valley of Flowers National Park
• Uttarakhand
• UNESCO World Network of
Biosphere Reserves since
2004
• declared a national park in
1982
MADHAV – shivpuri NATIONAL
PARK
• Jhansi-Shivpuri Road
• wildlife – buffs
• chinkara, Indian gazelle and
chital
Nanda Devi National Park
• Uttarakhand in northern India
• World Heritage
Site by UNESCO in 1988
• Nanda Devi: 7,816 m (25,643
ft)
• Devistan I, II: 6,678 metres
(21,909 ft), 6,529 m (21,421 ft)
• Rishi Kot: 6,236 m (20,459 ft)

CULTURAL TOURISM RESOURCES IN INDIA

History of India

History of India
Divided in 7 Periods
1. Original Indians (1700BC – 3300BC)
Indus Valley Civilization: Mohenja-daro and Harappa People
2. Aryans (2500BC – 322BC) India’s Root Culture
3. The Mauryan Empire (322BC – 188BC)
Spread of Buddhism
4.Gupta Period (320AD – 480AD) Golden Age of India
5. Muslim Period (1175AD – 1800AD) Turks and Mughals
6. European Rule (1800AD – 1947AD) Portuguese, French, Dutch,
and English
7. Independence and Democratic India

1. Indus Valley Civilization
• Excavation in Northwest part of Pakistan has discovered civilization
that is over 5,000 years old.
• This is the period where people in the rest of the world were
nomadic
• The artifacts discovered from excavation
Urban planning
– Sanitation system
– Advancements in Art and science
– Agriculture and trade
– Engineering – metallurgy
– Medicine – dentistry
– Peaceful egalitarian society
• Impact
– Engineering
– Science
– Medicine
– Arts

2. Aryans (2500BC – 322BC)
• Group of nomadic tribes who had originally inhabited Central Asia
(There is a dispute on this)
• Tall, fair haired, with clear cut features, they settled in Punjab, in
the Indus Valley River region.
• Fought with the original people of Indus Valley Civilization, who
were dark skin and known as Dasyus or Dravidians
• The superiority of the Aryans resulted in the Dravidian submission
and retirement to the south.
• The Aryan society was very well organized, ruled by a monarch.
• Practiced the four Vedas
• Caste system was introduced and practiced, based on one’s
profession:
– Brahmins: Priests, teachers, intellectuals
– Khsatriyas: Warriors, soldiers
– Vashya: Traders, merchants, peasants
– Shudras: People in service of others
• Aryan period ended At the end of 322BC.

Cultural Impact of Aryans
• The culture of the Aryan period exist today and has
been an integral pat of Hindus all over the world.
• All Hindus accept Vedas as their most sacred scripture.
• Hindu religion originated with Aryans
• With the invasion of Persian kings Cyrus and Darius in
the 500 BC, there were significant changes and
commingling of Aryan and Persian culture.
Persian and Greek Invasion
• The Persian Invasion in 500BC, and the invasion of
Alexander the Great of Greece in 327 BC, changed the
Indian culture for ever.
• The most significant impact of this period was:
– (1) Cultural mixing
– (2) Establishment of contacts with foreign countries

3. Mauryan Empire (322BC -188BC)
• The Mauryans were better rulers and culturally rich.
• They had a highly centralized and hierarchical government, well
developed trade and commerce, welfare of foreigners, maintenance of
public places including markets, and temples.
• The most significant ruler of this period was Emperor Ashoka who
converted to Buddhism and introduced Buddhism outside India
• After the death of Ashoka, the Mauryan Empire disintegrated rapidly and
all of South Asia fragmented into regional powers.
• Cultural Impact of Mauryans
• Origin of non-violence in India
• War in Kalinga
• Ashoka promoted non-violence, along with Buddhism.
• spread of Buddhism to neighboring countries of China, Thailand, Vietnam,
Japan, etc.
• Education and Intellectual movement
• The World's first university was established in India. More than 10,500
students from all over the world studied more than 60 subjects.

4. Gupta Period (320 AD – 480 AD)
• After the decline of Mauryans, Gupta rulers rose to power
• The Gupta period in Indian history is known as the Golden Age of India.
• Era of the most advanced civilization, flush with wealth, higher
education, trade with foreign countries, and an overall happy life.
• Religious tolerance and freedom of worship
• Period of Hindu renaissance.
Impact of the Gupta Period
• Emperor Ashoka promoted Buddhism, but Gupta rulers showed a
preference for Hindu religion
• Music, architecture, sculptures and painting were at its
• best.
• Various copper statues images of Buddha reflect the craftsmanship of the
Gupta period.
• After the death of the last Gupta ruler in 570 AD, the Gupta empire
declined and broke off.

Gupta Period (320 AD – 480 AD)
• Huien Tsang has provided a good historical
account of the life in this period.
Foreign Invasions
• Due to its wealth and culture, India has attracted
foreigners throughout its history:
– Persian invasion in 500BC
– Greek Invasion in 327 BC
– Turks in 1175AD
– Mughal in 1526
– Portuguese in 16th century
– Dutch and French in 17th century
– English in 18th through 20th century

5. Muslim Period – Turks & Mughals (1175 –1800 AD)
• Turks from Central Asia invaded India and ruled
from 1175 to 1340 AD.
• Attracted by India’s wealth, looted and destroyed
temples.
• More interested in wealth rather than politics
and were soon replaced by the Mughals.
• The Turks’ dominance ended in 1526 with the
invasion of Mughals from central Asia
• The Turks
• Fierce and famous, Turk invader-Mahmud of
Ghazni

Muslim Period (1175 – 1800 AD) – The Mughals
• Nomadic people of central Asia. The first invader was Babur, related
to Genghis Khan.
• He defeated Rajputs and Afgans and ruled in India
• Babar’s successors: Akbar and Shahjahan are the most prominent
in Indian history.
• Akbar is known to be the first Muslim emperor to unite Hindus and
Muslims, and marrying a Hindu woman.
• Shahjahan is known in history for building the world famous
monument Tajmahal.
• Shahjahan built the Tajmahal in memory of his deceased wife
Noorjahan, who died on June 17, 1631 in child birth.
• Aurangzeb was the last significant ruler of the Mughal Empire,
preceding the european rulers
• His successors were week and corrupt, Aurangjeb is generally
regarded as the last significant Mughal ruler.
• The Hindu Maratha Empire mostly replaced Mughal rule during the
rest of the 18th century
• Today, 13.4% of India’s population is Muslim

6. European Rule (1800 – 1947) – Discovery of India
• The invasion of Alexander had boosted trade contacts
outside India
• Italians and Portuguese made several attempts to find an
easy route to India that will avoid the hostile route through
northern part of India.
• Columbus, in his quest to find India ended up in North
America and erroneously thought he had reached India,
calling the native of the new land as Indians.
• On April, 1498 Vasco da Gama reached the western coast of
India and the quest for Europeans to reach India was
fulfilled.
• Subsequent to Vasco Da Gama’s arrival in India, the
Portuguese fought and established their dominance and
appointed Portuguese Governor in India.
• After a century, due to the incompetent administration,
the Portuguese power began to decline.

