Learning occurs through four main types: habituation, classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning. Habituation involves learning to ignore repeated stimuli while classical conditioning pairs a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned one. Operant conditioning links behaviors to their consequences to increase or decrease actions. Social learning observes and imitates others' behaviors. Learning impacts daily life and social interactions through these different processes.
1. How Do We Learn?
The Big Picture: Lifetimes of
Experience
2. Learning to Live
• Nature: genes
• Nurture: environment
• Learning: acquisition of skills needed to survive
3. The Story of Peter
• Isolated during first three years in Russian
orphanage
• Very little human contact
• Adopted in nurturing home
• Language delays and oddities
• Social difficulties
• With help Peter was able to overcome these
difficulties
4. Defining Learning
• We learn from all of life’s events – not just
psychology class!
• Definition – relatively permanent change in
behavior or the potential for behavior that results
from experience
– May or may not be permanent change
(relatively)
– Not restricted to humans
– Learning is related to experience
5. Orienting and Habituation: Learning to Ignore
• Orientating reflex – orient sense organs in
direction of unexpected stimuli
– Try it with your pet!
• Habituation – when a stimulus is repeated over
and over again the orienting reflex diminishes or
stops
• Most likely related to natural selection
6. Habituation as an Adaptive Asset
• What if we could not habituate?
– Constantly attend to stimuli
– Disrupt functioning
• Advantages of habituation
– Attend to potentially threatening stimuli
– Tune out non-threatening stimuli
7. Dishabituation
• Definition – more intense response to stimulus
to which previously habituated
• Caused by change in quality of stimulus or
passage of time
8. Practical Application of Habituation
• Training for people suffering from chronic motion
sickness or vertigo
– Habituate to visual and vestibular signals that
create sickness
9. Classical Conditioning: Learning Through the
Association of Stimuli
• Pavlov and his dogs – learning to associate
certain cue or stimuli (footsteps, buzzer) with
presentation of food
• Conditioned to respond to footsteps or buzzer by
salivating
10.
11. The Elements of Classical Conditioning
• Unconditioned stimulus (US) and response
(UCR)
– Naturally occurring stimulus (US), response is
naturally evoked (UR)
• Neutral stimulus (NS)
– NS does not typically evoke response
12. The Elements of Classical Conditioning
(continued)
• Pairing neutral and unconditioned stimuli
– NS and US presented together; NS becomes
conditioned stimulus (CS) to produce
conditioned response (CR)
13.
14.
15. Summing it Up
• Classical conditioning – learning that occurs
when a neutral stimulus is paired with an
unconditioned stimulus that reliably causes an
unconditioned response, and because of this
association, the neutral stimulus looses its
neutrality and takes on the same power as the
unconditioned stimulus to cause the response
16.
17. Factors Affecting Classical Conditioning
• Relationship in time: contiguity
– NS/CS and US must occur close together in
time
– NS/CS should precede the US
• Consistency and reliability: contingency
– NC/CS should reliably predict the onset of the
US
18. Real-World Classical Conditioning: What
Responses Can Be Classically Conditioned in
Humans?
• Emotional responses
• Physiological responses
19. Classical Conditioning of Emotional
Responses
• Little Albert– white rat, noise
• Stimulus generalization – stimuli similar to
CS, same power to elicit CR (rats to dogs,
rabbits
• Counterconditioning – conditioned to have
positive (systematic desensitization)
• Stimulus discrimination – CR occurs in
response to only specific stimuli
• Advertisers use classical conditioning
20.
21.
22. Classical Conditioning of Physiological Responses:
The Special Case of Taste Aversion
• Taste aversion – sight, smell, idea of food make
person sick; classically conditioned through
experience
• Single pairing sufficient, interval between
pairings can be long
• Real life applications
– Coyotes and sheep
– Try it yourself – pizza aversion?!
