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Ls Tools And Principles
Preface

The changing business environment along with fierce competition and
pressures from the investors have forced even highly stable and mature
organizations to look for ways of improving productivity and excellence in
every echelon of business. The business gurus and perfectionists have
long been in the process of coining theories and suggesting methodologies
for transforming businesses and sustaining Excellencies. These strategic
initiatives really provide miracle benefits, alone; General Electric claims
benefits worth US $ 12b from six sigma initiatives.


The challenges faced by the various manufacturing sectors are even more
severe and required a pool of strategies to be remained in business.
Though Operational Excellence tools provide equally good mechanism of
achieving accelerated excellence in services and non manufacturing sector
yet it’s applicability in manufacturing sector have harvested un parallel
results and we believe can do even far more better.


Operational excellence is the most advance form of strategic initiatives and
combines all the theories and methodologies in the journey to excellence.
Substantial amount of material on the subject is available on the Internet in
the form of publications, books and articles. Our focus was to exploit these
sources and develop a guide book covering important principles and tools
required for embedding operational excellence as a way of life in
convenient desk top book form.


All our efforts were to precise and concise the available material into a
meaningful and useful publication. Hope, our humble effort will help in
reinforcing the understanding of Operational Excellence Philosophy.



Dr. Abid Ali                                               Sajjad Shaukat
Operational Excellence – Principles and Tools
                          Table of Contents

1. Data Analysis and Presentation
    a. Pareto Charts
    b. Histogram
    c. Radar Analysis
2. Issue Analysis
    a.   5 Whys
    b.   Brainstorming
    c.   Issue Diagrams
    d.   Fishbone Diagram
    e.   Reality Tree
3. Preparing For Change
    a.   FMEA
    b.   Force Field Analysis
    c.   Gantt Chart
    d.   Project Start
    e.   DMAIC Process
4. Process Mapping
    a.   Time Value Map
    b.   Logical Flow Chart
    c.   Value Stream Mapping
    d.   Load Charts
    e.   IPO Diagram
5. Problem Solving
    a. Problem Solving Method
6. Organizing the Workplace
    a. 5 S
    b. Visual Factory
7. Statistical Process Control
    a. SPC / Control Charts
    b. Design of Experiments (DOE)
8. Meeting Tools
    a. Spacer
    b. AAR
9. Additional Tools
    a.   Prioritization Model
    b.   Kaizen Blitz
    c.   Six Sigma Vs Lean Sigma
    d.   Kanbans
Ls Tools And Principles
DATA ANALYSIS & PRESENTATION

                       Pareto Charts




 Purpose: To focus efforts on the problems that offers the
   greatest potential for improvement by showing their
  relative frequency or size in a descending bar graph.

 When To Use It

 It can be used to help a team focus on the causes that will have
 the greatest impact if solved. It displays the relative importance
 of problems in a simple, quickly interpreted, visual format. Pareto
 Charts also help prevent “shifting the problem” where the
 “solution” removes some causes but worsens others.

 Underlying Principle

 The theory behind Pareto Charts originated in 1897 when an
 Italian economist called Vilfredo Pareto created a formula
 representing the uneven distribution of wealth. It showed that
 20% of the Italy’s population earned 80% of the wealth. This is
 otherwise known as the 80-20 rule. The Pareto Principle was
 extended to: 20% of the sources are responsible for 80% of any
 issue. This principle was then applied to defect analysis,
 separating the ‘Vital Few’ from the ‘Trivial Many’. The graphical
 illustration of this, the Pareto Chart, shows the relative frequency
 of the sources to provide a prioritisation tool to help organise
 process improvement activities.
Construction:
  PLEASE NOTE THAT GUIDELINES TO TAKE YOU THROUGH THE
  EXCEL SPREADSHEET PRODUCTION OF PARETO CHARTS ARE
          PRESENTED AT THE END OF THIS SECTION.

1. Decide which problem you want to know more about.
 E.g. Being late to work

2. Choose the causes or problems that will be monitored,
   compared and ranked.
    This can be done by brainstorming or with data collection.

   For brainstorming (see Brainstorming Module) ask what might
   be the typical causes, issues or problems surrounding your
   general problem area.
   Collect all ideas and then choose the top six - ten issues.

   If using the brainstorming method, use Post It notes, with only
   1 idea clearly written on each Post-It note in felt tip pen.

    E.g. reasons for being late:
    - Oversleeping                        (oversleep)
    - Things to be done at home           (house tasks)
    - Arguing with spouse/ children       (argue)
    - Leaving things behind               (go back)
    - Traffic                             (traffic)
    - Had to take kids to school          (kids)
    For data collecting, base these top six - ten issues on existing
    data.
3. Choose the most meaningful unit of measurement for your
   issues.
    This will normally be one of:
      - time
      - frequency
      - cost
      - size
      - errors
E.g. frequency

4. Choose the relevant period of time to be studied.
   For example, if measuring late deliveries to the customer,
   doing it over a month may show a different pattern to
   collecting data over a week. While Fridays may regularly show
   late deliveries, it may actually be that the bulk of the problems
   occur at month end or at a particularly busy period in the
   month. Longer studies tend to translate to better information.