Culture of India
• India's languages, religions, dance, music, architecture,
food and customs differ from place to place within the
country, but nevertheless possess a commonality. India
is the only country in the world to have so many
religions and beliefs. The culture of India is an
amalgamation of these diverse sub-cultures spread all
over the Indian subcontinent and traditions that are
several millennia old
• Regarded by many historians as the "oldest living
civilization of Earth", the Indian tradition dates back to
8000 BC and has a continuous recorded history since
the time of the Vedas, believed variously to be 3,000 to
over 5,500 years ago. Several elements of India's
diverse culture — such as Indian religions, yoga and
Indian cuisine — have had a profound impact across
the world. 56R'tist @ Tourism , Pondicherry University

• Religions and spirituality
• Marriage - Arranged
Marriage
• Namaste
• Festivals
• Names and language
• Animals
• Cuisine
• Clothing
• Languages and literature
• History
• Epics
• Performing arts
– Dance
– Drama and theatre
– Music
• Visual arts
– Painting
– Sculpture
– Architecture
• Sports and Martial arts
– Sports
– Indian martial arts
• Popular media
– Television
– Cinema

Indian society
• Culture of India
• is an amalgamation of these
diverse sub-cultures spread
all over the Indian
subcontinent and traditions
that are several millennia
old
• Hindu society
Beliefs
– Concept of God
– Devas and avatars
– Karma and samsara
– Objectives of human life
– Yoga
Practices
– Rituals
– Pilgrimage
– Festivals
Scriptures
– Shruti
– Smritis
Demographics
Society
– Denominations
– Ashramas
– Monasticism
– Varnas
– Ahimsa, vegetarianism

Caste system in India
• is a system of social stratification and social
restriction in India in which communities are
defined by thousands of endogamous hereditary
groups called Jātis.
• The Jātis were hypothetically and formally
grouped by the Brahminical texts under the four
well known categories (the varnas):
viz Brahmins (scholars, teachers, fire
priests), Kshatriyas (kings, warriors, law enforcers,
administrators), Vaishyas(agriculturists, cattle
raisers, traders, bankers, artisans),
and Shudras (labourers, craftsmen, service
providers). Certain people like foreigners,
nomads, forest tribes and the chandalas (who
dealt with disposal of the dead) were excluded
altogether and treated as untouchables.
• Although identified with Hinduism, in the past
(1883 year data)the caste-like systems were also
observed among followers of other religions in the
Indian subcontinent, including some groups
of Muslims and Christians, most likely due to
inherited cultural traits. Theoretically, all
foreigners are considered to be casteless; in the
18th century, the high-caste Brahmins avoided
undertaking sea trips, as they considered the
European merchants as untouchable
Socio-economic issues
• Overpopulation
• Economic issues
– Poverty
– Sanitation
– Corruption
• Education
– Initiatives
– linkage between education
and economic growth
– Measurement of returns to
school
– Issues
• Violence
– Religious violence
– Terrorism
– Naxalism
– Caste related violence

Indian Traditions
India, in the past, witnessed successive waves of migration
from various foreign forces like the Persians, Arabs, British and
Turks. Though, with time, all of them retreated, they left
behind their indelible mark which is still reflected in the
culture and traditions of India. From one state to another,
there is huge variation in the language, attire, beliefs and
other demographic aspects of the denizens that it is simply
mind-boggling.
However, there are some very prominent features that bind
all Indians to the brand 'Hindustani'. These traditions range
from the aarti done to welcome the guests to touching the
feet of the elders. The cultural traditions of India have been
passed on from generation to generation and are deeply
rooted in the Indian way of living.

Etiquette
• India is a vibrant amalgamation
of varied ethnic groups, climate,
cultures, regions and traditions.
As such, many people visiting
the country for the first time
find it uniquely different. On
one hand, you will find many
conservatively dressed Indian
women flocking the temple
entrance. On the other, there
are others who have no qualms
walking the fashion ramp in the
skimpiest of clothes. While
there are millions of illiterates
in the Indian subcontinent,
there are also those who are
the driving force behind the
booming IT industry in India.
• Dressing Etiquette
Majority of the Indians,
especially in the rural areas,
small towns and cities, are a
conservative.
Short, revealing clothes,
especially for women, is a
strict taboo.
As such, it's expected that
you dress up according to the
situation.
E.G. when you go out for
sight-seeing, you can wear
knee length Bermudas, tee
shirts, long or quarter length
skirts, capris and jeans.
However, at high-end
restaurants, bars and discos,
you can dress in a more
relaxed manner, without
worrying much about the
dress codes. 61R'tist @ Tourism , Pondicherry University

Customs on usage of Shoes
Indian temple etiquette
stipulates that you take off
your shoes before entering
the premises.
The same applies to even
certain churches in India.
Usually, there will be people
stationed outside most
temples and gurdwaras, who
will keep your shoes safely for
a nominal sum.
You will be expected to follow
the same protocol when you
visit a person's home in some
of the cities of India.
• Indian Proximity
Indian culture and tradition
forbids unnecessary touching
or any form of physical
contact, especially between a
man and a woman, in public.
Kissing in public is a not
advisable.
You can shake hands with
people, or better still stick, to
the traditional Namaste, the
popular Indian style greeting.
For this, you need to press
your hands together with all
fingers pointing towards the
sky in front of your chest and
politely say Namaste, while
looking at the person you are
saying it to.

Generic Attitude
Indian manners and etiquette also
comprise of not speaking ill
about or criticizing the country
or its people openly.
The natives are bound to take
great offence to it.
At the same time, never address
the elderly by their first name,
unless they allow you to.
It's advisable for you to call them
sir or ma’am instead. With
youngsters, you can choose to be
informal.
It is also considered disrespectful
in India to use loud and foul
language words publicly.
• Joint Family System
A majority of the people in India
prefer to live in a joint family,
which could comprise
anywhere between a group of
two or more members to even
over 20 members sometimes.
As per the Indian way of living,
the commanding position in a
family is held by the eldest
earning male member. He
consults other adult members
on important issues, but it is his
decision that ultimately
prevails. However, a lot of
importance is also given to the
advice of the eldest retired
members of the family.

Women as Homemaker
As per the lifestyle of the
Indian people, it is the duty
of a woman to take care of
her home.
As such, from her childhood,
a girl child is taught to rustle
up mouth-watering dishes
by her mother and other
ladies in her family.
She is also taught to attend
to guests and strangers
politely and elegantly
because it is thought to
greatly reflect upon her
upbringing.
Respecting Elders
One common trait you will
find amongst Indians is that
children show utmost
respect to their elders. Now
this is one habit all Indian
parents deliberately inculcate
in their children, since
beginning. It is an unsaid rule
in India that a person cannot
rudely respond to elders. It is
deemed disrespectful in India
to refer to an elder by his /
her name. Instead people
prefer calling them uncle and
aunt, especially if the person
is very elderly. It is also
customary in India for the
youngsters to touch the feet
of their elders as a way of
greeting as well as on
important occasions. 64R'tist @ Tourism , Pondicherry University

Places of Worship - Customs
Worshipping is an important part of the daily life of
Indian people. You will find the holy basil tulsi
planted in maximum houses, which people water as
well as worship everyday religiously.
Many Indians are associated to various religious sects
and attend weekly gatherings to listen to the
sermons.
Apart from temples, mosques and gurdwaras, there
will also invariably be a personal place for worship,
and pictures of Gods and Goddesses, in every house
in India

Hospitality
Perhaps, the one thing that is
going to take you by
surprise and also deeply
touch you on your India
tour is the warm hospitality
of Indians. A ready smile on
the face, always willing to
go out of the way to help
somebody, exuding genuine
happiness upon meeting a
person - these are some of
the common traits you will
find in maximum Indians.
The Sanskrit adage, "Atithi
Devo Bhava," meaning the
guest is truly your god
dictates the respect granted
to guests in India.
Welcoming Guests- Traditions
Playing the perfect host is an
integral part of the Indian
culture and tradition. As such,
Indian people go to great
lengths to make their guests feel
welcome. Garlanding, aarti and
applying tilak, or a red
vermillion mark, on the
forehead of the guest is, thus,
an important part of the
reception ritual. There are
basically two reasons behind the
garlanding tradition of India.
Firstly, it showcases one's
happiness at receiving the
particular guest and secondly, it
is a form of publicly
acknowledging the guest's
importance.