– Aversion therapy and alcoholism
23. Extinction of Classically Conditioned
Responses
• Extinction – presenting CS without presenting
the US
• Habituation may play a role
• Pavlov’s extinction trials
– Acquisition (learning curve) for CR and
extinction curve
• Spontaneous recovery – CR occurs during
extinction
24.
25.
26.
27. Instrumental and Operant Conditioning:
Learning from the Consequences of Our
Actions
• Instrumental conditioning – learning from
consequences of behavior (e.g. positive
comments from others)
• Powerful means of learning
28. E.L. Thorndike’s Law of Effect
• E.L. Thorndike (1874 – 1949)
• Worked with cat in puzzle boxes
29. Unlocking the Puzzle of Learning
• Cats learned to associate behavior (tripping
mechanism) with consequence of behavior
(getting out of box)
• Law of effect – behaviors that lead to positive,
satisfying consequences will be strengthened.
Behaviors that lead to negative, discomforting
consequences will be weakened and less likely
to be emitted
30.
31.
32. Random Actions and Reinforcement
• Particular response, perhaps starting out as
random response, is strengthened or reinforced
because was instrumental in evoking reward
• Rewarded behavior is likely to happen again
• Behaviors not rewarded are likely to stop
33. Positive and Negative Reinforcement
• Positive reinforcement
– Behavior leads to something pleasant
• Negative reinforcement
– Behavior is rewarded by the removal of
something unpleasant
• Punishment is not the same as negative
reinforcement
– “Negative” means removing something
– Remember that reinforcement increases
behavior
34. Positive and Negative Punishment
(continued)
• Positive punishment
– Addition of something unpleasant that
decreases behavior
• Negative punishment
– Removal of something pleasant that
decreases behavior
35.
36. A Japanese View of Reinforcement
• Japanese culture – collectivistic society
• U.S. – individualistic society
• Theory of Japanese research Yutaka Haruki
• Opinions and actions play role in reinforcement
37. A Japanese View of Reinforcement
(continued)
• Four types of human reinforcement
– External reinforcement (oshitsuke)
– Self-reinforcement (makase)
– Internal reinforcement (uketome)
– Alien reinforcement (mitome)
38. More Thoughts
• What we find rewarding and punishing may differ
• However, still predicts how behavior changes
through conditioning
39. Why Is Instrumental Conditioning Useful?
• Natural selection
– Behaviors that are adaptive are kept, those that are
not are weeded out
• Back to Peter
40. How Classical and Instrumental Conditioning
Differ
• Classical conditioning, passive role
• Instrumental conditioning, more active role
• Classical conditioning, one clear response is
required; instrumental, many responses possible
• Classical conditioning emotions and
physiological responses are conditioned;
instrumental behaviors more complex
41. B.F. Skinner and Operant Responses
• Introduced term operant to instrumental
conditioning
• Respondent behavior – classically conditioned
behavior
• Operant behavior – behavior that operates on an
organism’s environment to produce
consequence
• Developed method of studying animal behavior
– Skinner box
42.
43. Acquisition and Extinction
• Acquisition – conditioning of response
– Behavior increases because it is reinforced
• Extinction – loss of a conditioned response
– Occurs because behavior is no longer
reinforced
– Extinction burst- temporary increase in
behavior in the absence of reinforcer
44.
45. Schedules of Reinforcement
• Timing and consistency of the reinforcement
affects rate at which behavior is acquired or
extinguished
• Continuous schedule
• Ratio schedules
• Interval schedules
46. Continuous Schedules of Reinforcement
• Behavior rewarded each time exhibited
• Drawbacks
– Not always feasible
– More vulnerable to extinction
• Partial reinforcement schedules
– Schedules of reinforcement where behavior
reinforced only some of the time
47.