       E.g. 1 month

5. Gather the necessary data on each problem category either by
   ’real time’ or reviewing historical data.
L = late
                          SEPTEMBER 2001
MON TUES WED THURS                       FRI  SAT     SUN
                                                      1    2

3 L-   kids   4 L-
                 go   5       6           7           8    9
              back
10 L-         11      12      13 L-       14          15   16
traffic                       Oversleep
17            18 L-   19 L-   20 L -      21 L-       22   23
              kids    kids    oversleep   oversleep
24 L-         25      26      27 L-       28          29   30
traffic                       oversleep

6. Put the data into a table reflecting the unit of measurement and
   its percentage of the overall total.
REASON FOR LATENESS           FREQUENCY PERCENT
                                        OF TOTAL
Traffic                           2       20%
Oversleeping                      4       40%
Take kids to school               3       30%
Left something behind at home     1       10%
Arguing with spouse/ kids         0         0
Things to be done at home         0         0
TOTAL                             10      100%

7. Compare the relative frequency or cost of each problem
   category.

8. Construct your chart.
   Place the problem categories along the bottom axis (the
   horizontal one).
   At the beginning of this axis, place the problem category that
   has the highest measurement unit, (in our example,
   frequency) from your data compilation. Then place the next
   highest frequency category, then the next highest etc.

   On the tall axis (the vertical one) place the numbers
   measuring the frequency of each problem category.




     TIP: If you started out with more than 5 or six
     categories, you may like to group the
     remaining categories with insignificant
     frequencies into an ‘Other’ category.
BEING LATE TO WORK

                                      5

               Number of Times Late
                                      4


                                      3


                                      2


                                      1


                                      0
                                             Oversleeping   Take kids to        Traff ic        Left             Arguing    Home tasks
                                                              school                         something
                                                                                               behind
                                                                                                                   FREQUENCY
                                                                           Reasons For Being Late




            9. Draw the cumulative percentage line showing the portion of the
               total that each problem category represents.

                                                               BEING LATE TO WORK

             4.5                                                                                                      120
               4
                                                                                                                      100
             3.5
FREQUENCY




               3                                                                                                      80
             2.5                                                                                                                FREQUENCY
                                                                                                                      60
               2                                                                                                                cumulative freq
             1.5                                                                                                      40
               1
                                                                                                                      20
             0.5
               0                                                                                                      0
                                                                                nd
                                                      ol
                         ng




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            O




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                                                                      REASONS



            We can now see from our Cumulative Frequency line that the first
            two causes contribute 70% of the total reasons.
However it is important to remember that this chart only shows
      one measurement. If for example, our late to work chart was then
      calculated with how many minutes each event made you late, you
      may get quite a different picture.
REASON FOR LATENESS                               FREQUENCY               HOW LATE        TOTAL MINS
                                                  (from original graph)   (MINUTES)          LATE
Traffic                                                    2                  15            30 mins
Oversleeping                                               4                  10            40 mins
Take kids to school                                        3                  45           135 mins
Left something behind at home                              1                  20            20 mins
Arguing with spouse/ kids                                  0                   5             0 mins
Things to be done at home                                  0                  10             0 mins
      By incorporating this into our graph, we can see that even though
      we are most often late by oversleeping, it is when we have to take
      the kids to school that causes the substantial lateness.


                                         BEING LATE TO WORK
                                160                                                       120
                                140                                                       100
         Minutes late




                                120
                                100                                                       80
                                 80                                                       60
                                 60                                                       40
                                 40
                                 20                                                       20
                                  0                                                       0
                                                 ol


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                                                                                      total minutes late
                                      ve




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                                                                                      cumulative freq
                          ke




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                                                  Reasons for being late

                        TOOL TAKEAWAY: (remember this if nothing else!) – The
                        most important thing about Pareto charts is to make sure you are
                        analysing the right unit of measurement, in order to effect the real
                        underlying issue.
Computer Tips

Use Excel to complete your Pareto charts.

Make the table of your data collection into an excel spreadsheet.
Make sure you include the column titles for whatever unit of
measurement you have used, along the top of the table with the
causes listed down the left hand side and the frequency recorded
in the columns. Your table should have three columns, with the
Causes, Frequency and Cumulative Percentage total in the third
column. Make sure your Categories are in the correct order with
the most frequent at the top of the table.
REASON FOR LATENESS     FREQUENCY cumulative %
Oversleeping                4         40
Take kids to school         3         70
Traffic                     2         90
Left something behind       1        100
Arguing                     0        100
Home tasks                  0        100


Once your table is complete, highlight the table, then use the
Chart Wizard button to complete the Chart.
The chart wizard button looks like

Alternatively on the Chart drop down menu at the top of the page,
select the ‘Chart’ option.

Click on the chart wizard and a dialogue box will come up with
two option tabs at the top; Standard Types or Custom Types.
Select Custom Types, scroll down the chart types until you reach
“Line – Column on 2 Axes”.

Once this is selected, click on ‘next’ button at the bottom of the
dialogue box.

The next step of the Chart Wizard will bring up the text you have
previously highlighted from your table.
You should have the Series to be displayed in ‘columns’.
Once this is done, click on
At Step three of the chart wizard you should enter in the title of
your chart, and the titles of the axes. The X axis is the title of
your categories i.e. Reasons For Being Late, while the Y axis is
the unit of measurement used, i.e. Number of times late.
Click on Next once these boxes are complete.

