2. Introduction to NETs
NETs arise from cells which produce and secrete hormones
Most NETs are slow growing and malignant, with metastatic
potential
Common sites of origin are:
GI tract
Lungs
Pancreas
2
3. Definitions: Classification, Grade,
and Stage
Classification = origin, tumor characteristics, behavior
Different NET classification systems (WHO, ENET, AJCC) take
into consideration different tumor characteristics
Grade = inherent biological aggressiveness1
For example: low-grade malignant, intermediate-grade malignant,
high-grade malignant
Prognostic; may be independent from tumor stage
Stage = extent of disease2
For example, organ confined, locally invasive, metastatic, etc.
Prognostic; may be independent from tumour grade
1. Klöppel G, et al. Ann Ny Acad Sci. 2004;1014:13-27
2. Rindi G, et al. Virchows Arch. 2007;451:757-762.
3
4. Classification
Traditional Method
NETs have been traditionally
classified as foregut, midgut,
or hindgut, depending on site
of origin
Replaced by new
tumor-based classification
method developed by World
Health Organization (WHO)
4
5. Classification
World Health Organization Method
WHO classification defines NETs by degree of tumor differentiation,
with specific clinicopathological features
The WHO classification system is based
on the following criteria:
Biological behavior (malignancy)
Metastases
Ki-67 index
Angioinvasion
Tumor size
Histological differentiation
Hormonal syndrome
5
6. WHO Classification:
NET Grouped By Prognostic Factors
Prognosis of Patients With NET
Good Poor
a
pancreatic NET
Strosberg JR, et al. GI Cancer Res. 2008;2:113-125.
Klöppel G, et al. Ann Ny Acad Sci. 2004;1014:13-27. 6
7. WHO Classification for NET
Neuroendocrine
Tumours
Malignant Potential
Site of Origin
•Benign
•GI tract
•Benign or low
•Pancreas Functional Activity
malignant potential •Functioning
•Lungs
(uncertain) •Non-Functioning
•Thyroid
•Low malignant
•Pituitary
potential
•Others
•Highly malignant
7
Ong SL, et al. Pancreatology. 2009;9:583-600.
8. The Pancreas Is the Most Common Primary Location
of NET Breakdown in Middle East & Asia Pacific
Region
Bile duct and gallbladder 3%
Omentum/abdominal lining 1%
Rectum 1%
Ovary 1%
Lung 1%
Liver 4%
Stomach 6%
Hwang T, et al. Presented at: 8th Annual ENETS Conference; March 9-11, 2011; Lisbon, Portugal. Abstract C48.
9. Potential Reasons for Increased
Incidence and Prevalence in NET
• Exact reasons are unknown but may include:
– Potential underdiagnoses and underreporting in the past
– Improved diagnostic techniques
– Increased awareness of NET in the community
9
10. GI NETs
Clinical Presentation
Clinical presentation of GI NETs varies widely
Often discovered incidentally
Symptoms due to:
Mechanical bulk
Fibrosis
Secretion of various hormones
Serotonin is most common
substance secreted from GI NET Serotonin-producing GI NET (ileum)
Serotonin release can cause
carcinoid syndrome
10
11. GI NETs
Carcinoid Syndrome
Symptoms of carcinoid syndrome include:
Hypotension
Flushing
Heart disease Rapid heart beat
Wheezing
Diarrhea
Carcinoid syndrome is associated with metastatic disease
11
12. Pancreatic NETs Overview
pNETs are rare, slow-growing
neoplasms
Symptoms from excess hormone
production or mechanical problems
6.4% of all NETs are found in
pancreas
Incidence rate of 0.4 cases per
100,000 persons
Incidence is increasing
pNETs may or may not have
secretory symptoms
Secretory symptoms related to
specific hormones
Tumors (nonfunctional) may secrete
peptides but cause no clinical
symptoms
12
13. Pancreatic NETs Types
Islet cell Predominant hormone Malignant
Tumor
type produced potential
Gastrinoma Gamma Gastrin Very high
Insulinoma Beta Insulin Low
Glucagonoma Alpha Glucagon Very high
VIPoma Delta Vasoactive intestinal peptide High
Somatostatinoma Delta Somatostatin Very high
PPoma PP cells Pancreatic polypeptide Very high
Relative frequency: Asymptomatic >Insulinoma > Gastrinoma >
Glucagonoma > VIPomas > Somatostatinoma > Others
13
14. Pancreatic NETs
Clinical Presentation—Asymptomatic pNETs
Tumors without secretory symptoms are not associated with a
hormonal syndrome
Often found incidentally
Patients present late with large malignancies or advanced disease
Symptoms due to tumor growth or spread
Abdominal pain
Jaundice
Diarrhea
Indigestion
Weight loss
14
15. Natural History of Neuroendocrine
Tumours
Estimated time to diagnosis: 5 to 7 years
Death
Diarrhea *
Vague abdominal symptoms
Flushing *
Metastases
Primary tumour growth
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Time, years
*Symptoms of carcinoid syndrome
Vinik A, et al. Pancreas. 2009 Nov;38(8):876-89 15
16. Nonspecific Symptoms Are Common
to Multiple Diagnoses
Menopause
Functional Bowel Disease
Symptoms
Food Allergy
• Sweating • Flushing Irritable Bowel
• Diarrhea Syndrome
• Intermittent abdominal pain
Neurosis • Hypoglycemia • Confusion
• Bronchoconstriction
• Dyspepsia • GI bleeding Alcoholism
NET • Cardiac disease
Peptic Ulcer
Asthma
Thyrotoxicosis Anxiety
Aggarwal G, et al. Cleve Clin J Med. 2008;75(12):849-855. 16
17. Importance of Raising the Index of
Suspicion
Incidence of NET is increasing
More prevalent than other cancers (ie, stomach, pancreas,
esophagus)
Associations between these symptoms suggest the
presence of NET over more common ailments
Flushing with NET is unrelated to time or day, warmth, or
perspiration
Hormone production differs from menopause, which is a typical
misdiagnosis
Elevated chromogranin A (CgA) is the generally accepted
marker for NET
80% to 100% of NET, regardless of symptoms, secrete CgA
17
Peracchi M, et al. Eur J Endocrinol. 2003;148(1):39-43.