48. Ratio Schedules of Reinforcement
• Fixed ratio schedule
– Set number of responses emitted before
reward given
– Slower extinction, high rates of responding
49. Ratio Schedules of Reinforcement
(continued)
• Variable ratio schedule
– Exact number of responses needed to receive
reward; vary around an average
– Even slower rates of extinction, high rates of
responding
– Example – slot machines
50. Interval Schedule of Reinforcement
• Fixed interval schedule
– Behavior rewarded once per some interval of
time has passed
– Most of responding occurs right around time
reward is due with pauses after reward
51. Interval Schedule of Reinforcement
(continued)
• Variable interval schedule
– Similar to variable ratio, but interval varies
– Produces steady rates of responding
– Resistant to extinction
52. Summary
• Continuous reinforcement high rates of
responding, quickest extinction
• Ratio schedule higher rates of responding
• Variable schedule most resistant to extinction
53. Generalization and Discrimination
• Discrimination
– Learns to distinguish among stimulus
situations displays a particular response only
in situations where reinforcement is expected;
discriminate
• Generalization
– Emits same behavior in response to different,
but similar stimuli
• Negative aspects: prejudice, discrimination
54. Shaping New Behaviors
• First step – behavior must be emitted
• Shaping allows a new behavior to be
conditioned by successive approximations
• Real life examples
– Animal training
– Modifying children’s behavior
55. Decisions That Must Be Made When Using
Operant Conditioning
• Punishment or reinforcement
• Choosing a reinforcer that is reinforcing
• Primary and secondary reinforcers
56. Punishment or Reinforcement
• Most effective: show what behavior is desired
and reinforce when behavior is demonstrated
57. The High Risks of Punishment
• Bottom line – doesn’t teach correct/desired
behavior
• Harsh punishment teaches aggression
• Harsh punishment ineffective at producing
behavior changes
• Harsh punishment leads to negative emotional
reactions (learned helplessness)
• Physical punishment should be avoided!
58.
59. Making Punishment More Effective
• Tell child about appropriate behavior, then
reinforce it
• Minimize situations in which bad behavior exists
• Use punisher that’s punishing
• Punishment must occur right after behavior
• Punishment must occur every time behavior
occurs
• Remain calm when punishing
60. Choosing a Reinforcer That Is Reinforcing
• Must choose reinforcer that is actually
reinforcing to that person
• Varies from person to person
61. Primary and Secondary Reinforcers
• Primary – reinforcer that is directly reinforcing;
food
• Secondary – rewarding because they lead to
primary reinforcers; money
• Token economies use secondary reinforcers
(token)
• Advantages
– Effective in modifying behaviors in groups
– Allows for immediate reinforcement
62.
63. The Role of Cognition in Learning
• Strict behaviorist do not study cognitive aspects
of behavior
• Kohler and the chimps demonstrated insight
learning
• Tolman and rats demonstrated latent learning –
can’t be directly observed as it’s happening
– Developed a cognitive map or mental
representation to learn
64. Social Learning or Modeling
• Learn by observing other and imitating or
modeling behaviors
• AKA observational learning or modeling
65. Albert Bandura and the Bobo Doll Experiments
• Social learning theory
• Bobo dolls
– Watched three conditions: children rewarded,
punished or no consequences for beating doll
– Children who saw rewards or no
consequences more likely to be aggressive
66. Albert Bandura and the Bobo Doll Experiments
(continued)
– Implications
• Don’t have to engage in behavior for
learning to occur
• Learning can be latent
• Television aggression?
67.
68. Social Learning Theory and Cognition
• Four steps to modeling
– Attention – must attend to behavior of model
– Retention – must retain cognitive
representation or memory of model’s behavior
– Reproduction of behavior – use memories to
reproduce behavior
– Motivation – must be motivated to execute
behavior
69. Are You Getting the Big Picture?
• Four different types of learning: habituation,
classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and
social learning
• Use learning to control behavior of others
• Learning impacts everyday life
• Learning affects quality of social interactions
Notes de l'éditeur
Goal 4 – Application of Psychology. Students are introduced to the identification and treatment of abnormal behavior through the case of Peter.