Select the option to have the graph as an object in either your
current worksheet, or if you want the graph on a whole separate
page, then select it to be placed as a new sheet.
Click on finish and your graph will appear.

To change any of the details, highlight your chart again and go
through the steps until you reach the information you want to
change.

Alternatively if you click on the part of the chart you want to
change (i.e. titles, formatting etc) it should let you change it.

Note any changes to the data in your original table will
automatically be reflected in your Pareto Chart.

Interpretation

Generally, the tallest bars indicate the biggest contributors to the
overall problem. So normally you would pick these categories to
deal with first.

However you need to remember that Pareto charts only deal with
one dimension at a time, and other variables may have an impact
on your decision making.

See some of the variations suggested below to provide further
ideas on interpretation.

Variations

The Pareto Chart is one of the most widely and relatively used
improvement tools. The variations used most frequently are:
A. Major Cause Breakdowns in which the “tallest bar” is
        broken into subcauses in a second, linked Pareto.

    For example- breaking down the causes for oversleeping
    might come down to:
    - forgot to set alarm
    - late night the night before
    - children up all night
    - slept through the alarm

     B. Before and After in which the “new Pareto” bars are
        drawn side by side with the original Pareto, showing the
        effect of a change. It can be drawn as one chart or two
        separate charts.

     C. Change the Source of Data in which data is collected
        on the same problem but from different departments,
        locations, equipment, and so on, and shown in side-by-
        side Pareto Charts.

     D. Change Measurement Scale in which the same
        categories are used but measured differently. Typically
        “cost” and “frequency” are alternated.
        (in this module, frequency and time were used)

Example Problems (Good to practise on)

* There is never enough milk in the fridge
* Types of errors on letters
* Types of department complaints

For Further Information:

See your mentor expert
See your local advocate
Check the ‘Memory Jogger’ book (held by advocate)
DATA ANALYSIS & PRESENTATION

                        Histograms




    Purpose: It is a visual summary of data that is often
 difficult to understand in a spreadsheet or tabular form. A
 histogram summarises data from a process that has been
  collected over a period of time, and graphically presents
          its frequency distribution in bar chart form.

 When To Use It

 Histograms are useful when you are looking at one issue or
 problem and trying to make sense of the data collected. It helps
 you to see whether a piece of data is in the mainstream or is an
 extreme.
 Histograms also reflect a range of information, for example, how
 long it takes people to do a certain task, heights of people in a
 group etc.

   PLEASE NOTE THAT GUIDELINES TO TAKE YOU THROUGH THE
    EXCEL SPREADSHEET PRODUCTION OF HISTOGRAMS ARE
    PRESENTED AT THE END OF THE CONSTRUCTION SECTION .

 Construction:

 1. Decide on the area you wish to investigate.
2. Decide what you want to measure about the issue. Your data
   must be variable, i.e. measured on a continuous scale. For
   example: temperature, time, dimensions, height, weight,
   speed, cost.
i.e. monthly rental on 1 bedroom flat in London

3. Collect data on the issue. The more data points you have the
   more useful your graph will be.
     50 is a good number of data points, as it will reflect any
     trends. Normally over 50 data points should be collected to
     see meaningful patterns.


 MONTHLY RENTALS FOR 1 BEDROOM FLATS IN LONDON

710      735      740        800       935       980        820
855      920      840        870       790       800        880
910      1010     790        695       840       820        860
870      870      660        835       945       910        995
990      1000     1040       880       845       780        785
775      710      715        875       890       875        930
750      750      965        1000      840       840        695
835      910      780        840       780       900        975


        TIP: You might also want to consider collecting
        data for a specific period of time, depending on
        the topic. These may be values recorded on an
        issue within an hour, a shift, a day, a week etc.




4. Divide your data into ‘classes’. This is a measure of grouping
   all your data into sections.

      One way to determine how many classes you should have is
      the square root rule. Take the number of data points
collected, and find the square root.            Round it up to the
    nearest whole number




    TIP: as a rough guide, consider this for the
    number of classes.
    NO. OF DATA POINTS NO. OF CLASSES
    Under 50                5-7
    6-10
    7-12
    Over 250                10-20


    i.e. n = 56 √56 = 7.48 = 8

5. Determine the range.
     Take the lowest value in your data points and subtract it
     from the highest value.
     i.e. 1040 – 660 = 380

6. Now you know how many classes you are going to have, you
   need to know how big to make those classes.
     To do this, divide the range by the number of classes and
     round up.
     i.e. 380 ÷ 8 = 47.5 = 50 (rounded up to nearest 10)


      TIP: It is usually more useful if all class widths are
      the same. It is easier to compare the areas of 2
      rectangles of equal width than to compare the areas
      of 2 rectangles with different widths.

        TIP: Depending on your data, you may find it
        easier to start at your lowest value and go up in
        groups of 1, 10, 20, or 100 – whichever seems
        most obviously appropriate for your data.
        i.e. heights – classes of 2 inches at a time
             rents - £50 intervals at a time
7. Now construct your classes.
         It is important that your first class should contain your lowest
         value and your last class should contain your highest value.
         If the first or last class is empty, you may need to change the
         class width, the number of classes or the anchoring (the
         number system) of the classes.