18. Systematic Approach to
Diagnosing NET Is Needed
History and physical exam
Biochemical markers (serum, tissue, urine) 1
Serum
Tissue
Urinary
Imaging2
Computed tomography scan (CT)/ Magnetic
Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Nuclear Imaging
Endoscopic ultrasound (pNET only)
1. Ferolla P, et al. J Endocrinol Invest. 2008;31(3):277-286. 18
2. Barakat MT, et al. Endocr Rel Cancer. 2004;11(1):1-18.
21. General NET Treatment Goals
Depending on the results obtained from a workup, a patient’s
NET is classified as local, regional, or advanced.
Treatment goals should be curative where possible, with the use
of pharmacological management as necessary.
General Treatment Goals:
Local Regional NET
The treatment goal for localized NETs is curative, which is
most often accomplished with surgery.
Advanced NET
The treatment goal for metastatic tumors is also curative
surgery if possible, followed by pharmacological treatment.
23. Current Systemic Treatment Options for
Patients With Advanced NETs
Somatostatin analogues
Interferon-alfa
Chemotherapy
Peptide receptor–targeted therapy
Molecular-targeted therapies
24. Pharmacological Treatment of NET
Several types:
Somatostatin analogues
Currently approved for the relief of certain symptoms associated with symptomatic
(functional)
GI NETs and pNETs
Cytotoxic therapy
GI and Lung NETs: An option when no other options are feasible because of the poor
efficacy and toxicity. Single-agent and combination therapies with doxorubicin, 5-FU,
dacarbazine, actinomycin-D, cisplatin, alkylating agents, etoposide, streptozotocin, and
carboplatin have resulted in response rates from 20-50%.
pNETs: Systemic chemotherapy is recommended for patients with unresectable liver or
lung metastases. Trials using doxorubicin, streptozocin, 5-FU, temozolomide, and
dacarbazine have established cytotoxic effects in pNETs.
Biological Treatment
Interferon
Hormone-like proteins normally made by white blood cells to help the immune system
fight infections
Sometimes helpful in shrinking or slowing growth of advanced NETs and improving
symptoms of
carcinoid syndrome
25. Pharmacological Treatment of NET (Continued)
Several types:
Targeted Therapies
Designed to attack some specific aspect of cancer cells
A number of investigational therapies have shown preliminary
evidence of activity in patients with advanced NETs
Targeted Therapies:
mTOR Inhibitors
everolimus (AFINITOR)
Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors
sunitinib, sorafenib
VEGF Inhibitors
bevacizumab
Other Agents
Pasireotide, a multiligand somatstatin analogue, is currently in phase
III development for NET
26. Pathophysiology
Significance of Somatostatin Signaling
Somatostatin (SST)
receptors are highly
expressed on the
surface of GI NETs
More than 80% of all
NETs express SST
receptors
Overexpression
provides
basis for regulation by
SST
SST receptor activation
inhibits secretory and
proliferative activity 27
27. Octreotide May Have a Direct
Antitumour Effect via sst2 and sst5
sst2
sst2
sst5 • sst2 and sst5 both
downregulate MAPK
G protein PI3K G protein
PDK1 • sst2 binding effects the
SHP2
SHP1 Src
G protein
P13K/Akt/mTOR
Akt pathway and SHP1
PTPŋ SHP1
↓ cGMP
signalling
NF-KB GSK3β mTOR
MAPK ↓PKG
p53
JNK p70S6K • Antiproliferative effect
↑Zac1 p27 also mediated via
protein tyrosine
phosphatase (PTPase)
↑ Apoptosis ↓ Cell growth modulation
Florio T et al. Front Biosci 2008;13:822–840
Grozinsky-Glasberg S et al. Neuroendocrinology 2008;87:168–181
Theodoropoulou M et al. Cancer Res 2006;66:1576–1582
29. Rationale for Combining Everolimus and
Octreotide LAR
mTOR is a central regulator of ↓secretion
IGF-1
↓ligands VEGF
growth, proliferation, metabolism, K+
IGF-1
IGF-1R
sst analog sstr1-5 IGF-1R VEGFR
and angiogenesis1-3
Ca2·
NET have been linked to genetic
cAMP PI3K
alterations that activate the PTEN
↓signaling
mTOR pathway2,3 SHP1 cGMP AKT
mTOR TSC1/2
inhibitor
Everolimus inhibits mTOR3 Caspase 8
p53
Bax NFcb MAP
K NF1
mTOR
Octreotide downregulates IGF-1, X X HI
F1
VHL
Survival
Growth and
X X a
an upstream activator of the proliferation Metabolism
Angiogenesis
PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway4
Everolimus + octreotide LAR has
shown activity in a phase II trial5
1. O’Reilly T, McSheehy PM. Transl Oncol. 2010;3(2):65-79. 2. Meric-Bernstam F, Gonzalez-Angulo AM. J Clin Oncol. 2009;27:2278-2287. 3. Faivre S,
Kroemer G, Raymond E. Nat Rev Drug Disc. 2006;5:671-688. 4. Susini C, Buscail L. Ann Oncol. 2006;17:1733-1742. 5. Yao JC, Phan AT, Chang DZ,
et al. J Clin Oncol. 2008;26:4311-4318.
30. PROMID: Evaluation of the
Antiproliferative Effect of Octreotide LAR
30 mg
Phase III randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study
Patients with midgut NETs Octreotide LAR
RANDOMIZATION (1:1)
• Treatment naïve 30 mg im Treatment
• Histologically confirmed every 28 days until CT/MRI
• Locally inoperable documented
or metastatic tumour
• Well differentiated progression
• Measurable (CT/MRI) Placebo im or death
• Functioning or non- every 28 days
functioning
Month 3 6 9 12 15 18
Primary endpoint: Time to tumour progression (blinded central review)
Secondary endpoints: objective response rate, survival, quality of life, safety
Rinke A et al. J Clin Oncol 2009;27:4656–4663
31. PROMID
Patient Demographics
Octreotide LAR Placebo Total
30 mg (n=42) (n=43) (n=85)
Median age, years (range) 63.5 (38–79) 61.0 (39–82) 62.0 (38–82)
Sex male (%) 47.6 53.5 50.6
female (%) 52.4 46.5 49.4
Time since diagnosis, months (range) 7.5 (0.8–271.2) 3.3 (0.8–109.4) 4.3 (0.8–271.2)
Karnofsky score ≤80 (%) 16.7 11.6 14.1
>80 (%) 83.3 88.4 85.9
Carcinoid syndrome* (%) 40.5 37.2 38.8
Resection of primary (%) 69.1 62.8 65.9
Hepatic tumour load
0% 16.7 11.6 14.1
0–10% 59.5 62.8 61.2
10–25% 7.1 4.7 5.9
25–50% 11.9 9.3 10.6
50% 4.8 11.6 8.2
Octreoscan positive (%) 76.2 72.1 74.1
Ki-67 up to 2% (%) 97.6 93.0 95.3
CgA elevated (%) 61.9 69.8 65.9
* not requiring octreotide for symptom control
Rinke A, Müller HH, Schade-Brittinger C, et al. J Clin Oncol. 2009;27:4656-4663.