Goal 1 – Knowledge Base of Psychology. One of the four general domains (learning) of psychology is discussed in this section. « Discussion Tip Ask students to discuss this question: What is the most important thing you have ever learned outside of a classroom?
Goal 1 – Knowledge Base of Psychology. One of the four general domains (learning) of psychology is discussed in this section. « Discussion Tip Ask your students to give examples of how they have habituated in the past. Good potential examples are people who live near railroad tracks, people who work in daycare centers, and people who work in noisy factories— all of whom tend to habituate to these noises. « Teaching Tip When unexpected noises occur during class (e.g., students coming in late, people dropping books, etc.), stop lecture and have students describe how they oriented towards these stimuli.
Goal 1 – Knowledge Base of Psychology. One of the four general domains (learning) of psychology is discussed in this section.
Goal 1 – Knowledge Base of Psychology. One of the four general domains (learning) of psychology is discussed in this section.
Goal 4 – Application of Psychology. The knowledge base of the field of psychology is used to treat a variety of problems in the real world, in this case vertigo. Goal 9 – Personal Development. Students can use this information to help themselves or others by applying the principle of psychology. « Teaching Tip Warn students, once again, not to confuse habituation with the formation of a habit.
Goal 1 – Knowledge Base of Psychology. One of the four general domains (learning) of psychology is discussed in this section.
Goal 1 – Knowledge Base of Psychology. One of the four general domains (learning) of psychology is discussed in this section.
Goal 1 – Knowledge Base of Psychology. One of the four general domains (learning) of psychology is discussed in this section. « Discussion Tip Ask students to come up with their own examples of classical conditioning. Then have them write their examples on the board, labeling the different components. Have the class analyze the examples for accuracy.
Figure 5.2 Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Paradigm Before conditioning, the neutral stimulus has no power to cause the response. After repeated pairings of the neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus, which naturally elicits an unconditioned response, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus with the power to elicit the response—now called the conditioned response.
Figure 5.3 Possible Placements of the CS and the US in Classical Conditioning The positioning of the CS and US are shown for 5 different versions of classical conditioning: forward delayed, forward trace, forward trace with longer delay, simultaneous, and backward conditioning.
Goal 1 – Knowledge Base of Psychology. One of the four general domains (learning) of psychology is discussed in this section. « Discussion Tip Ask your students who have pets whether they have ever seen evidence of classical conditioning in their pets. « Teaching Tip Go through Table 5.1 during class to be sure your students understand that there are only so many US-UR pairs in existence. Then give students some examples of behaviors for which there is no US (e.g., riding a bicycle), and explain that these behaviors cannot be classically conditioned—they must be learned through other means. « Discussion Tip Have students discuss ads they’ve seen that seem to use classical conditioning. Have them attempt to explain how classical conditioning occurred and identify the US,UR, NS/CS, & CR.
Table 5.1 Some Examples of US-UR Pairs
Goal 1 – Knowledge Base of Psychology. One of the four general domains (learning) of psychology is discussed in this section. « Technology Tip http://evolution.massey.ac.nz/assign2/JMonter/Pavlov.html A Website devoted to classical conditioning and Ivan Pavlov.
Goal 4 – Application of Psychology. Students learn more about how abnormal behaviors are better understood in this section. « Technology Tip http://cla.calpoly.edu/~cslem/101/8-C.html A Web site with examples of classical conditioning in real life.
Goal 1 – Knowledge Base of Psychology. One of the four general domains (learning) of psychology is discussed in this section. Goal 2 – Research Methods in Psychology. The “research” using Little Albert as the subject is introduced in this section. Goal 4 – Application of Psychology. Students are introduced to how psychology principles are used to understand human behavior in everyday life, in this case advertisements. « Technology Tip http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_B._Watson A free encyclopedia Web site, with an article on J. B. Watson. « Technology Tip http://faculty.concord.edu/rockc/articles/albert.html Whatever Happened to Little Albert? A site containing a paper by author Ben Harris that discusses the Little Albert experiments and the fate of little Albert. « Discussion Tip Have students recall what they learned about ethics in Chapter 1. Then ask them what Watson would have had to do to make the Little Albert experiments ethical.