                            650 - 699
                            700 – 749
                            750 – 799
                            800 – 849
                            850 – 899
                            900 – 949
                            950 – 999
                           1000 - 1049

    8. For a final check on your classes, look to make sure they are:
         - exhaustive – so every data point can be inserted into a
         class. The classes must span the entire range of data
         collected.
         - mutually exclusive - the classes do not overlap and each
         data point fits into only 1 class.

           The usual procedure is to assume that each class interval
           opens on the left and closes on the right.


                            Class 1 = 0 – 5 , not incl. 6
                            Class 2 = from 6 up, but not incl. 12
                            Class 3 = from 12 up, but not incl. 18
                            Class 4 = from 18 up, but not incl. 24
                            Class 5 = from 24 up, but not incl. 30
                            Class 6 = from 30 up, but not incl. 36

6   12   18 24   30   36
    So the data point 18 would belong in the 4 th class, not the third
    class.

    9. Now distribute your data amongst your classes.
650 - 699     660 695 695
700 – 749     710 735 740 710 715
750 – 799     790 790 780 785 775                         750   750      780 780
800 – 849     800 820 840 800 840                         820   835      845 840 840 835 840
850 – 899     855 880 860 870 870                         880   875      890 875 870
900 – 949     935 920 910 945 910                         910   930      900
950 – 999     980 990 995 975 965
1000 - 1049   1010 1000 1040 1000


      10. Plot the classes along the X (horizontal) axis.
              99


                       9


                                 9


                                         9


                                                  9


                                                          9


                                                                  9


                                                                           9
                                                                         04
                     74


                              79

                                      84


                                               89


                                                       94


                                                                99
          -6




                                                                      -1
                           –




                                             –
                   –




                                     –




                                                      –


                                                              –
          0




                          0




                                           0
                 0




                                  0




                                                   0


                                                            0
        65




                                                                    00
                                         85
               70


                       75


                                80




                                                 90


                                                          95

                                                                  10




                                      Monthly Rent (£)



      11. Decide on the intervals for the Y axis. This should be in
        whole numbers and may be in intervals of 1, 2, 5 or 10
        depending on how many data points are collected. Once again
        it will depend on the range or frequency of your data.

      12. For each of your classes, count the number of data items
        that fall into that category (see Variations section for Stem and
        Leaf diagram). Bring the bar up to this level on the Y axis.
Repeat for each one of your classes.


                           Monthly Rent paid on 1 bedroom
                                   flats in London

            14
            12
Frequency




            10
              8
              6
              4
              2
              0




                                                                                   9
                             9


                                      9


                                               9


                                                        9


                                                                 9


                                                                          9
                   99




                                                                                04
                           74


                                    79


                                             84


                                                      89


                                                               94


                                                                        99
              -6




                                                                              -1
                        –


                                 –


                                          –


                                                   –


                                                            –


                                                                     –
               0


                       0


                                0


                                         0


                                                  0


                                                           0


                                                                    0


                                                                            00
            65


                    70


                             75


                                      80


                                               85


                                                        90


                                                                 95


                                                                         10

                                          Monthly Rent (£)                    Frequency


             Computer Tips

             Use Excel to complete your Histograms.

             Make the table of your data collection into an excel spreadsheet.
             Have a column containing your classes and a second column of
             their frequency.

             Once your table is complete, highlight the table, including column
             titles then use the Chart Wizard button to complete the Chart.
             The chart wizard button looks like

             Alternatively on the Chart drop down menu at the top of the page,
             select the ‘Chart’ option.
Click on the chart wizard and a dialogue box will come up with
two option tabs at the top; Standard Types or Custom Types.
Select Standard Types, and highlight “Column”.

Once this is selected, click on ‘next’ button at the bottom of the
dialogue box.

The next step of the Chart Wizard will bring up the text you have
previously highlighted from your table.
You should have the Series to be displayed in ‘columns’.
Once this is done, click on

At Step three of the chart wizard you should enter in the title of
your chart, and the titles of the axes. The X axis is the title of
your categories i.e. Monthly Rent (£), while the Y axis is the unit
of measurement used, i.e. Frequency.
Click on Next once these boxes are complete.

Select the option to have the graph as an object in either your
current worksheet, or if you want the graph on a whole separate
page, then select it to be placed as a new sheet.
Click on finish and your graph will appear.

To change any of the details, highlight your chart again and go
through the steps until you reach the information you want to
change.

Alternatively if you click on the part of the chart you want to
change (i.e. titles, formatting etc) it should let you change it.

Note any changes to the data in your original table will
automatically be reflected in your Histogram.

Interpretation

Histograms show centering, dispersion (spread) and shape
(relative frequency) of data.
The shape of the Histogram (the frequency distribution) tells us a
lost about probability. If a height Histogram was representative of
the overall population, we could conclude the probability of finding
people v. short (under 65 inches) or very tall (over 72 inches) is
low.

The shape of this distribution is called the normal distribution and
looks like a bell shaped curve.