32. Octreotide LAR 30 mg Extends TTP in Patients
with Functioning and Non-functioning Tumours
Patients with non-functioning tumours Patients with functioning tumours
Octreotide LAR 30 mg: 25 pts / 9 events Octreotide LAR 30 mg: 17 pts / 11 events
Median TTP 28.8 months Median TTP 14.26 months
Placebo: 27 patients / 24 events Placebo: 16 patients / 14 events
1 1
Median TTP 5.91 months Median TTP 5.45 months
Proportion without progression
Proportion without progression
0.75 0.75
0.5 0.5
0.25 0.25
0 0
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 84 90 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 84 90
Time (months) Time (months)
P=0.0008; HR=0.25 [95% CI: 0.10–0.59] P=0.0007; HR=0.23 [95% CI: 0.09–0.57]
Based on the per protocol analysis
Arnold R. Abst #4508 presented at ASCO 2009, Orlando FL
Rinke A et al. J Clin Oncol 2009;27:4656–4663
33. Phase III Randomized Trial of Everolimus
(RAD001) vs Placebo in Advanced
Pancreatic NET
(RADIANT-3)
James Yao1, Manisha Shah2, Tetsuhide Ito3,
Catherine Lombard-Bohas4, Edward
Wolin5,
Eric Van Cutsem6, David Lebwohl7, Sakina
Hoosen7, Carolin Sachs8, Jeremie Lincy8,
Timothy Hobday9 and Kjell Öberg10
for the RADIANT-3 study group
34. RADIANT-3 Study Design
Phase III Double Blind Placebo Controlled Trial
Everolimus 10 mg/d +
R best supportive care*
Patients with
A
advanced pNET, n = 207
N
N = 410 D 1:1 Treatment
Stratified by: O until disease
•WHO PS M Crossover progression
•Prior I
Z Placebo +
Chemotherapy E best supportive care*
n = 203
Multi-phasic CT or MRI performed every 12 weeks
Primary endpoint: Secondary endpoints:
• PFS (RECIST) • Response, OS, biomarkers, safety, and PK
* Concurrent somatostatin analogs allowed
Randomization August 2007 - May 2009
Yao JC, Shah M, Ito T, et al. 35th ESMO Congress 2010; Milan, Italy. Abstract #LBA9
35. PFS by Central Review*
Kaplan-Meier medians PFS
Everolimus: 11.4 months
Placebo: 5.4 months
Hazard ratio = 0.34; 95% CI [0.26-0.44]
Percentage event-free
P-value: <0.0001
No. of patients still at risk
Everolimus
Placebo
* Independent adjudicated central review committee
• P-value obtained from stratified one-sided log rank test
• Hazard ratio is obtained from stratified unadjusted Cox model
Yao JC, Shah M, Ito T, et al. 35th ESMO Congress 2010; Milan, Italy. Abstract #LBA9
36.
37. Overall Survival
Everolimus 10mg Placebo
N = 207 N = 203
No. of events – n (%) 51 (24.6%) 50 (24.6%)
HR = 1.05; 95% CI [0.71-1.55]; P = 0.594
No. censored – n (%) 156 (75.4%) 153 (75.4%)
Kaplan-Meier estimates [95% CI] at:
3 months 97.1 [93.6-98.7] 98.5 [95.5-99.5]
6 months 93.1 [88.7-95.9] 91.6 [86.8-94.7]
12 months 82.3 [76.0-87.0] 82.6 [76.5-87.3]
18 months 73.1 [65.1-79.6] 73.9 [66.1-80.2]
24 months 57.3 [43.0-69.2] 62.8 [51.1-72.4]
148 placebo patients crossed over to receive everolimus
Hazard ratio is obtained from the unadjusted stratified Cox model
P-value is obtained from the stratified one-sided log rank test
Yao JC, Shah M, Ito T, et al. 35th ESMO Congress 2010; Milan, Italy. Abstract #LBA9
38. Summary
Everolimus provided a 65% reduction in risk for progression compared to placebo
(HR = 0.35, P < 0.0001)
• Everolimus therapy resulted in a significant 6.4 month increase in median
PFS
– 4.6 months to 11.0 months
• 18 months PFS rate of 34% vs 9% placebo demonstrates that everolimus
provides a durable benefit
Disease control rate (CR+PR+SD) was 77.7% with a significant response
difference, P < 0.0001
Everolimus showed a consistent benefit in all subgroups
Everolimus has an acceptable safety profile
39. Sunitinib Phase III Trial:
Summary
Investigator, algorithmic, and central analysis of PFS showed a median
difference in PFS of 5.9 to 7.2 months (HR, 0.32-0.42) favoring sunitinib
The increase in PFS was not statistically significant
Though there is evidence of a clinically meaningful benefit, the magnitude of this
benefit remains unclear due to the study being terminated early
These PFS results may be an overestimate because of early looks at the data and
premature study termination
The FDA did an additional analysis, and found a median PFS of 10.2 months
for sunitinib and 5.4 months for placebo; these data were used in the Sutent
prescribing information
There was no statistically significant improvement in OS
(43% event rate; 69% crossover)
There was an increased risk for serious AEs associated with sunitinib,
including 2 deaths from cardiac failure
Median exposure to treatment and follow up were 4.6 months and 10.2
months in the sunitinib arm and 3.7 months and 5.4 months in the placebo
arm
40
40. Summary
The sunitinib trial and RADIANT-3 are both phase III,
randomized, double-blind studies that assessed the
effects of treatment on PFS in patients with advanced
pNET
However, the trials differ substantially in design, patient
population, and study conduct and, therefore, can not be
directly compared
42