Figure 5.4 The Little Albert Experiment Watson and his assistant, Rosalie Rayner, classically conditioned Albert to fear a white lab rat.
Figure 5.5 Mary Cover Jones’s Counterconditioning Procedure for Removing Conditioned Phobias
Goal 4 – Application of Psychology. The real life application of psychological principles to change human (and animal) behavior is discussed in this section. « Technology Tip http://www.ctalearning.com/ A database maintained by researchers at American University that has a searchable database of articles on taste aversion. « Teaching Tip Have a contest in class to see which student has the longest running taste aversion. Have the winner tell his or her story. Then refer back to this story as you discuss taste aversion. « Teaching Tip If students wish to share stories of family and friends who have undergone treatment for alcoholism, caution them to do so in such a way as to protect the person’s identity. « Discussion Tip Ask students if they have ever overcome a conditioned taste aversion. If so, ask them how they did it.
« Teaching Tip If you wish, explain the process of systematic desensitization at this point in your course—it will help students see the big picture of psychology. « Discussion Tip Have your students discuss (without giving names or identifying details) people they’ve known who have had unusual phobias, and how these phobias may have originated.
The Big Picture Review 5.1 AbbreviationTermDefinition US Unconditioned Stimulus A stimulus that naturally and reliably evokes a response in the person or animal. UR Unconditioned Response The response that is naturally and reliably elicited by the unconditioned stimulus. NS Neutral Stimulus A stimulus that does not initially elicit the unconditioned response in the person or animal. CS Conditioned Stimulus A stimulus that was once neutral, but through association with the unconditioned stimulus, now has the power to elicit the response in the animal or person. CR Conditioned Response After conditioning has occurred, the response that is elicited in the person or animal by the conditioned stimulus.
Table 5.2 Tips for Identifying and Analyzing Classical Conditioning Situations
Goal 1 – Knowledge Base of Psychology. One of the four general domains (learning) of psychology is discussed in this section.
Goal 1 – Knowledge Base of Psychology. One of the four general domains (learning) of psychology is discussed in this section. « Discussion Tip Ask your students who own cats to predict how a cat would react when first placed in a puzzle box.
Goal 1 – Knowledge Base of Psychology. One of the four general domains (learning) of psychology is discussed in this section. Goal 2 – Research Methods in Psychology. Skinner’s research with cats in puzzle boxes in described in this section of the text.
Goal 1 – Knowledge Base of Psychology. One of the four general domains (learning) of psychology is discussed in this section. « Technology Tip http://www.biozentrum.uni-wuerzburg.de/genetics/behavior/learning/behaviorism.html A Web site containing a historical overview of operant conditioning and behaviorism.
Goal 1 – Knowledge Base of Psychology. One of the four general domains (learning) of psychology is discussed in this section.
Goal 1 – Knowledge Base of Psychology. One of the four general domains (learning) of psychology is discussed in this section. « Teaching Tip Caution students not to make the very common mistake of confusing negative reinforcement with punishment. To reinforce this, have them generate original examples of the four consequences that can follow a behavioral response.
Concept Review Table 5.2 The Four Types of Consequences of Behavior Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior and punishment decreases it.
Goal 8 – Sociocultural and International Awareness. Students are encouraged to think about how sociocultural and international contexts influence individual differences.
Goal 8 – Sociocultural and International Awareness. Students are encouraged to think about how sociocultural and international contexts influence individual differences. « Teaching Tip If you have Asian students in class, ask them to share with the class what evidence of the Japanese view of reinforcement they have seen in their culture. If you have students from other collective cultures, ask them if the Japanese forms of reinforcement seem to apply in their cultures as well.