Indian Family Value System
Examples of Indian family values are - a young person should always touch the feet
of his elders; he should never speak in a high or rude tone to those who are older
to him; he should always give respect to elders and refer to them as 'aap'; he
should not consume alcohol and tobacco or smoke cigarettes; he should respect
women; he should always speak truth and try to engage in non-violent behavior;
and so on. Most of the values that the parents impart to their children in India, as
a part of the family value system, are similar in nature.
Some other values that are part of India's cultural heritage are:
• Living peacefully and respecting each other's rights.
• Never ever compromising on integrity for the purpose of prosperity.
• Maintain strong bonds with the family members as well as relatives.
• Being hospitable to everyone who comes to your home, irrespective of his caste,
creed, financial position or status.
• Treating guest as God i.e. 'Atithi Devo Bhava'.
• Remembering and bowing to God first thing in the morning.
• Indulging in yoga and meditation.
• Always taking the advice of elders in case of any important decision

Cuisine and Food habits
• Indian cuisine consists of thousands of regional cuisines which date
back thousands of years
• are characterised by the extensive use of various Indian spices, herbs,
vegetables and fruit.
• known for the widespread practice of vegetarianism in Indian society.
• Each family of Indian cuisine includes a wide assortment of dishes and
cooking techniques. As a consequence, it varies from region to region,
reflecting the varied demographics of the ethnically-diverse
subcontinent.
• Hindu beliefs and culture have played an influential role in the evolution
of Indian cuisine. However, cuisine across India also evolved as a result
of the subcontinent's large-scale cultural interactions
with Mongols and Britain making it a unique blend of some various
cuisines.
• Indian cuisine has influenced cuisines across the world, especially those
from Southeast Asia and the Caribbean.
• by a 5000 year history of various groups and cultures interacting with
the subcontinent, leading to the diversity of flavors and regional
cuisines

Antiquity
• Many recipes first emerged during the
initial Vedic period, when India was still
heavily forested and agriculture was
complemented with game hunting and
forest produce.
• a normal diet consisted of fruit,
vegetables, grain, dairy products,
honey, and poultry and other sorts of
meats.
• Over time, some segments of the
population embraced vegetarianism,
This was facilitated by the advent of
Buddhism and an equitable climate
permitting a variety of fruits,
vegetables, and grains to be grown
throughout the year.
• saatvic, raajsic or taamsic developed
in Ayurveda. A reference to the kind of
food one is to eat is also discussed in
the Bhagavad Gita (Chapter 17, Verses
8,9 & 10).
• In this period eating beef became
taboo, a belief still commonly held
today.
Middle Ages
• period in which several North
Indian dynasties were
predominant, including the Gupta
dynasty.
• Travelers who visited India
brought with them new cooking
methods and products like tea
and spices.
• Later, India saw the period of
Central Asian and Afghan
conquerors, which saw the
emergence of the Mughlai
cuisine that many people now
associate with India.
• This included the addition of
several seasonings like saffron,
the addition of nuts, and the
practice of cooking in a sealed
pot called a "dum". 69R'tist @ Tourism , Pondicherry University

Ingredients
• are Bajra, rice, atta (whole wheat flour), and a variety of pulses, of which the most central to this
cuisine are masoor (most often red lentils), channa (bengal gram), toor (pigeon pea or yellow
gram), urad (black gram), and moong (green gram).
• Pulses may be used whole, dehusked – for example, dhuli moong or dhuli urad – or split. Split pulses,
or dal, are used extensively. Some pulses, like channa and mung, are also processed into flour (besan).
• Most Indian curries are cooked in vegetable oil. In northern and western India, peanut oil is popular,
while in eastern India, mustard oil is more commonly used. Coconut oil is used widely along the
western coast, especially in Kerala; gingelly (sesame) oil is common in the south as well.
• In recent decades, sunflower and soybean oil have become popular across India. Hydrogenated
vegetable oil, known as Vanaspati ghee, is another popular cooking medium. Butter-based ghee,
or desi ghee, is used very frequently, but still less used than before.
• The most important or frequently used spices in Indian cuisine are chilli pepper, black mustard seed
(sarso), cumin (jeera), turmeric (haldi), fenugreek(methi), asafoetida(hing), ginger(adrak), coriander (d
hania), and garlic (lehsun). Popular spice mixes are garam masala, a powder that typically includes five
or more dried spices, especially cardamom, cinnamon, and clove.
• Each region, and sometimes each individual chef, has a distinctive garam masala blend. Goda
masala is a comparable, though sweet, spice mix that is popular in Maharashtra Some leaves
commonly used for flavoring include tejpat (Bay leaf),coriander leaf, fenugreek leaf, and mint leaf.
• The use of curry leaves and roots is typical of Gujarati and all South Indian cuisine. Sweet dishes are
seasoned with cardamom, saffron, nutmeg, and rose petal essences.

Regional cuisines
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
• Seafood plays a major role
in the cuisines
of Andaman and Nicobar
Islands, which were, and
still are inhabited by the
indigenous Andamanese.
Since they had very little
contact with the outside
world, raw fish and fruits
were their staple diet for a
long time
• Andhra Pradesh
• Telugu and Hyderabadi cui
sine
• Rice,
curries and lentil soups or
broths
• heavy use
of spices and chillies
• pickles, such as avakaya
mango, and gongura
• Curds to kill spicyness
• Hyderabadi biryani

Arunachal Pradesh
• Rice with fish, meat and green
vegetables. Lettuce common
vegetable
with ginger, coriander and green
chillies. Boiled rice cakes wrapped
in leaves . Thukpa is a kind of
noodle soup of Monpa tribe
Assam
• bhuna, the gentle frying of spices
before the addition of the main
ingredients, so common in Indian
cooking, is absent.
• khar, a class of dishes ends with a
tenga, a sour dish.
• The food is usually served in bell
metal utensils.
• Pann, the practice of chewing betel
nut, generally concludes the meal.
Bihar
• buttermilk (called mattha)
• poha (flattened rice) with
yoghurt and sugar.
• Sattu Parathas, Chokha
• alu-bhujia
• Tangy raita made from lauki
(winter melon)
Chattisgarh
• liquor brewed from
the Mahuwa flower
• Red ant chutney
• pork constitute a large part of
Chatisgarh
Daman and Diu
• Gujarati food and
traditional Portugese food

Goa
• Seafood, coconut milk, rice and
paste are main ingredients. Kokum
is a distinct feature. staple foods are
rice and fish. Kingfish (Vison or
Visvan) is most common
Gujarat
• primarily vegetarian. The typical
Gujarati Rotli in
Gujarati), daal or kadhi, rice,
and sabzi/shaak, Keri no ras (fresh
mango pulp) is often an integral
part of the meal. Garam
Masala less in summer. Regular
fasting is a common practice.
Haryana
• dairy is a common component ,
Kadhi Pakora, Besan Masala Roti,
Bajra Aloo Roti, Churma, Kheer,
Bathua Raita, Methi Gajar, Singri ki
Sabzi and Tamatar Chutney. Lassi
and Sherbat are the two popular
non-alcoholic beverages. liquor
• Himachal Pradesh
• similar to north India,
including lentil, broth, rice, vegetabl
es and bread. specialities of
Himachal include Pateer, Chouck,
Bhagjery and chutney of Til.
Jammu & Kashmir
• influence of the Kashmiri
Hindus andBuddhists. invasion of
Kashmir by Timur. influenced
cuisines of Central Asian, Persia,
and the North Indian. notable
ingredient is mutton (lamb), over 30
varieties.
• Kashmiri Pandit food, differences
between Kashmiri cuisine and
Punjabi cuisine is rice and Roti.
Jharkhand
• equally vegetarian as well as non-
vegetarian. not available at the
restaurants , not been
commercialised. on a visit to a tribal
village to taste such exotic food.