NETs arise from cells of the neuroendocrine system, which produce and secrete regulatory hormones. 1[Doherty-44.6, 1721a] Most NETs are slow growing and malignant, with metastatic potential. 1[Doherty-44.6, 1723Table44.6.2] 2[Pinochot2008, 1257e] 3[NCCN NET v2.2010, MS-1c] The exception is insulinomas, which are usually benign. NETs can arise nearly anywhere in the body, although the most common sites of origin are the: 4[Yao2008, 3066Table 1] Gastrointestinal (GI) tract, including the small intestine, rectum, large bowel, stomach, appendix, and liver Lungs Pancreas References: Doherty GM. Cancer of the Endocrine System: Carcinoid Tumors and the Carcinoid Syndrome. In: DeVita Jr V, Lawrence T, Rosenberg S, eds. DeVita, Hellman, and Rosenberg's Cancer Principles & Practice of Oncology. 8th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2008:1721-1735. Pinchot SN, Holen K, Sippel RS, et al. Carcinoid tumors. Oncologist . 2008;13(12):1255-1269. Clark OH, Benson AB, III, Berlin JD et al. NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology: Neuroendocrine Tumors. National Comprehensive Cancer Network. 2010. Yao JC, Hassan M, Phan A, et al. One hundred years after "carcinoid": epidemiology of and prognostic factors for neuroendocrine tumors in 35,825 cases in the United States. J Clin Oncol . 2008;26(18):3063-3072. Image source: 4[Yao2008, 3066Table 1]
Tumour classification is based on the different characteristics of the tumour, such as primary site, biologic behavior, hormone or peptide secretions and symptoms. Tumour grade refers to the biologic aggressiveness and how likely the tumour is to spread. It is predictive of prognosis. This is based on what the pathologist detects, such as mitotic rate and Ki-67 index. It is important to note that low-grade NET can still metastasize. References: Klöppel G, et al. Ann Ny Acad Sci . 2004;1014:13-27. Rindi G, et al. Virchows Arch. 2007;451:757-762.
NETs have been traditionally classified based on the sites where they originate: 1[Oberg2004a, 293a], 2[NCCN NET v2.2010, MS-2d] Foregut tumors: Thymus Esophagus Lung Stomach Duodenum Pancreas Midgut tumors: Appendix Small bowel (ileum and cecum) Ascending colon Hindgut tumors: Distal large bowel (tranverse and descending colon) Rectum A new tumor-based classification developed by the World Health Organization (WHO) is replacing this site-based method. Although the new WHO classification is more comprehensive, some clinical studies still use the traditional method. 1[Oberg2004a, iv293ab] References: Oberg K. Management of neuroendocrine tumours. Ann Oncol . 2004;15 Suppl 4:iv293-iv298. Clark OH, Benson AB, III, Berlin JD et al. NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology: Neuroendocrine Tumors. National Comprehensive Cancer Network. 2010. Image source: 1[Oberg2004a, 293a], 2[NCCN NET v2.2010, MS-2d]
The WHO classification defines NETs by degree of tumor differentiation, taking into consideration specific clinicopathological features. 1[Kloppel2004, 16b, Table 1] The WHO classification system is based on the following criteria: 1[Kloppel2004, 25Table 7, Table 8] 2[Scholzen2000, 311c, 312b, 318c] Biological behavior (malignancy) Metastases Ki-67 index Ki-67 is a protein that correlates to cell division. A high Ki-67 index indicates a high rate of cell proliferation and is correlated with tumor proliferation. Angioinvasion Tumor size Histological differentiation Hormonal syndrome References: Kloppel G, Perren A, Heitz PU. The gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine cell system and its tumors: the WHO classification. Ann N Y Acad Sci . 2004;1014:13-27. Scholzen T, Gerdes J. The Ki-67 protein: from the known and the unknown. J Cell Physiol . 2000;182(3):311-322.
WHO distinguishes the three classifications based on tumour size, metastases, Ki67 and biological behavior. Well-differentiated benign tumours typically indolent If less than 2 cm, they are not likely to have spread beyond the primary site Low-grade tumours on examination will usually demonstrate low to no mitotic activity in 10/HPFs with a Ki-67 of < 2% Well-differentiated carcinoma are associated with malignant biologic behavior are associated with higher Ki-67 indexes and are more likely to metastasize. The primary tumour is typically greater than 2 cm Poorly differentiated carcinomas are most often associated with high mitotic activity, with Ki-67% of greater than 30%, and are aggressive. This slide is a general overview, in the following two slides specific examples of WHO classification will be reviewed. References: 1. Strosberg JR, Nasir A, Hodul P, Kvols L. GI Cancer Res. 2008; 2:113-125. 2. Klöppel G, Perren A, Heitz PU. Ann Ny Acad Sci. 2004;1014:13-27.
The WHO classification is clinically and prognostically useful for newly diagnosed neuroendocrine tumours as it takes into consideration the site of origin, the malignant potential and the functional activity of the tumour. Reference: Ong SL, et al. Pancreatology . 2009;9:583-600.
The incidence has been rising in the last three decades. This might be due to greater awareness, improved diagnostic capabilities, improved reporting to registries, or a change in nomenclature from carcinoid. With new successful treatments to control or slow the progression of the disease, the prevalence of cancer will increase. We will discuss these treatments in NET modules 3 and 4.
Clinical features of GI NETs vary widely. 1[Ghevariya2009, 1033b] They may remain asymptomatic for years, and most cases are discovered incidentally. Symptoms occur mainly from: 1[Ghevariya2009, 1033b] Mechanical problems secondary to tumor bulk Fibrosis Secretion of various hormones The most common substance secreted from GI NETs is serotonin. 2[Pinchot2008, 1256d] The release of serotonin into the bloodstream can cause the classic symptoms of carcinoid syndrome. Image shows a dissection of a serotonin-producing NET in the ileum. References: Ghevariya V, Malieckal A, Ghevariya N, et al. Carcinoid tumors of the gastrointestinal tract. South Med J . 2009;102(10):1032-1040. Pinchot SN, Holen K, Sippel RS, et al. Carcinoid tumors. Oncologist . 2008;13(12):1255-1269. Image source: Novartis.