Goal 3 – Critical Thinking Skills in Psychology. Students are challenged to think about why certain human behaviors exist. « Discussion Tip Ask students to come up with examples of how they have been conditioned through instrumental conditioning in the past. Then have them explain how these examples fit with the Law of Effect.
Goal 1 – Knowledge Base of Psychology. One of the four general domains (learning) of psychology is discussed in this section.
Goal 1 – Knowledge Base of Psychology. One of the four general domains (learning) of psychology is discussed in this section. Goal 2 – Research Methods in Psychology. The animal research using the Skinner box is described in this section. « Technology Tip http://www.bfskinner.org/index.asp The homepage of the B. F. Skinner Foundation, an organization devoted to educating the world about the work of B. F. Skinner. « Teaching Tip Bring a Leap Pad, See ‘n Say, toddler activity table, or other children’s toy that is designed for solitary play to class. Demonstrate the toy, and explain that these toys are really extensions of the Skinner box idea because they automatically reinforce the child for learning.
Figure 5.9 Skinner Box In these operant chambers the animals can be reinforced with food for pressing the bar or pecking the disk. Skinner boxes like these allow researchers to efficiently gather data on operant conditioning.
Goal 1 – Knowledge Base of Psychology. One of the four general domains (learning) of psychology is discussed in this section.
Figure 5.10 Acquisition and Extinction in Operant Conditioning Just as we saw in classical conditioning, operant responses can also undergo acquisition, extinction, and reacquisition.
Goal 1 – Knowledge Base of Psychology. One of the four general domains (learning) of psychology is discussed in this section.
Goal 1 – Knowledge Base of Psychology. One of the four general domains (learning) of psychology is discussed in this section. « Discussion Tip Ask students whether they can even think of a situation in which continuous reinforcement is used in the real world. They will most likely have trouble doing this. If they can identify examples, ask them to think about what would happen if the reinforcement suddenly stopped in these examples. Would extinction be fast or slow?
Figure 5.11 Partial Reinforcement of a Rat in a Skinner Box This graph plots the rates of response for the different schedules of reinforcement and the points at which the rat is reinforced. Notice how the rat’s bar pressing behavior changes before and after it receives a pellet on the different schedules of reinforcement. Which schedule would you use if you were going to use positive reinforcement to train your dog?
Goal 1 – Knowledge Base of Psychology. One of the four general domains (learning) of psychology is discussed in this section.
Goal 1 – Knowledge Base of Psychology. One of the four general domains (learning) of psychology is discussed in this section. Goal 4 – Application of Psychology. The understanding of fascination with gambling and/or slot machines is discussed in this section of the text. « Teaching Tip If you have appropriate access, bring a rat in a Skinner box to class and condition the rat to bar press on a continuous schedule. Then place the rat on an extinction schedule and record how long it takes the rat to stop pressing the bar. If you wish, repeat this demonstration with another rat using a VR schedule to show the difference in extinction rates.
Goal 1 – Knowledge Base of Psychology. One of the four general domains (learning) of psychology is discussed in this section.
Goal 1 – Knowledge Base of Psychology. One of the four general domains (learning) of psychology is discussed in this section. « Technology Tip http://www.wagntrain.com/OC/ A site that explains the use of conditioning in animal training.
Goal 1 – Knowledge Base of Psychology. One of the four general domains (learning) of psychology is discussed in this section. Goal 4 – Application of Psychology. Psychological principles are applied to the understanding of behaviors such as prejudice and discrimination.
Goal 1 – Knowledge Base of Psychology. One of the four general domains (learning) of psychology is discussed in this section. Goal 4 – Application of Psychology. Using psychological principles to train animals and children is discussed in this section of the text. « Discussion Tip Have students discuss the practical applications of shaping in the real world. « Technology Tip http://www.seaworld.org/infobooks/Training/home.html A Web site that discusses the use of behavior training on animals.
Goal 1 – Knowledge Base of Psychology. One of the four general domains (learning) of psychology is discussed in this section.