Karnataka
• Vegetarian and non-vegetarian
cuisines. Influence of South
Indian states and Maharashtra,
Goa to its north. Some typical dishes
include Bisi bele bath, Jolada
rotti, Chapati, Ragi rotti, Akki rotti,
Saaru, Huli, Vangi Bath, Khara Bath,
Kesari Bath, Davanagere Benne
Dosa, Ragi mudde, and Uppittu.
Masala Dosa traces its origin
to Udupi cuisine. Plain and
Rave Idli, Mysore Masala
Dosa and Maddur Vade are popular
in South Karnataka. Coorg district is
famous for spicy pork curries, sweets
Mysore Pak, Dharwad
pedha, Chiroti are well known.
typical Kannadiga Oota (Kannadiga
meal) includes Uppu(salt),
Kosambari, Pickle, Palya, Gojju,
Raita, Dessert, Thovve, Chitranna,
Rice and Ghee.
Kerala
• grated coconut and coconut milk are
widely used in dishes
and curries. Rice is grown in
abundance, and could be said, along
with tapioca (manioc/cassava) main
starch ingredient . spices - black
pepper, cardamom, cloves, ginger,
and cinnamon predominantly non-
vegetarians, variety of breakfast
dishes
like idli, dosa, appam, idiyappam, putt
u, and pathiri.
Lakshadweep
• influence of Kerala, coconut and sea
fish. coconut water
Manipur
• simple, organic and healthy. use chili
pepper rather than Garam masala.
staple diet of Manipur consists of rice,
leafy vegetables, and fish. The
Umarok is a very popular chili that is
used in the cuisine.

Madhya Pradesh
• wheat and meat, dominated by rice
and fish. Gwalior and Indore abound
in milk and milk-based, Bhutte ka
kees, Sabudane ki khicri, Aaloo
Patis Chat house. Bhopal - rogan
josh, korma, keema, biryani pilaf and
kababs such as shami and seekh, Dal
bafla. Bafla is a steamed and grilled
wheat cake dunked in rich ghee
which is eaten with daal (a pungent
lentil broth). It is followed by
sweet ladoos. Another popular dish
in Malwa region (central M.P)
is poha (flattened rice), it is mostly a
breakfast item served with Jalebi.
• local liquor which is distilled from the
flowers of the mahua tree. date palm
toddy
• Mizoram
• Mizo cuisine is a blend of Chinese
and north Indian , served on fresh
green banana leaves. Meals are
usually less spicy and plain in taste,
popular dish is Bai, eaten with rice.
Sawchair made of rice cooked with
pork or chicken.
Maharashtra
• Bajri, Wheat, rice, jowar, vegetables,
lentils and fruit, puran
poli, ukdiche Modak and batata
wada. The staple dishes of
Maharashtrian cuisine are based
on Bajri, Jowar and Rice(Tandul).
Konkani cuisine. Vidarbha area, has
its own distinctive cuisine known as
the Varadi cuisine. kokum, a deep
purple berry that has a pleasing
sweet and sour taste. panha made
from boiled raw mango is consumed.
'varan'/'aamtee' – a type of lentils
Meghalaya
• home of three Mongoloid tribes, has
a unique cuisine of its own. rice with
spicy meat and fish preparations.
They rear goats, pigs, fowl, ducks and
cows and relish their meat. The
popular dishes areJadoh, Ki
Kpu, Tung-rymbai, and pickled
bamboo shoots. ferment rice beer

Nagaland
• Naga cuisine, of the Naga people is
known for exotic meats cooked with
simple and flavorful ingredients like the
extremely hot bhut jolokia or ghost chili,
fermented bamboo shoots and soya
beans. oil minimally, prefer to ferment,
dry and smoke their meats and fishes,
food is healthy and light.
Orissa
• Panch phutana, a mix of cumin,
mustard, fennel, fenugreek and kalonji
(nigella) is widely used for tempering
vegetables and dals, while garam
masala (curry powder)
andhaladi (turmeric) are commonly used
for non-vegetarian curries. Pakhala, a
dish made of rice, water, and yoghurt,
that is fermented overnight, is very
popular in summer, particularly in the
rural areas. fond of sweets
Puducherry
• The French and the Indo style have
given birth to an innovative taste. The
influence of the neighboring areas like
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala
is also visible.
• Coconut Curry, Tandoori Potato, Soya
Dosa, Podanlangkai, Assad, Curried
Vegetables, Stuffed Cabbage, Baked
Beans
Punjab
• restaurant style using large amounts
of ghee, with liberal amounts
of butter and cream with home cooked
concentrating on mainly upon
preparations with whole wheat, rice
and other ingredients flavored
with masalas.
• prefer stuffed parathas and dairy
products, Mah Di Dal, saron da saag,
and many othe things.The food is tailor-
made for the Punjabi lifestyle in which
most of the rural folk burn up a lot
of calories while working in the
fields. Tandoori food is a Punjabi
speciality Tandoor, Naan, Pakoras and
vegetable dishes with paneer – derive
from the Punjab. 76R'tist @ Tourism , Pondicherry University

Rajasthan
• food is generally cooked
in milk or ghee, Besan or gram flour
is a mainstay of Marwari food
mainly because of the scarcity of
vegetables in this arid land.
• Major dishes of a Rajasthani platter
includes Daal-Baati, Tarfini, Raabdi,
ghewar, Bail-Gatte, Panchkoota,
Chaavadi, Laapsi, Kadhi and Boondi,
and snacks like Bikaneri
Bhujia, Mirchi Bada, Pyaaj
Kachori, Dal Kachori.
Sikkim
• the Nepalese, Bhutias and Lepchas.
Rice is the staple food. Meat and
dairy products finger millet, wheat,
buckwheat, barley, vegetable,
potato, soybeans, etc. are grown.
Tamil Nadu
• rice, legumes and lentils, its
distinct aroma
and flavour achieved by the
blending of spices including curry
leaves, tamarind,coriander, ginger
, garlic, chili, pepper, cinnamon, cl
oves, cardamom, cumin, nutmeg,
coconut and rosewater.
• "curry" is derived from
the Tamil word 'kari' which means
"an additive to the main course
or a side
dish" Rice and legumes play an
important role in Tamil cuisine.
Tripura
• The major ingredient of Tripuris
cuisine for non-vegetarian food
includes pork, chicken, mutton, tu
rtle, fish, prawns, crabs,
and frogs.