Most sets of data fall into a ‘normal’ distribution i.e. there are a lot
of medium height people and a few tall and a few short in most
populations.

As a Histogram picks up these patterns and expresses them in a
graphical form it makes it easy to highlight whether a piece of data
is in the mainstream or at an extreme.

Not all data falls conveniently into a normal distribution.
Other main possibilities include:




POSITIVELY SKEWED               NEGATIVELY SKEWED

BI-MODAL                        FLAT OR UNITARY
To interpret your Histogram you need to ask:
Why this shaped distribution and what is it telling us?

For example, if assessing how long it took to perform a certain
task and it falls into normal distribution, you may look to cut out
the extremes, in order to have more values fall into the centre.

Alternatively if it is a skewed distribution you may only need to
adjust 1 extreme.

Histograms can be good comparison diagrams. Constructing a
second Histogram some time after the original may reflect the
changes made as steps taken to improve processes.
     JUNE              DECEMBER




10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24   10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
26                        26
         (seconds)                 (seconds)
TIME TAKEN TO ANSWER TELEPHONE (seconds)

Here you can see an improvement in times from June to
December, suggesting that measures put in place after June have
had an effect and increased performance.


Histograms can also be used to examine your data for accuracy
and/or process changes.




      FIGURE A                      FIGURE B
Figure A is a Histogram with a fairly symmetrical shape with no
obvious outliers (extreme data values) which might be due to an
error or process change.

However figure B may reflect that the far right data is not a part of
the symmetric shaped Histogram.

So it may be a good idea to investigate the far right data in order
to check whether it is incorrect, inaccurate or something in the
process changed when that data was collected.

Variations

Stem & Leaf Display

The Stem & leaf Display is a cross between a frequency
distribution and a histogram.
It reflects the shape of the histogram, but displays all the original
data points, providing some more detail. While a histogram will
show you how many values may fall in a class, it will not reflect
the pattern of that data, i.e. Whether or not all the data in the
class 18-24 is made up of mostly 18 scores or if it is evenly
distributed across the class.

The ‘stem’ of the diagram is normally determined by the leading
digit in your collected data.
The following ‘leaves’ are then all the numbers in that data set.

For example, if I was collecting data on ages of people buying the
latest Oasis CD, I might come up with the following data
collection:


  18       16       30       29       28       21       17
  41        8       17       32       26       16       24
  27       17       17       33       19       18       31
  27       23       38       33       14       13       26
  11       28       21       19       25       22       17
12       21       21        25       26       23        20
  22       19       21        14       45       15        24

Given that all our data was all integers with one or 2 digits, we
can use the tens digit as our choice for the stem. The leaf is then
the following digit, as illustrated below.
Alternatively you can use the classes already determined in
preparing your histogram.

Sort or order the data, then the following diagram can be
displayed.

Stem            Leaf
0               8
1               123445667777788999
2               0111112233445566677889
3               0123348
4               15

So the Stem & Leaf display still shows the individual elements in
each class, while still retaining the ‘feel’ or ‘shape’ of a histogram.

Example Problems (Good to practise on)

* ages of people at work
* how many cups of tea people drink
* how long it takes people to get to work

For Further Information:

See your mentor expert
See your local advocate
Check the ‘Memory Jogger’ book(held by advocates)
DATA ANALYSIS & PRESENTATION

                        Radar Charts




      Purpose: To visually show in one graphic the size of
       gaps among a number of both current performance
             areas and ideal performance areas.
 When To Use It

 Radar Charts are useful to illustrate strengths and weaknesses in
 important areas of performance.

 Construction:
   PLEASE NOTE THAT GUIDELINES TO TAKE YOU THROUGH THE
   EXCEL SPREADSHEET PRODUCTION OF RADAR CHARTS ARE
           PRESENTED AT THE END OF THIS SECTION.

 1. Decide on the issue to be assessed.           It may be the
    performance of an organization, groups or process.
 i.e. skill areas I need to improve to go for a job promotion

 2. Assemble the right team of people capable of rating the
    selected organization, group or process. Try to get varied
    perspectives to avoid ‘blind spots’.
 i.e. probably just me, or if appropriate, my boss or my partner

 3. Select the rating categories. On average, choose between 5-
    10 categories you want to rate performance on.
Brainstorm to create the categories. Alternatively, if you
     have done previous study of this issue, you may like to use
     the category headings from an Issue Diagram (see Issue
     Diagram Module)

i.e. people management
     budgeting
     problem solving & facilitation
     communication skills
     computer skills
     industry knowledge & experience

4. One you have your headings, if possible see if there are any
   similarities between them.
     For example you may like to have the categories of Financial
     Performance and Share Price close together or Number of
     Staff and Training for example.

          i.e.      people management
                    communication skills
                    problem solving & facilitation
                    budgeting
                    computer skills
                    industry knowledge & experience