Goal 1 – Knowledge Base of Psychology. One of the four general domains (learning) of psychology is discussed in this section.
Goal 3 – Critical Thinking Skills in Psychology. Students are encouraged to think beyond their own beliefs and experiences to better understand the research findings regarding the use of punishment in changing behaviors. Goal 5 – Values in Psychology. Students are encouraged to understand the limitations of their own knowledge and skills in psychology. « Teaching Tip When discussing parental use of punishment, be careful to reassure students that you are not making personal judgments about their parents. Otherwise students may become defensive.
Figure 5.13 Classical Conditioning of Fear During a Spanking Even though a parent may only intend to use operant conditioning when spanking a child, it is also possible that the child may also experience classical conditioning. Because a parent is the one delivering the punishment, a parent can become a conditioned stimulus that elicits fear in the child.
Goal 3 – Critical Thinking Skills in Psychology. Students are encouraged to think beyond their own beliefs and experiences to better understand the research findings regarding the use of punishment in changing behaviors. Goal 4 – Application of Psychology. The use of psychological principles and research findings in changing behavior is introduced in this section. Goal 5 – Values in Psychology. Students are encouraged to understand the limitations of their own knowledge and skills in psychology.
« Teaching Tip Have students create their own personal reinforcement hierarchy as a written assignment. Then encourage them to use these reinforcers in a self-reinforcement program designed to change a behavior in themselves that they find problematic.
Goal 1 – Knowledge Base of Psychology. One of the four general domains of psychology (learning) is further discussed in this section. Goal 4 – Application of Psychology. The use of behavioral principles is described through the examples of token economies. « Discussion Tip Ask students whether they have ever participated in a token economy. If so, discuss. If not, ask them to come up with an original, practical application of a token economy.
Figure 5.14 A Sample Point System From a Token Economy
Goal 1 – Knowledge Base in Psychology. One of the four general domains of psychology (learning) is further discussed through the examples of latent and insight learning. « Technology Tip http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Tolman/Maps/maps.htm A Web site with Tolman’s 1948 article on cognitive maps.
Goal 1 – Knowledge Base of Psychology. One of the four general domains of psychology (learning) is further discussed through the introduction of social learning.
Goal 1 – Knowledge Base of Psychology. One of the four general domains of psychology (learning) is further discussed through the introduction of social learning. Goal 2 – Research Methods of Psychology. The classic research of Albert Bandura is explored in this section.
Goal 1 – Knowledge Base of Psychology. One of the four general domains of psychology (learning) is further discussed through the introduction of social learning. Goal 4 – Application of Psychology. Television aggression is discussed as it relates to the principles of observational learning. Goal 2 – Research Methods of Psychology. The classic research of Albert Bandura is explored in this section. « Technology Tip http://www.emory.edu/EDUCATION/mfp/bandurabio.html A Web site containing a biographical sketch of Albert Bandura. « Teaching Tip Bring videos of current children’s cartoons to class, and have students count the number of instances of violence and aggression. Then discuss in terms of modeling. In another version of this, record the commercials that are played during children’s shows. Have the class analyze these ads for models of aggression, gender roles, and stereotypes. Sometimes the commercials are much less politically correct than the shows themselves!
Figure 5.15 Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiments These photos, taken from the Bobo doll experiments, clearly show the children (panel B) modeling what they saw the model (panel A) doing to Bobo.
Goal 1 – Knowledge Base of Psychology. One of the four general domains (learning) of psychology is discussed in this section. « Discussion Tip Ask students to discuss why kids are more likely to be found playing Batman on the playground than Barney. Use this to lead into a discussion of what characteristics make a model attractive to children (e.g., being powerful).
Goal 1 – Knowledge Base of Psychology. One of the four general domains (learning) of psychology is discussed in this section. Goal 9 – Personal Development. Students are encouraged to think about how what they have learned impacts their own behavior and the behaviors of others.