Symptoms associated with typical carcinoid syndrome include: 1[Barakat2004, 3c] 2[Ghevariya2009, 1033bcd] Hypotension Cutaneous flushing (redness and warmth of the face, neck, and upper chest) Rapid heard beat Heart disease Wheezing Severe diarrhea with abdominal cramping The liver inactivates the secretions of GI NETs, preventing carcinoid syndrome. However, if GI NETs metastasize outside of the GI tract, such as to the liver, then the secretions can enter the main bloodstream and reach other parts of the body, resulting in symptoms. 2[Ghevariya2009, 1033b] 3[Jensen-344, 2348Table 344.2] As a result, most cases (95%–100%) of carcinoid syndrome are due to metastatic disease. References: Barakat MT, Meeran K, Bloom SR. Neuroendocrine tumours. Endocr Relat Cancer . 2004;11(1):1-18. Ghevariya V, Malieckal A, Ghevariya N, et al. Carcinoid tumors of the gastrointestinal tract. South Med J . 2009;102(10):1032-1040. Jensen RT. Endocrine Tumors of the Gastrointestinal Tract and Pancreas. In: Braunwald E, Fauci AS, Kasper DL, et al, eds. Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine. 15th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2001:2347-2358. Image source: 1[Barakat2004, 3c] 2[Ghevariya2009, 1033bcd]
Pancreatic NETS (pNETs) are rare and usually slow-growing neoplasms, with symptoms resulting from excess hormone production or mechanical problems secondary to tumor bulk. 1[Ong2009, 584a] 2[Yao-44.5, 1702c] 3[Yao2008, 3066Table 1] 6.4% of all NETs are found in the pancreas The incidence rate of pNETs in the US is about 0.4 cases per 100,000 persons. 1[Ong2009, 583b] Incidence is thought to be increasing over the past 2 decades. pNETs may or may not have secretory symptoms. 4[Jensen-344, 2347d] Secretory symptoms are related to the specific hormone released. Tumors without secretory symptoms (nonfunctional) may still secrete peptides; however, they cause no specific clinical symptom. Presence of symptoms is due to the tumor bulk. References: Ong SL, Garcea G, Pollard CA, et al. A fuller understanding of pancreatic neuroendocrine tumours combined with aggressive management improves outcome. Pancreatology . 2009;9(5):583-600. Yao JC, Rindi G, Evans DB. Cancer of the Endocrine System: Pancreatic Endocrine Tumors. In: DeVita Jr V, Lawrence T, Rosenberg S, eds. DeVita, Hellman, and Rosenberg's Cancer Principles & Practice of Oncology. 8th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2008:1702-1721. Yao JC, Hassan M, Phan A, et al. One hundred years after "carcinoid": epidemiology of and prognostic factors for neuroendocrine tumors in 35,825 cases in the United States. J Clin Oncol . 2008;26(18):3063-3072. Jensen RT. Endocrine Tumors of the Gastrointestinal Tract and Pancreas. In: Braunwald E, Fauci AS, Kasper DL, et al, eds. Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine. 15th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2001:2347-2358.
There are several subtypes of pNETs. These are dependent on which islet cell type is affected and consequently, which hormone is over-produced. 1[Jensen-334, 2348Table 344.2] 2[Tortora-18, 646b] 3[Ong2009, 584Table 1] Review table with participants. Note: Most cases of PPoma are asymptomatic, although rare cases have been associated with watery diarrhea, diabetes, ulcers, or skin rash. 4[Yao-44.5, 1706b] The relative frequency of pNETs are: 5[Metz2008, 1470b] Asymptomatic > Insulinoma > Gastrinoma > Glucagonoma > VIPomas > Somatostatinoma > Others References: Jensen RT. Endocrine Tumors of the Gastrointestinal Tract and Pancreas. In: Braunwald E, Fauci AS, Kasper DL, et al, eds. Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine. 15th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2001:2347-2358. Tortora GJ, Derrickson B. The endocrine system. In: Principles of Anatomy and Physiology. 11th ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc; 2006:616-665. Ong SL, Garcea G, Pollard CA, et al. A fuller understanding of pancreatic neuroendocrine tumours combined with aggressive management improves outcome. Pancreatology . 2009;9(5):583-600. Yao JC, Rindi G, Evans DB. Cancer of the Endocrine System: Pancreatic Endocrine Tumors. In: DeVita Jr V, Lawrence T, Rosenberg S, eds. DeVita, Hellman, and Rosenberg's Cancer Principles & Practice of Oncology. 8th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2008:1702-1721. Metz DC, Jensen RT. Gastrointestinal neuroendocrine tumors: pancreatic endocrine tumors. Gastroenterology . 2008;135(5):1469-1492.
Tumors without secretory symptoms are not associated with a hormonal syndrome. 1[Metz2008, 1475a] 2[Jensen-344, 2356h] Because of this, they may be present as an incidental finding at surgery or be detected radiographically when investigating for nonspecific abdominal pain. Patients usually present late in the disease course with large primary malignancies or advanced disease. Symptoms are due to tumor growth or spread. 2[Jensen-344, 2356i] 3[Yao-44.5, 1706b] Abdominal pain Jaundice Diarrhea Indigestion Weight loss References: Metz DC, Jensen RT. Gastrointestinal neuroendocrine tumors: pancreatic endocrine tumors. Gastroenterology . 2008;135(5):1469-1492. Jensen RT. Endocrine Tumors of the Gastrointestinal Tract and Pancreas. In: Braunwald E, Fauci AS, Kasper DL, et al, eds. Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine. 15th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2001:2347-2358. Yao JC, Rindi G, Evans DB. Cancer of the Endocrine System: Pancreatic Endocrine Tumors. In: DeVita Jr V, Lawrence T, Rosenberg S, eds. DeVita, Hellman, and Rosenberg's Cancer Principles & Practice of Oncology. 8th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2008:1702-1721.
Neuroendocrine tumours can remain asymptomatic for a long period of time. Vague abdominal symptoms may be associated with primary tumour growth. These are not usually identified until they have metastasized and spread. Symptoms from syndromes secondary to hormone/peptide secretion such as diarrhea and flushing seen with carcinoid syndrome often does not appear until metastatic spread. Reference: Vinik A, et al. Pancreas . 2009 Nov;38(8):876-89.
Neuroendocrine tumours can present with a variety of nonspecific and generalized symptoms. Clinical presentation depends on the site of the primary tumour and whether the peptides secreted produce symptoms. Reference: Aggarwal G, Obideen K, Wehbi M, et al. Cleve Clin J Med . 2008;75(12):849-855.