5. Once selected, define your rating categories. Determine the
   definition on non-performance and full performance within each
   category so that ratings are done consistently. For each
   definition assign it a number in a range. Make it the same
   number for all categories.
i.e. 1 = non performance, 5 = full performance
CATEGORY                  1            2           3           4             5
People             No experience           Managed teams           Managed teams of at
Management         managing people         of at least 5           least 10 people in a
                                           people                  variety of situations.
                                                                   (min 5 different
                                                                   situations)
Communication      Problem                 Good at                 Comfortable with
Skills             communicating           presenting on           communicating with
                   with people;            topics to various       all levels of staff in
                   formally or             groups                  many situations
                   informally
Prob Solv &        Unable to work          Can demonstrate         Comfortable taking
Facilitation       through Prob            problem solving         unfamiliar groups
                   Solving process         skills in small         through complex
                   independently           groups                  problem solving
                                                                   workshops
Budgeting          No experience of        Able to budget          Advanced level of
                   managing or             and stick to            budgeting skills; able
                   being responsible       budget on less          to deliver accurate
                   for a budget            complex projects        budgets on complex
                                                                   issues
Computer Skills    Limited                 Substantial             Advanced knowledge
                   knowledge of            knowledge of            of Word, Excel,
                   Microsoft word          word, excel,            Powerpoint, Access
                   and excel               powerpoint and          and Microsoft Project
                                           access
Industry Know. &   Role experience         Worked in wide          Worked in more than
Exp                in 1 sector             range of roles          one company in the
                                           within the              industry, in a range of
                                           company over the        roles over last 10
                                           last five years         years.


     6. Decide what rating your ideal should contain in each of the
        categories. This can be done based on a subjective
        assessment, or on information available, but should be agreed
        upon by the whole group.
     JOB XYZ COMPETENCIES                              RATING REQUIRED
     People Management                                         5
     Communication Skills                                      5
     Problem Solving & Facilitation Skills                     5
     Budgeting                                                 3
     Computer Skills                                           3
     Industry Knowledge & Experience                           4
7. Using a large piece of flipchart paper, draw as many spokes as
   there are rating categories.

     Write down each rating category at the end of each spoke
     around the perimeter of the wheel, paying attention to any
     links you highlighted between categories in step 4, placing
     them next to each other.

     Mark each spoke on a 0 to ‘n’ scale where n is the highest
     number on your scale in step 5 = highest performance. The
     ‘0’ at the centre is equal to ‘no performance’.
8. Rate all performance categories.           Performance can be



                           People Management
                                  5
                                  4
   Industry Know ledge &          3            Communication Skills
        Experience                2
                                  1
                                  0


         Computer Skills                       Problem Solving & Facilitation


                               Budgeting


  measured objectively or subjectively.

     Get each individual to make their own rating.
     These ratings can either be recorded on your Radar Chart
     using markers or coloured stickers directly on to the flipchart
     or they can be written down.

     Once individual ratings have been determined, the final
     ratings for each category should be decided by either
     consensus or an average of individual scores.
JOB XYZ COMPETENCIES                         CURRENT RATING

People Management                                        3
Communication Skills                                     4
Problem Solving & Facilitation Skills                    3
Budgeting                                                4
Computer Skills                                          3
Industry Knowledge & Experience                          2


9. Record final ratings on chart, as well as the required rating
   measures.


     TIP: make team ratings highly visible on the chart
     – make sure it is distinguishable from individual
     team members ratings if these have been recorded
     directly on to the flipchart.




10. Connect the team ratings for each category and highlight as
  needed.

                JOB XYZ COMPETENCIES
                        People Management
                             5
                             4
 Industry Knowledge &        3              Communication Skills
      Experience             2
                             1
                             0
                                            Problem Solving &
      Computer Skills
                                               Facilitation


                            Budgeting
                                              CURRENT RATING
                                              REQUIRED RATING
Computer Tips

Use Excel to complete your Radar Charts.

Make the table of your data collection into an excel spreadsheet.
Have one column for your Category heading, one column for your
Required Rating and one column for your Current Rating.
Once your table is complete, highlight the table, then use the
Chart Wizard button to complete the Chart.
The chart wizard button looks like

Alternatively on the Chart drop down menu at the top of the page,
select the ‘Chart’ option.

Click on the chart wizard and a dialogue box will come up with
two option tabs at the top; Standard Types or Custom Types.
Select Standard Types, and highlight “Radar”.

Once this is selected, click on ‘next’ button at the bottom of the
dialogue box.

The next step of the Chart Wizard will bring up the text you have
previously highlighted from your table.
You should have the Series to be displayed in ‘columns’.
Once this is done, click on

At Step three of the chart wizard you need to enter in the title of
your chart.
Click on Next once this is complete.

Select the option to have the graph as an object in either your
current worksheet, or if you want the graph on a whole separate
page, then select it to be placed as a new sheet.
Click on finish and your graph will appear.

To change any of the details, highlight your chart again and go
through the steps until you reach the information you want to
change.
Alternatively if you click on the part of the chart you want to
change (i.e. titles, formatting etc) it should let you change it.

Note any changes to the data in your original table will
automatically be reflected in your Radar Chart.

Interpretation

The interpretation of your Radar Chart lies in the difference
between the two shapes. The Radar chart will show you what
areas you have not yet reached the required performance level
and also what areas you have exceeded the required
performance level.

Using our example, our skill level was fine for the competencies
of Computer Skills and Budgeting, but our skill levels were not up
to the required level for Industry Knowledge & Experience, People
Management, Communication and Problem Solving & Facilitation
Skills.