Uttar Pradesh
• Awadhi and Mughlai cuisine but a
vast majority of the state enjoys
sober vegetarian meals
with Dal, roti, sabzi and rice
constituting the essentials of daily
food habits. Pooris and kachoris,
Chaat, samosa and pakora, are also
originally from Uttar Pradesh.
Uttarakhand
• Garhwali and Kumaoni cuisine are
the same, there are some basic
differences , Kumauni cuisine is the
tightfisted use of especially milk
and milk-based. Badi (sun-dried
Urad Dal balls) and Mangodi (sun-
dried Moong Dal balls) as substitute
for vegetables at times. Main dishes
from Uttarakhand include Chainsoo,
Kafuli, Jholi, Thechwani, Baadi, etc.
West Bengal
• Bengali cuisine is known for its
subtle flavours, its
confectioneries and desserts, and
has perhaps the only multi-course
tradition from India that is
analogous with French and Italian
cuisine in structure. The nature
and variety of dishes found in
Bengali cooking are unique even
in India

Desserts
• Indian sweets, known as mithai,
are a type of confectionery. Many
are made with sugar, milk and
condensed milk, and cooked by
frying. The bases of the sweets
and other ingredients vary by
region. In the Eastern part of India,
for example, milk is a staple, and
most sweets from this region are
based on milk products
– Barfi
– Chikki
– Gulab jamun
– Jalebi
– Khaja
– Kulfi
– Kheer (Paayasam)
– Laddu
– Malpoa (pan cake – rice or wheat)
– Motichoor Ka Ladoo (gram flour)
– Rasgulla
– Shrikhand (yogurt)
Beverages
– Tea, Lassi, Sharbat, nimbu pani
– Alcoholic beverages Beer
Eating habits
– breakfast, or nashta,
– Lunch by pan
– snacks.
– Dinner by sweets
• Etiquette
– Seated
– without cutlery
– right hand
– South India - banana leaves
– Now spoons and forks

Music of India - folk, popular, pop, classical music
Hindustani music
• Vedic times around 1000 BC.
developed circa the 13th and 14th
centuries AD with Persian
influences and religious and folk
music. The practice of singing
based on notes was popular even
from the Vedic times where the
hymns in Sama Veda, a sacred text,
was sung as Samagana and not
chanted. Hindustani music was not
only influenced by ancient Hindu
musical traditions, historical Vedic
philosophy and native Indian
sounds but also enriched by
the Persian performance practices
of the Mughals. During the Medivel
age especially in Mughals era
various Gharana became famous
due to excellence and class in type
of musics like raga. Tansen is one of
the navratna of Mughals Admiral
Akbar.
• Classical genres are dhrupad,
dhamar, khyal, tarana sadra.
Carnatic music
• 15th - 16th centuries AD and thereafter, one of the
gifts bestowed on man by the gods of Hindu
mythology. It is one of the oldest musical forms that
continue to survive today.
• Carnatic music is melodic, with improvised variations.
It consists of a composition with improvised
embellishments added to the piece in the forms
of Raga Alapana, Kalpanaswaram, Neraval, and, in the
case of more advanced students, Ragam Tanam Pallavi.
The main emphasis is on the vocals as most
compositions are written to be sung, and even when
played on instruments, they are meant to be
performed in a singing style (known as gāyaki). There
are about 7.2 million ragas (or scales) in Carnatic
Music, with only 300 or so still in common use today.
• Purandara Dasa is considered the father of carnatic
music. Sri Tyagaraja, Sri Shyama Shastry and
Sri Muthuswami Dikshitar are considered the trinity of
carnatic music and with them came the golden age in
carnatic music in the 18th-19th
• Noted artists of Carnatic Music include MS
Subbulakshmi, Ariyakudi Ramanuja Iyengar (the father
of the current concert format), Semmangudi Srinivasa
Iyer, TN Seshagopalan and more recently Sanjay
Subrahmanyan, TM Krishna, Bombay Jayashri, etc.

FOLK
Bihu of Assam
– Bihu is the festival of New
Year of Assam falling on
mid April
Bhangra
• lively form of music
and dance that originated
in the Punjab region to
celebrate Vaisakhi
Dandiya
– t is practised in (mainly)
the state of Gujrat
Popular music
– Film music
– Interaction with non-Indian
music
• Indi-pop music
– Daler Mehndi, Bombay
Rockers
• Rock & metal music
– Ravi Shankarand Zakir
Hussain

Indian Musical Instruments
• A musical instrument is a device
constructed or modifies with a
purpose of making music. In
principle, anything that produces
sound, and somehow controlled be
a musician can serve as a musical
instrument. The expression is
reserved generally to items that
have a specific musical purpose.
The academic study of musical
instrument is called Organology
• In the sphere of instrumental music,
India occupies a prominent
position. There are as many as 500
musical instruments with distinct
names and techniques of play. The
musical instruments of India have
been so devised as to fully serve the
needs of her highly developed
melodic system of music. All music
performances are accompanied by
artists on musical instruments.
• classified as
– (i) Tala Vadhya - Stringed
instruments that stretch in tension.
Egs. Veena, Violin, Tambura,
Gottuvadhyam, Sitar, Sarod.
– (ii) Sushira Vadhya -Wind
instruments. Egs. Nadhaswaram,
Flute and Shehnai.
– (iii) Avanaddha Vadhya -
Percussion instruments that have
one or two faces covered with the
hide skin.
Egs. Mridhangam, Dolak, Tabla.
– (iv) Gana Vadhya - Solid
instruments that do not require any
tuning. Cymbals, Jaltarang are
some of the Gana Vadhyas.

TALA VADHYA (Stringed Instruments)
• A String instrument (or stringed
instrument) is a musical instrument
that produces sound by means of
vibrating strings.
SITAR
 Most well known of the Indian
instruments.
 It is a long necked instrument with an
interesting construction.
 It is played in north Indian classical
music (Hindustani Sangeet), film
music and western fusion music.
 It developed during the collapse of
Mughal empire.(1700 BC)
 Prominent Players – Ravi Shankar,
Imdad Khan, Vilayat Khan, Nikhil
Banerjee.
TANPURA
 Sophisticated drone instrument of
concrete platform.
 There are 3 main styles: Miraj style,
Tanjore style and Tamburi. (small
instrumental version)
 Known for its rich sound.
 Came into use in 13th century.
SANTUR
 Instrument indigenous to Kashmir.
 Has a vibrant tone and has become
very popular in the last 20 years.
 2 types: The Indian santur is box-like
while the Persian version is much
wider.
 Origin is from Middle East.
 Prominent players: Shiva Kumar
Sharma, Bhajan Sopori, Omprakash
Chaurasiya.
VIOLIN
 Western Origin.
 Introduced by Portuguese 3 centuries
ago
 Techniques used in Indian & Western
Violins are different.
 Most refined technique is found in
Indian Music.
 Prominent Players: V.G. Jog,
Gajananrao Joshi, N. Rajam.