Since the incidence is increasing and the prevalence is high, it is important for physicians to have NET in their differential diagnosis and suspect it over other more common ailments. It is also important to understand the vague difference in presentation For example, flushing of NET is slightly different than the flushing from menopause which is a typical misdiagnosis. Flushing with NET is unrelated to time or day, warmth, or perspiration Because CgA is usually elevated in NET, it should be ordered when there is even a small suspicion of NET. Reference: Peracchi M, Gebbia C, Basilisco G, et al. Eur J Endocrinol . 2003;148(1):39-43.
A good history of physical examinations is important to the diagnosis of NET. Characteristic symptoms are present in 8% to 35% of metastatic NET and include dry flushing, cramps, nocturnal diarrhea, erythematous to purplish skin, telangiectasias, hepatomegaly, cardiac murmurs, edema, hypoglycemia, confusion, dyspepsia, and GI bleeding. Lab tests for biochemical markers should include: Serum CgA and other biomarkers as appropriate for symptoms (eg, if glucagonoma is suspected, glucagon levels should be tested) Tissue Once a biopsy is performed, the specimen should be stained for Ki-67, CgA, synaptophisin, and neuron specific enolase Urine 5-HIAA if patient has symptoms consistent with carcinoid syndrome Imaging Should include CT scan with contrast or MRI Nuclear imaging with Octreoscan and PET scan Endoscopic ultrasound is useful for diagnosing pNET References: Rorstad O. J Surg Oncol. 2005;89(3):151-160. Toth-Fejel S, Pommier RF. Am J Surg . 2004;187(5):575-579. Ferolla P, et al. J Endocrinol Invest . 2008;31(3):277-286. Barakat MT, Meeran K, Bloom SR. Endocr Rel Cancer . 2004;11(1):1-18.
Depending on the results obtained from a workup, a patient’s NET is classified as local 5 , regional 5 , or advanced. 3,5,6 Treatment goals should be curative where possible, with the use of pharmacological management as necessary. 3 Local Regional NET The treatment goal for localized NETs is curative, which is most often accomplished with surgery. 3,7,8 Advanced NET The treatment goal for advanced NETs is also curative surgery if possible, followed by pharmacological treatment. 3,7
Radiation therapy (RT) involves the use of high-energy radiation from x-rays, gamma rays, neutrons, protons, and other sources to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. 6 In general, the management of NETs with therapies, including radiation, is determined by the specific endocrine gland(s) involved, grade of differentiation, aggressiveness and stage of the tumor, amount of hormone produced, and specific patient needs. 3 PRRT represents a new advance in the treatment of NETs. It is based upon the presence of a greater number of somatotrophin release-inhibiting hormone receptors (also known as somatostatin receptors [SSTRs]) on NETs (compared with other tissues). 15 Radioembolization combines embolization with radiation therapy. This is done by injecting small radioactive beads into a main artery. The beads travel to the tumor and give off small amounts of radiation only at the tumor sites. 13
SSAs are currently approved for the relief of certain symptoms associated with symptomatic (functional) GI NETs and pNETs. 3,16,17 In addition, recent data from the PROMID clinical trial is being submitted to regulatory authorities. In patients with GI or Lung NETs, chemotherapy is considered a viable treatment option if not other treatments are feasible and the patient presents with unresectable liver metastases, symptomatic lung metastases, or metastasis to the regional lymph nodes. It is an option when no other treatments are feasible because of the poor efficacy and toxicity of chemotherapy. However, single-agent therapies and combination therapy with doxorubicin, 5-fluorouracil, dacarbazine, actinomycin-D, cisplatin, alkylating agents, etoposide, streptozotocin, and carboplatin have reported response rates ranging from 20% to 50%. 3 Systemic chemotherapy is recommended for patients with pNETs when they have unresectable liver or lung metastases. Trials using chemotherapeutic drugs including doxorubicin, streptozocin, 5-FU, temozolomide, and dacarbazine have established cytotoxic effects in pNETs. 3 Biological therapies include interferon. 18 Interferons are hormone-like proteins normally made by white blood cells to help the immune system fight infections. 18 Interferon-alpha is sometimes helpful in shrinking or slowing the growth of advanced NETs and improving symptoms of carcinoid syndrome. 19
Targeted therapies - these drugs are designed to attack some specific aspect of cancer cells. 20 A number of investigational therapies have shown preliminary evidence of activity in patients with advanced NETs, creating an opportunity to advance beyond traditional cytotoxic chemotherapy. 3,21 These include mTOR inhibitors (everolimus (AFINITOR)), as well as Tyrosine Kinase and VEGF pathway inhibitors (sunitinib, sorafenib, bevacizumab). 3,22,23,24 Pasireotide (SOM230), a multiligand somatstatin analogue, is currently in phase III development. 19,25,26
Somatostatin (SST) receptors are highly expressed on the surface of GI NETs. 1[Grotzinger2004, 10b] 2[Mougey2007, 15e] More than 80% of all NETs express somatostatin receptors. This overexpression provides the basis for regulation by somatostatin and its stable analogs. 1[Grotzinger2004, 10b] SST receptor activation inhibits secretory and proliferative activity. 3[Susini2006, 1734b, 1736b] References: Grotzinger C. Tumour biology of gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumours. Neuroendocrinology . 2004;80 Suppl 1:8-11. Mougey AM, Adler DG. Neuroendocrine Tumors: Review and Clinical Update. Hospital Physician . 2007;43(11):12-51. Susini C, Buscail L. Rationale for the use of somatostatin analogs as antitumor agents. Ann Oncol . 2006;17(12):1733-1742. Low MJ. Neuroendocrinology. In: Williams Textbook of Endocrinology. 11th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders Elsevier; 2008:85-154. Image source:4[Low-7, 123e, 124a]
This diagram is a generalized representation of the intracellular signalling pathways that may be used by sst receptors to mediate the direct effects of sst on cell growth and proliferation, depending on the make-up of the cell: Not all cells contain all pathways or all sst receptors Not all sst receptors use all pathways New pathways continue to be identified Pathways used by sst receptors often overlap All sst receptors activate phosphotyrosine phosphatases (SHP-1, SHP-2, PTP- η ), and modulate mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK). sst receptor stimulation can block the effects of growth factor receptor stimulation. sst receptor stimulation can result in increased production of the cell cycle inhibitor p27. Pathways used by sst receptors overlap with pathways used by chemotherapeutic agents: For example, in vitro findings suggest that both sst receptors and the mTOR inhibitor everolimus act through a similar pathway and inhibit Akt-mTOR-p70S6 kinase References Grozinsky-Glasberg S et al. Neuroendocrinology 2008;87:168–181 Jacobs S & Schulz S. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2008;286:58–62 Lahlou H et al. J Biol Chem 2003;278:39356–39371 Lopez F et al. FASEB J 2001;15:2300–2302 Patel YC. Front Neuroendocrinol 1999;20:157–198 Weckbecker G et al. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2003;2:999–1017