The overall ratings will identify the categories with the biggest
performance gaps.      However it will not show the relative
importance of the categories themselves.

For example, the potential employer may believe that not being
up to scratch on People Management is not as important as
having the right level of skills for Communication. They may
decide that sending you on a course will take you near enough to
the required level.

When selecting a performance measure to improve, work on the
biggest gap in the most critical category.

For our job at XYZ, the area requiring the most work might be our
Industry Knowledge & Experience and our Problem Solving &
Facilitation skills.

The Radar Chart works well as a visual ‘report card’. It
can be used to review progress towards a required
state over time. Post the Radar Chart in a prominent
place. Review progress regularly and update the chart
accordingly.
Variations

A Radar Chart doesn’t have to measure performance but can also
be a pictorial reflection of the ‘shape’ of the issue, reflecting its
priorities.

Given the same categories the shape can then be redrawn to
reflect the change needed to move away from the ‘old’ shape to
the ‘new’ shape.
Work can then begin on how to achieve this process.

One Radar Chart can also reflect the range of ratings within the
team, the average team rating, the deserved level of performance
for each category and the level required to be world class
standard per that category.

Example Problems (Good to practise on)

* 5s in your area (see module on 5S)
* options for buying a new car

For Further Information:

See your mentor expert
See your local advocate
Check the ‘Memory Jogger’ book (held by advocates)
Ls Tools And Principles
ISSUES ANALYSIS

                   5 Whys Analysis




 Purpose: To be able to move past symptoms and get to
           the true root cause of a problem.

When To Use It

The 5 Whys Analysis is a good tool to use when you quickly want
to get to the root cause of a problem. It can be used in
conjunction with a Fishbone Analysis (see Fishbone Analysis
Module) and Pareto Chart (see Pareto Chart Module).

Construction:

The 5 Whys Analysis is a brainstorming technique that identifies
root cause by asking WHY events occurred or conditions existed.

The simple yet powerful tool gets you write down the problem and
ask why, peeling back the layers unitl you get to a root cause.
It involves selecting one event associated with an action and asks
why the event occurred. This produces the most direct cause for
each event. Then, for each of these sub events or cause, in turn
you need to ask why that happened.
It has been found that by the time you ask why 5 times, and got 5
sensible answers, you can normally see where the problem
originated, thereby enabling you to treat the root cause rather
than the symptoms.
Example of Using 5 Whys To Discover Root Cause

PROBLEM:        There is a damp patch on the ceiling


Because water is dripping through from the roof


Because there is a hole under the eaves


Because birds have been nesting there


Because they can’t nest in the trees


Because there are no trees tall enough for them to stay out of
reach of the cat!!

So need to secure hole in eaves and provide birdhouse that cat
can’t get to.
      TIP: Ensure that the 5 Whys still make sense
      when you read them backwards.




If you can’t finish the 5 Whys, because you get stuck on an ‘I
don’t know’ answer, you need to go out and find out why, before
continuing with the 5 Whys Analysis.
Example from a kitchen range manufacturer

PROBLEM: There is too much work in process inventory, yet we
never seem to have the right parts.
                              WHY? 1


The enamelling process is unpredictable, and the press room
does not respond quickly enough.

                              WHY? 2


It takes them too long to make a changeover between parts, so
the lot sizes are too big, and often the wrong parts.

                              WHY? 3

Many of the stamping dies make several different parts, and
must be reconfigured in the tool room between runs, which takes
as long as eight hours.
                              WHY? 4

The original project management team had cost overruns on the
building site work, so they skimped on the number of dies they
traded dedicated dies and small lot sizes for high work-in process
(which was not measured by their project budget!)

                              WHY? 5
ROOT CAUSE:
Company management did not understand lean Manufacturing
and they did not set appropriate targets when the plant was
launched.

   TIP: Quite often, a 5 Whys Analysis will point to the
Example using themanagement or training issue!
   root cause being a template:
This template gathers information to help you complete your 5
Whys Analysis. This form captures historical data, problem
priorities, Pareto analysis, corrective action and verification.




1. As you can see from the template, the first step is to establish
   the primary cause of the error. You can do this by either using
   a Pareto Chart (See Pareto Chart Module) or a Fishbone
   Diagram (See Fishbone Diagram Module).
2. Once the top cause has been selected, then ask the question
   as to why that happens 5 times.

3. Once root cause is determined, establish temporary and
   permanent measures to correct the error.

4. Update in three months time to show improvement.

Historical Example:


        FOR WANT OF A NAIL A SHOE WAS LOST
       FOR WANT OF A SHOE A HORSE WAS LOST
      FOR WANT OF A HORSE A RIDER WAS LOST
      FOR WANT OF A RIDER AN ARMY WAS LOST
     FOR WANT OF AN ARMY A BATTLE WAS LOST
       FOR WANT OF A BATTLE A WAR WAS LOST
      FOR WANT OF A WAR A KINGDOM WAS LOST
 AND ALL FOR THE WANT OF A LITTLE HORSESHOE NAIL.
Example Problems (Good to practise on)

* why is the monthly report always late?
* why do I always get injured playing sport?
* why do we have high staff turnover in our department?