SUSHIRA VADHYA (Wind Instruments)
• A Wind instrument is a musical
instrument that contains some type of
resonator (usually a tube), in which a
column of air is set into vibration by the
player blowing into (or over) a
mouthpiece set at the end of the
resonator. The pitch of the vibration is
determined by the length of the tube
and by manual modifications of the
effective length of the vibrating column
of air.
FLUTE
 They are typically made of Bamboo or
Reed.
 There are 2 main types; Bansuri and Venu.
Bansuri is used in the North Indian system.
 Venu is the South Indian flute and is used
in the Carnatic system.
 Special significance in India because of its
association with Lord Krishna.
 Prominent Players: Pandit Hari Prasad
Chaurasya, Pannalal Ghosh, Raghunath
Seth.
SHEHNAI
– North Indian oboe.
– It is a quadruple-reed instrument.
– Has a wooden body with a brass bell.
– Found in temples and is an
indispensable component of any North
Indian wedding.
– Origin from Persia.
– Prominent players: Bismillah Khan.
NADHASWARAM
– South Indian version of the shehnai.
– Larger than the shehnai and has a
simple double reed .
– Considered a very auspicious
instrument and is found at temples and
at weddings.
– Smaller version of the nadaswaram
which is played in folk music is known
as mukhavina
HARMONIUM
– The harmonium is also known as peti or
baja.
– It is a European instrument which was
imported in the 19th century.
– It is a reed organ with hand pumped
bellows.

Avanada – percussion instruments
• One or two faces covered with the
hide skin. About 290 varieties of
drums. TABALA, PAKHWAJ,
MRIDANGAM, GHODAM, CHENDA,
EDAKKA, DHOLAK
TABALA
• Considered as a royal instrument.
• Consists of two drums.
• Right side is called tabla & left
bayan.
• Sakir Hussain.
– The drums are hollow from inside
and covered with leather straps.
– Black circle are called ankhs/syaki
– Straps are pulled to raise or lower
the pitch.
• PAKHWAJ
– Originated in North India.
– Played with an open left hand.
– In south musicians use the left side.
– Similar to Mridangam except for slight
differences in construction and playing
techniques.
– Only confined to classical compositions
like Dhrupad and Dhamar.
• MRIDANGAM
– Means – earthen body.
– Originated in South India.
– The most highly developed and most
ancient of all percussion instruments.
– A cylindrical hollow block of wood with
hide being used to cover the two ends.
– A wide variety of tones can be obtained
from different part of the instrument.
– Heads on both sides – keeping time and
rhythm.
– Different in the sound, quality, shape
and making procedure.

• GHATAM
– An ancient percussion
instrument.
– Often used in Carnatic music
concerts.
– This is a mud pot with an open
month.
– Played with hands, wrists and
fingers.
– The player can bring to light
various volume and tones by
using finger strokes at different
parts of the instrument neck,
center and bottom.
• CHENDA
– Is a hollow cylindrical
instrument.
– Made from softwood, the
ends of which are covered
with cowhide.
– Is the chief accompaniment in
kathakali.
– Most important instrument
which is played in temples.
• EDAKKA
– Is a sensitive percussion
instrument.
– Made of wood a quarter
metre long, the drumheads
are held in position by
interlacing cotton threads.
– The player beats the drum
with one hand while
simultaneously manipulating
the strings with the other,
thus creating a variety of
musical notes.
• DHOLAK
– Is a drum used to accompany
light forms of music and most
of folk music.
– Light forms of music like
bhajans, ghazals, quawwalis.
– In the Carnatic school of
music, the dholak
accompanies ‘Nadaswaram’
and is called ‘dhol’.

• GHANA MUSICAL
INSTRUMENTS
– Solid instruments that do not
require anything are called
ghana.
– Not as important as other
instruments.
JALTARANG
CYMBOLS – COPPER PLATES
BELLS
GONGS
• JALTARANG
– Literally means ‘waterwaves’
– It consists of 18 porcelain
cups of different sizes.
– Each one will produce
different tone.
– Arranged in a semi-circle in
front of the performer.
– Beginning from largest to
smallest.
– Bigger cups produce a deep
pitch.
– Smaller have higher pitch.
– Classical as well as light
music is played on it.
• Bells & Gongs
– Used for the support of
other instruments.
– Especially used in temples.

DANCE FORMS OF INDIA
• Physical expression of emotive content
of music
• “Gestures coupled with rhythmical
movements to expressions can be
defined as Dance”
• Expression of mind through body
movements
• In ancient culture dance was purely for
religious practices, in modern society-
entertainment
• Pleasure of dancing is in watching that
music through the visual expression
• Literary work which gives information
about dance is Natyasasthra by Bharata
• There are three principles that govern the
structure of Indian Dance
THE MODE OF PRESENTATION
– Stage way (natya)
– Way of world (loka)
TYPE OF STYLE
– Gracial (kaiseki)
– Grand (stavathi)
– Energetic (arabati)
– Verbal (bharati)
TYPES OF ACTING
– vocal (vachiak)
– gestures (angika)
– stage props (acharya)
– temperment (satvika)
TECHNIQUE OF DANCE
• According to sangeetharatnakara and
Abhinayadarpana, dancing is divided in
to3 distict categories
• NATYA – corresponds to drama
• NRITHA – pure dance – movement of
body do not express any any mood and
do not convey any meaning
• NRITHYA – or Abhinaya – gesticulation
of song
– Bharatanatyam
– Mohiniyattam
– Kathakali
– Kathak
– Odissi
– Kuchipudi
– manipuri

• BHARATANATYAM
– Dance form of Tamilnadu
– Opens with ALARIPPU –
performed in the beginning
for the obedience of God
– 2nd stage is JATISWARAM –
Performer waves several
patterns on musical base
– SABDAM –a composition of
Karnatic music
– VARNAM – complex item
and central piece
– THILLANA – conclude
– Bharatha stands for Bhava
which is mood. Raga is
music, and Tala is rhythm,
while Natyam stands for
Nritya.
• KUCHIPUDI
– Dance originated in
Kuchipudi, AP
– Traced back to dance
drama of enacted by
Brahmanas in temples
– Theme – Bhagavat Purana,
esp. life of Krishna
– Famous thing is dancing up
on brass plate and pot on
his head
– Performed both in solo and
in group

• MOHINIYATTAM
– Originated in Kerala
– Based on lasya
– Derives it’s name from
Mohini of Puranas
– It has elements of
Bharatanatyam and Kathakali
• KATHAKALI
– Dance drama of kerala
– Born in the temples of Kerala
– Performed in open air, in the
light of Nilavilakku
– Themes – epics
– Katha will recite in music by a
singer accompanied by drums
and musical instruments
– Actor never opens his lips
– movement of body, facial
expressions and mudras are
used to interpret the play
– Training of 10 to 12 years
– It will take 3 to 6 hrs for make
up and dressing
– female characters are played
by males
– Colour of facial make up
indicate the character
– Green-dignity and nobility
(heroes)
– Black –demons and
demoness
– kathi – villain characters
– Thadi – animals and animal
God
– Famous institution –
kalamandalam by Vallathol

• KATHAK
– Dance form of UP
– Derives it’s name from kathika which
means story teller
– He recites from epics with gestures
and music
– Gradually it assumed an elaborate
style involving Nritha and Nrithya
– Under Mughal rulers it was
influenced by Persian customs and
style of dancing
– Dance begins with Ganesh vandana
– Salami amad is the term through
which a dancer enters into the stage
– Then comes the soft and varied
movements
– Padhani is a special feature in which
dancer recites complicated items
– Concluding item is Jatkar which
concentrate on fast foot movements
– Male dancer usually wear sharvani
and velvet cap
– He ties nearly 200 bells around his
angles and can move all or any no.
according to his will
– Male or female dance or as couple
dance
• ODISSI
– Dance form of Orissa
– As devotion to lord Krishna
– Based on Geethagovinda
– Used to depict love and devotion
to God
– It was originally temple art ,later
performed in royal courts
– Mudras and expressions are similar
to Bharatanatyam
– Dance form based on
archaeological evidence
• MANIPURI
– Dance of Manipur
– Describe the plays of Krishna and
gopikas
– Body moves with slow and grace
arm movements and movements
of fingers