The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) plays a central role in a number of cell proliferation pathways. Mutation or loss of genes involved in the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt/mTOR pathway may cause resistance to apoptosis (cell death) and increased cell proliferation in NETs. 1[Yao2007, 168def], 2[Stedman’s, 121 apoptosis] mTOR is downstream of signaling pathways often deregulated in cancers such as NETs. 1[Yao2007, 168def] mTOR signaling promotes: Cell growth and proliferation Angiogenesis Angiogenesis is the development/proliferation of blood vessels in tissue, which is very important in NETs because the tumors are highly vascularized. 3[vonMarschall2003, 437c] 4[Dorland’s, 83 angiogenesis] References: Yao JC. Neuroendocrine tumors. Molecular targeted therapy for carcinoid and islet-cell carcinoma. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab . 2007;21(1):163-172. Stedman's Medical Dictionary . 28th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott, Williams, and Wilkins; 2006. von Marschall Z, Scholz A, Cramer T, et al. Effects of interferon alpha on vascular endothelial growth factor gene transcription and tumor angiogenesis. J Natl Cancer Inst . 2003;95(6):437-448. Dorland WAN. Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary. 30th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders; 2003. Faivre S, Kroemer G, Raymond E. Current development of mTOR inhibitors as anticancer agents. Nat Rev Drug Discov . 2006;5(8):671-688. Image source:5[Faivre2006, 685Figure 6]
Everolimus is a novel targeted therapy that acts as a signal transduction inhibitor . Its target is mTOR (mammalian target of rapamycin), a key protein kinase regulating cell growth, proliferation, and survival. The mTOR pathway activity is modulated by the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase-B (AKT) pathway Pathway is known to be dysregulated in numerous human cancers. A role for everolimus in the treatment of NET is suggested by the observation that the PI3K/mTOR pathway is activated by insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) in NET 3,4 . Data suggest that everolimus may have a role in inhibiting cell growth, and tumour proliferation in NET by interrupting the IGF-1/PI3K/mTOR signaling cascade. The understanding of the anti-tumour activity of somatostatin analogs (in addition to their proven antisecretory activity) is expanding 5 There is new evidence that these compounds reduce the expression of tumour growth factors, including IGFs and epidermal growth factor (EGF). These observations suggest that everolimus may work synergistically with octreotide LAR to arrest cell growth and control hypersecretory activity in NET through the dual inhibition of mTOR and growth factors . The loss of negative feedback inhibition of PI3K, which occurs when mTOR is inhibited, can be reversed with the addition of octreotide Octreotide LAR works upstream of mTOR, and when combined with everolimus, may reverse the inhibited negative feedback loop by decreasing IGF-1 References: O ’ Reilly T, McSheehy PM. Transl Oncol . 2010;3(2):65-79. Meric-Bernstam F, Gonzalez-Angulo AM. J Clin Oncol . 2009;27:2278-2287. Faivre S, Kroemer G, Raymond E. Nat Rev Drug Disc . 2006;5:671-688. Susini C, Buscail L. Ann Oncol . 2006;17:1733-1742. 5. Yao JC, Phan AT, Chang DZ, et al. J Clin Oncol. 2008;26:4311-4318. Rinke A, Müller HH, Schade-Brittinger C, et al. J Clin Oncol . 2009;27:4656-4663 Gorshtein A, Rubinfeld H, Kendler E, Theodoropoulou M, Cerovac V, et al. Endocr Relat Cancer. 2009; 16(3): 1017-27.
After randomization, patients received octreotide LAR 30 mg or placebo every 28 days until tumour progression, documented by CT or MRI, or death. Octreotide LAR 30 mg or placebo were administered by a study nurse or physician not involved in further patient care. Patients were blinded and all clinical assessments were performed without knowledge of the assigned treatment. During the study, additional antiproliferative therapy was not allowed. Post-study treatment in patients with tumour progression was at the discretion of the investigator. All patients will be followed-up until death. Tumour progression was evaluated using the WHO criteria. Importantly, CT and/or MRI scans were evaluated by a blinded central reader. In the event of progression, patients were unblinded to the investigator, who could then decide further treatment options for the patient. Once the study is finished, the investigator is unblinded with regard to the treatment. In patients who progressed while receiving placebo, octreotide LAR or a different treatment could have been administered. Patients enrolled in the PROMID study were treatment-naïve with locally inoperable or metastatic well-differentiated NETs with a midgut primary tumour without curative therapeutic options. Patients could have either a functioning or non-functioning tumour. Patients with symptoms of carcinoid syndrome and increased urinary 5-hydroxyindole acetic acid (5-HIAA) were classified as having a functioning tumour. Only those patients with carcinoid syndrome who tolerated flushing without intervention or responded to treatment with loperamide and/or cholestyramine in case of diarrhoea were included. Patients with a tumour of unknown origin were believed to have a midgut tumour if a primary within the pancreas, chest and elsewhere was excluded by multiphasic CT and/or MRI. Only those patients with measurable disease by CT or MRI were included. Progressive metastatic disease was not required for enrolment, however, all patients were required to demonstrate metastatic or inoperable disease measurable by CT or MRI. Although this does not necessarily mean that patients had progressive disease on entry, it would certainly have included patients with significant disease burden. Additional notes The term treatment-naïve means no treatment with, for example, drugs, cytotoxics, chemoembolization or radiotherapy, before study entry. It does not exclude surgical resection of the primary tumour. 69% of patients in the octreotide LAR 30 mg arm had resection of the primary tumour, but had liver metastases. 31% of patients had locally inoperable disease because of the size of the tumour or large lymph nodes. In total, 86% of patients had liver metastases. 75% of patients in the study had a hepatic tumour load of ≤10%. One of the strengths of the PROMID study is that in order to include a homogeneous patient population, only one group of tumours was included. Midgut NETs represent the largest subgroup of NETs, and by targeting these patients, the PROMID study addressed the question of the antiproliferative effects of octreotide LAR 30 mg in the largest homogeneous NET patient population.