FOLK DANCES
• Folk comprises common
people
• Folk dance is common
people’s dance
• They are simple, natural and
spontaneous expression of
every day themes and feelings
• Language is very simple and
local
• FAMOUS FOLK DANCES
– Tamasha
– Kowada
– Dasavatar
– Dangytamasha
– Bhavai
– Garbha
– Bhopa-Bhopi
– Ruf
– Hikat
– Parasa
– Bhangra
– Ghidha(panjab)
– Dhamyal
– Lahoor
– Puppertry
– Yakshagana
– Ghoomar
– Nautanki
– Gair(Rajasthan)
– Velakali
– kaikottikali

DRAWING AND PAINTING
Mural paintings
– Huge works executed on
walls or solid structure.
– Early examples of murals
are found in the caves of
Ajanta and Ellora
– Fragments of mural
paintings are also found in
the contemporary
Pitalkhora Caves.
– Early evidences of the
tradition of mural paintings
in southern India are found
in the sites of Badami
Miniature paintings
– Executed on Small scale.
– On perishable materials like paper,
Clothes etc.
– Eg. Rajasthan and Mughal
miniature.
– Miniature Paintings gained
prominence in the 11th and 12th
century when people starting
developing manuscripts to store
valuable knowledge using palm
leaves.
– This art got great boost by the
Mughals who ruled over India over
that period.
– Some of the great miniature
paintings gained inspiration from
Ramayana, Mahabharata, Bhagvata
Purana.
– Miniature paintings in there in the
manuscripts of Jains, Buddhist,
Rajput, and Mughal theories and
texts.

• Prehistoric paintings
–Found in primitive
caves and rock
shelters
–Paintings are mainly
hunting scenes
–Most of them
washed off
–Less tourists are
attracted towards
them
–Not Promoted by
tourism dept.
Classical Paintings
– Ajantha paintings
– Ellora paintings
Fresco Paintings
– Method of painting water-
based pigments on freshly
applied plaster, usually on
wall surfaces.
– The colours, which are made
by grinding dry-powder
pigments in pure water, dry
and set with the plaster to
become a permanent part of
the wall.
– The Italian Renaissance was
the greatest period of fresco
painting

Ajantha Cave Paintings
• Located nearly 106 Km from
Aurangabad, Maharashtra
• The are 30 Buddhist caves in Ajantha
• Hinayan and Mahayan have their
separate caves
• No idol worship for Hinayan
• Cave 1, 2, 16 and 17 are famous for
coloured wall paintings
• Buddha is depicted through
sculptures and paintings.
• Paintings were created by Buddhist
monks during vanaprastha
• Most of the paintings show stories
related to Buddha called jataka tales
• Human figures with different hair
style, dress style, ornament style and
facial expressions have reflected the
social life of the day
Ellora Paintings
• Belongs to three different religious
style - Buddhist, Hindu and Jain
• Budhist caves(1-12) belongs only
Mahayana sect
• Total 34 caves
• Cave 2,29,& 10 are attractive
Buddhist caves
• Paintings cover the ceilings of walls of
mandapas
• Have lovely floral designs , animals,
and birds
• 13-29 are Hindu caves
• 30-34 are Jain caves
• Entire surface of ceiling and wall
covered with paintings
• Paintings are found in 5 caves
• Some what preserved in Kailasnath
temple

Medieval Paintings
– Rajputh paintings
– Mughal paintings
– Tanjore paintings
– Madhubani paintings
– Pithora paintings
– Kalamkari paintings
• Rajputh paintings
– These are Rajasthani miniatures
– Deal with prevailing literary works
– Messages through paintings were
always spiritual or religious
– Colours used symbolically
– Mainly deal with Radha and Krishna
– Major paintings include , Ragmala
paintings, Geethagovinda, Banithani
– Rajasthan has been the leading
state with regards to Miniature
painting and even today different
miniature art schools do exist in the
regions of Jodhpur, Jaipur, Kangra
and Mewar.
– The Jodhpur School of Miniature
paintings depict love scenes of
lovers Dholu and Maru on camel
back.
– There are hunting scenes with
elephants and horses also available.
– The major colors used in this style of
painting are gold and stone color.

Mughal paintings
– Combination of Persian and Indian art
– Small in size, so miniature
– Neither represented Indian emotions nor scenes from
Indian life
– Appreciated nature and portrayed with great accuracy
and feeling
– Beautiful colour combinations of red blue or gold
– Immense use of gold , silver and precious stones
– Introduced margin decoration
– Halos were also introduced to show high personality
and spirituality
• Technique:
– A high degree of expertise is required as it involves the
use of a very fine brush.
– The colours used are mainly derived from minerals,
vegetables, precious stones, conch shells, gold and
silver
– Paper painting in Miniature art are done on old or new
hand made paper of very fine quality that depict
Animals, Birds, Butterfly, Mughal themes and more.
– Miniature paintings made of pure marble slabs that
feature Mythology, Birds, Turbans, Women and Mughal
themes can be used as table tops or wall frames as
well.
– Miniature Painting are pain staking efforts of skill and
talent exhibited by Indian artisans.
• Tanjore paintings
– Tanjore painting is an important form of
classical South Indian painting native to
the town of Tanjore in Tamil Nadu.
– The art form dates back to the early 9 th
century, a period dominated by the
Chola rulers, who encouraged art and
literature.
– Done on wooden material
– Colours from locally available natural
materials
– Also drawn on glass by using different
technique
– These paintings are known for their
elegance, rich colours, and attention to
detail.
– The themes for most of these paintings
are Hindu Gods and Goddesses and
scenes from Hindu mythology.
– In modern times, these paintings have
become a much sought after souvenir
during festive occasions in South India.
– The first stage involves the making of the
preliminary sketch of the image on the base.
– The base consists of a cloth pasted over a
wooden base.
– Then chalk powder or zinc oxide is mixed with
water-soluble adhesive and applied on the
base.
– After the drawing is made, decoration of the
jewellery and the apparels in the image is
done with semi-precious stones.
– Laces or threads are also used to decorate the
jewellery.
– On top of this, the gold foils are pasted.
– Finally, dyes are used to add colours to the
figures in the paintings.

• Madhubani paintings
– Traditional style developed around
Madhubani, Bihar
– Done by women
– Done on freshly plastered mud wall
– For commercial purpose doing on paper
clothes etc.
– Religious nature, on special rooms,
– Offers special prayer before the work
– Various figures include Krishna, Rama ,
Lakshmi, sun, moon, wedding scenes etc.
– Brush – cotton wrapped around bamboo
stick
– Home made colours
– Yellow from turmeric, black from cow dung
and soot, green from leaves , white from
rice powder
• Pithoro paintings
– Paintings of Gujrath
– Not a decorative wall piece, way of
appealing to God
– Walls of houses are painted by
professional artists
– Young unmarried girls will plaster the wall
with clay and cow dung
– Actual painting is done on Wednesday
– Tuesday , walls will be whitewashed
• Kalamkari paintings
– Done mainly on clothes
– Using wooden blocks and natural dyes
– Painting method of Rajashan
• Modern paintings
– Bengal School of Art -Raja Ravi Varma
– Calcutta School of Art - Abanindranath
Tagore
– During the colonial era, Western
influences started to make an impact on
Indian art.
– Schools of art in India provided access to
modern techniques and ideas
– The Progressive Artist's Group
– The founders were six eminent artists –
– K. H. Ara
– S. K. Bakre
– H. A. Gade
– M.F. Husain
– S.H. Raza
– F. N. Souza,
– Some of those who are well-known today
are Bal Chabda, V. S. Gaitonde, Krishen
Khanna, Ram Kumar, Tyeb Mehta, and
Akbar Padamsee.
– Other famous painters like Jahar
Dasgupta, Prokash Karmakar, and Bijon
Choudhuri enriched the art culture of
india.
– They have become the icon of modern
Indian art.

HINDU PILGRIMAGE
• Allahabad
• Amarnath
• Ayodhya
• Badrinath
• Bhuwaneshwar
• Dwarka,
Gangotri
• Haridwar
• Kanchipuram
• Kanyakumari
• Kedarnath
• Konarak
Jainism Pilgrimage
Palitana
Ranakpur
Sravanabelagola
Udaygiri & Kandhagiri
Caves
Christian Pilgrimage
Goa
Velankanni
Muslim Pilgrimage
Ajmer Sharif
Fatehpur Sikri
Haji Ali
Jama Masjid

SIKH PILGRIMAGE
Anandpur Sahib
Damdama Sahib
Fatehgarh Sahib
Golden Temple
Delhi Gurudwaras
Hemkund Sahib
Manikaran
Patna Sahib
Poanta Sahib
Takht Sri Hazoor Sahib
Buddhist Pilgrimage
Ajanta & Ellora
Bodhgaya
Kaushambi
Kushinagar
Lumbini
Nalanda
Rajgir
Sarnath
Shravasti
Vaishali

ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE
• INDUS VALLEY
• ANCIENT INDIAN
• MIDEVAL INDIAN
• COLONIAL
• INDUS VALLEY
– Each city had a well fortified
citadel
– Well planned streets
– Used backed bricks for building
construction
– Houses are often double
storied
– No windows on the street side
– Unique sewage system
– The Great Bath
– Granary

• Ancient Indian
• Stupas
• Rock-cut Architecture
– Chaithyas
– Viharas
– Cave Temples
• Temple Architecture
• Stupas
– Preserving the remains of important
personality under a heap of
accumulated earth
– Buddhist Source- Buddha's relics were
divided into different parts and placed
under the Stupas
– Sacred place of Buddhism
• Structure of Stupas
– Shape of bowl turned upside down
– Flat structure called ‘Hermika’ (abode of God) at the top
– A wooden rode placed in the middle above ‘Hermika’
– Small umbrella-like disk above the rode symbolizing
respect, veneration, and magnanimity.
• Main Stupas in India
– Gaya
– Sanchi
– Nagargunakonda
– Saranath

• Rock-cut architecture
Chaityas
– Cell of worship with Stupa placed in the
center
– Have a long rectangular hall ending in a
semi-circle at the back-end
– The long hall is internally divided into
three sections
1. Nave: long central path where the
seats are arranged
2. Apse: semi-circle area of the cell
3. Aisle: passage between rows of
seats
– Aisles are separated from the Nave by
two rows of pillars
– The hall has a carved sealing
– The door-way is usually placed facing
the Stupa
– Horse-shoe shaped window called
‘Chaitya window’
Viharas
– Residents of monks
– Square hall in the centre
– A pillared Verandah in
the front
– Have a number of small
square cells
– Raised benches in each
cell
Cave Temples
– Rock-cut Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain
temples
– Examples:
• Kailasnath temple of Ellora
• Mahabalipuram temple
• Elephanta cave

• Temple architecture
Patterns of Temples
– Sanctum sanctoreum
(Garbha Griha)
– Shikhara- prominent roof
– Pathway
– Pradakshin padh
– Mandapa
Types of temple architecture
– Nagara style (North Indian)
– Dravida style (South Indian)
– Versara (Combined)
• Nagara Style
– Curvilinear tower
– Shrine is square in the center
– Projections leading to cruciform shape
• One projection- Triratha
• Two projections- Pancharatha
• Three projections- Saptharatha
• Four projections- Navaratha
– Nagara style consists of two buildings
1. Building with main Shrine
2. Mandapa
– Differ in the shape of Sikhara
– Bell-shaped structure to a height
– ‘Kalasa’ at the top
– Eg: Temples of Orissa, Rajasthan, and Gujarat
• Dravida style
– Vimana: tall pyramidal tower consists of
small storeys
– Gopuram: two storeys separated by
horizontal moulding
– Prakara: outer wall envelops the main the
Shrine

• PALLAVA STYLE (AD600-900)
– Shore temple of Mahabalipiram,
Vaikunta Temple of
Kancheepuram
• CHOLA STYLE(AD 900-1150)
– Brihadewara Temple, Tanjore
• PANDYA STYLE(AD 1100-1350)
– Chitambaram, Kumbhakonam,
Tiruvannamalai
• VIJAYANAGARASTYLE(AD 1350-
1565)
– Auradaiyar koil, Vellur Vittala
temple, Hampi
• NAYAKA STYLE (1600 onwards)
– Rameshvaram, Chidambaram,
Madurai
• Versara style
– Combined style of Nagara and
Dravida
– Chalukyan Temple(500-750 AD)
– Eg. Pattadakal, Aihole

• Agra Fort - former royal residence of
the Moghul, Agra
• Amba Vilas Palace-Mysore
• Bangalore Palace - Bengaluru
• Chowmahalla Palace
• City Palace, Jaipur - Seat of the Maharaja of
Jaipur
• City Palace, Udaipur - Seat of the Maharana of
Udaipur
• Delhi Fort - former seat of the Moghul, Delhi
• Falaknuma Palace - royal residence, Hyderabad
• Fatehpur Sikri - former royal residence of
Emperor Akbar
• Hawa Mahal (Palace of Winds) - former royal
residence, Jaipur
• Hill Palace, Tripunithura, Cochin - former Royal
Residence of Maharaja of Cochin, now one of
the largest archaeological museum in India
• Jag Mandir - former residence of Shah Jahan,
Udaipur
• Jag Niwas (Lake Palace) - former royal
residence, Udaipur
• Jaisalmer Fort - Seat of the Maharaja of
Jaisalmer
• Kangra Fort - Seat of the Maharaja of Kangra-
Lambagraon
• King Kothi Palace - Palace of VII Nizam, Osman
Ali Khan
• Kowdiar Palace- Residence of
the Travancore Royal Family
• Lalgarh Palace - former royal residence, today
hotel, Bikaner
• Laxmi Vilas Palace - Seat of the Maharajah of
Baroda
• Laxmipuram Palace
• Marble Palace (Kolkata)
• Mattancherry Palace (Dutch Palace), Cochin -
former Royal Residence of Maharaja of Cochin,
archeological museum at present.
• Nedumpuram Palace
• New Palace - Seat of Maharaja of Kolhapur
• Padmanabhapuram Palace - Seat of
the Maharaja of Travancore
• Purani Haveli - Seat of the Nizam of Hyderabad
• Rajbari - Seat of the Maharaja of Cooch Behar
• Rambagh Palace - former residence of the
Maharaja of Jaipur (today hotel)
• Rashtrapati Bhavan - Seat of the President,
former viceregal residence, Delhi
• Red Fort
• Samode Palace - former royal residence, today
hotel, Jaipur
• Shaniwar Wada, Pune
• Thanjavur Nayak - Thanjavur (Tanjore) Nayak
Palace, Thanjavur
• Umaid Bhawan Palace - Seat of the Maharaja of
Jodhpur

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