Baseline characteristics of the patients were well balanced between treatment arms. The median time between diagnosis and randomization for the whole group was 4.3 months, however that seen in the placebo group was 3.3 months compared with 7.5 months in the octreotide LAR 30 mg group. Although the time since diagnosis appears to be nearly twice as long in the octreotide LAR 30 mg group, this is due largely in part to the inclusion of two patients in the octreotide LAR 30 mg treatment arm with a much longer time since diagnosis than patients in the placebo arm which skewed the results. About 40% of all patients had functioning tumours (carcinoid syndrome). 75% of patients had low tumour load (tumour load ≤10%). Tumour load ≤10% was seen in 32/42 (76%) patients in the octreotide LAR 30 mg group and 32/43 (74%) patients in the placebo group. The primary tumour had been removed in 66% of patients. Ki-67 was below 2% in 97.6% of octreotide LAR 30 mg recipients and in 93% of patients receiving placebo. CgA was elevated in 62% of the octreotide LAR 30 mg arm and in 70% of the placebo arm. These criteria indicate that, at randomization, all midgut NETs were comparable in their classification. Rinke A, Müller HH, Schade-Brittinger C, et al. J Clin Oncol . 2009;27:4656-4663.
In this study, 61.2% of patients had a non-functioning midgut NET and 38.8% of patients had a functioning tumour (carcinoid syndrome). Only those patients with mild carcinoid syndrome who tolerated flushing without intervention or responded to treatment with loperamide and/or cholestyramine in cases of diarrhoea were included. In patients with non-functioning NETs, there were 9/25 tumour progressions or tumour-related deaths in the octreotide LAR 30 mg group (TTP 28.8 months), compared with 24/27 events in the placebo group (TTP 5.91 months) [HR=0.25; P =0.0008]. There were fewer patients with functioning NETs than non-functioning NETs enrolled in the study. In patients with functioning NETs in the octreotide LAR 30 mg group, there were 11/17 events with a median TTP of 14.26 months. In the placebo group there were 14/16 events and a median TTP of 5.45 months (HR=0.23; P =0.0007). This analysis tells us is that while all patients in the PROMID study benefited from octreotide LAR 30 mg therapy, those patients with non-functioning NETs experienced the most benefit. This is a key finding of the PROMID study. Recent treatment guidelines are being updated to recommend octreotide LAR 30 mg as a therapeutic option in patients with non-functioning NETs which are progressive and metastatic.
RADIANT-3 is a prospective, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled phase III trial assessing the efficacy and safety of everolimus plus best supportive care vs. placebo plus best supportive care in patients with advanced pNET. This is the largest phase III randomized trial ever to be conducted in advanced pNET The trial accrued more rapidly than anticipated, meeting full enrollment in less than 2 years. In total, 410 patients were enrolled. The study was designed to detect a hazard ratio of 0.67 with 282 events needed to achieve 92% power. The primary endpoint of this trial was progression-free survival per investigator assessment. Secondary endpoints include safety and overall survival. Patients with advanced pNET and radiological progression within the preceding 12 months were randomized 1:1 to everolimus plus best supportive care versus placebo plus best supportive care. Best supportive care may include the use of somatostatin analogs. There are two stratification factors: Prior cytotoxic chemotherapy WHO performance status at baseline (0 vs. 1-2) Multi-phasic CTs and/or MRIs were performed every 12 weeks for response evaluation. Treatment continued until progression, unacceptable toxicity, or withdrawal. The patient may have discontinued participation in the study for any of the following reasons: Disease progression Adverse event(s) Abnormal laboratory value(s) Abnormal test procedure result(s) Protocol deviation Subject withdrew consent Lost to follow-up Administrative problems New cancer therapy Death At progression, patients were unblinded and if on placebo allowed to crossover to open label everolimus. Ninety-one percent (91%) of eligible patients who had progressed (148 out of 163) on the placebo arm received open label everolimus at the time of progression. Reference: Yao JC, Shah M, Ito T, et al. 35 th ESMO Congress 2010; Milan, Italy. Abstract #LBA9
Results of the PFS analysis as per central review were consistent with and support those generated from the local investigator assessment. Central review resulted in a hazard ratio of 0.34 and P -value of less than 0.0001, reflecting a 66% PFS risk reduction Median PFS values were also consistent with those reported for the local investigator assessment. The median PFS was 11.4 months with everolimus and 5.4 months with placebo. The prolongation in median PFS was 6.0 months. Reference: Yao JC, Shah M, Ito T, et al. 35 th ESMO Congress 2010; Milan, Italy. Abstract # LBA9
Median OS was not reached for either treatment group. The final analysis of OS will take place when approximately 250 deaths are reached. As expected when this trial was designed to allow crossover at the time of progression, no statistically significant difference was observed between the two treatment groups (HR= 1.05; 95% CI [0.71-1.55]; P =0.594). Crossover occurred for 148 (73%) of the 203 patients initially randomized to placebo prior to the data cut-off date. When considering placebo patients who had disease progression and were thus eligible for crossover, 148 out of 163 patients (91%) received open label everolimus. Subsequent use of other anti-neoplastic therapies after discontinuation of the study medication and crossover treatment with open label everolimus further confounded OS. There were a total of 101 deaths at the time of the data cut-off (February 28, 2010). Reference: Yao JC, Shah M, Ito T, et al. 35 th ESMO Congress 2010; Milan, Italy. Abstract #LBA9
This is a summary as presented by Dr Yao at the 35th European Society for Medical Oncologist Congress.
Median overall survival varies by primary site as well as stage of disease (SEER data excludes all benign malignancies). The primary tumour site was found to be a powerful predictor of survival duration ( P < 0.001). In NET locations such as the lung, cecum, appendix, and small bowel there is little difference between local and regional spread in respect to poor prognosis. In contrast, prognosis is greatly affected in locations such as the colon, gastric, pancreas and rectum in relation to localized or regional NET. Overall, distant metastasis correlate with poor prognosis irrespective of the site of NET origin. In summary, disease site and disease spread alone are independent factors influencing prognosis but this varies dependent on location of NET. Reference: 1. Yao JC, Hassan M, Phan A, et al. J Clin Oncol. 2008;26:3063–3072.