For Further Information:

See your mentor expert
See your local advocate
ISSUES ANALYSIS

                     Brainstorming




  Purpose: To establish a common method for teams to
 creatively and efficiently generate a high volume of ideas
 on any topic by creating a process that is free of criticism
                        and judgment.

When To Use It

Can be used individually, but is usually more effective in a group
when you need to generate a lot of ideas; whether they be
solutions or causes or data.
Brainstorming is a well known but often badly practised technique
– it is important to learn to use it properly.

Also remember that many solutions to complex problems come
from ideas that might seem ‘crazy’ at first, so brainstorming is
intended to encourage fresh thinking and ‘crazy’ ideas.

Rules For Brainstorming:
There are five simple rules designed to prevent barriers to the
flow of ideas.
1. NO CRITICISM
There should be no criticism of any ideas thrown up during a
session. This means suspending any judgement of ideas and
suggestions until the appropriate time.


   TIP: This can be very challenging and difficult to deal with!
   Perhaps have a forfeit of penalty system for those “Yes,
   but…” people.
   This should also apply to body language as well, which
   can also be negative and critical.
   Also, make sure you don’t succumb to self censorship,
   criticising in your head what you are thinking that might
   stop you from suggesting ideas.




No criticism is important as what may seem unrealistic and way
off base can sometimes be enough to develop into a good idea or
inspire someone else along a different track altogether.

Remember that the brain is a complex machine and our thoughts
are rarely in a logical ordered fashion, but instead tend to jump
around randomly – there is no telling what can spark off a great
suggestion from someone else.

2. FREEWHEELING
Often we have our best ideas when our brain waves are in the so-
called ‘Theta’ pattern. This occurs when we are just dropping off
to sleep, just waking up, driving on a long journey or relaxing in a
bath or shower, times during which our minds roam free. It is this
state you should try and encourage in a brainstorming session.
As such, freewheeling encourages people to come up with
random ideas ‘off the top of their heads’. Don’t worry about how


       TIP: Maybe spend a few minutes concentrating
       on the most way-out ideas possible concerning
       the current topic as part of your brainstorming
       session.
impractical the ideas are. In fact brainstorming sessions are much
more effective if really crazy ideas are encouraged.
There are two ways to record the ideas from the brainstorm.
The first is to have everyone call out the ideas and have a scribe
write them down. This lets others generate ideas from everyone
else’s ideas, but it can be difficult to get all the ideas down and
quieter members of the group may not be heard.
The second approach is to have individuals’ complete Post-It
notes, using 1 Post-It per idea. This approach is effective where
you may have a mix of seniority or someone that exerts personal
power and others withdraw. It can also let you move the ideas
around once the brainstorming process is finished. However, be
aware that the Post-It note approaches which can sometimes
mean people get caught up in their own thinking channel without
an opportunity to be inspired by the ideas from everyone else. If
the Post-It note approach is used, ensure there is time set aside
to read out each of the Post-It notes – with NO criticism – and
then a few further minutes for any last minute brainstorms.

To decide which approach to use, the facilitator should ask the
group which approach they would prefer, and try and gain
consensus.
Whichever approach is used, the facilitator needs to make sure
the points noted are accurate and specific enough.


3. QUANTITY
Brainstorming promotes quantity over quality. Take existing
suggestions or ideas and use them as a springboard for further
possibilities.

Typically groups might like to aim at producing 100 ideas in 20
minutes, although if a brainstorming session is going well, a list of
250 ideas can easily be produced.

4. RECORD ALL IDEAS
Every single idea must be written down, however extraordinary it
may seem, and even if it is that same as a previous idea but
expressed in a different way.
It is also important to make sure the group can see the list being
compiled.
The scribe, who should be someone different to the facilitator,
needs to write the ideas on flipchart paper and the sheets need to
be posted around the room when full so that they remain in view
and therefore ‘live’.

   TIP: All team members should be prepared to help the
   scribe get all ideas down by repeating themselves. The
   scribe should abbreviate as much as possible without
   changing the content of the suggestion.




5. INCUBATE
If possible, give yourself an opportunity to process the ideas.
‘Sleeping on it’ ensures you have had the chance to really think
about the brainstormed suggestions. This is not always possible
but do try and put some kind of break in there, even if it is just for
5 or 10 minutes.


      TIP: Many problem solving groups incubate their
      brainstorming sessions for a week and come back to
      the lists at the next group meeting with a further few
      minutes of brainstorming to see if any more ideas
      have occurred to anyone during the week.


Steps For Running Brainstorming Meetings:

As well as the rules of brainstorming there are also some steps to
note in running a successful brainstorming meeting and
evaluating the ideas after they have been incubated.

     Step One:
Restate, write up and reinforce the rules of Brainstorming! It
can be easy to assume everyone can slot into the role of
brainstorming- they won’t. So make sure you promote the
rules and stick to them.




              1. NO CRITICISM
              2.FREEWHEEL
              3.QUANTITY
              4.RECORD ALL
              IDEAS
              5. INCUBATE




Step Two:
Write up the subject to be brainstormed.

This can either be a problem statement, or a subject
proceeded by the phrase “what are all the ways we can…?”

Make sure you do write the heading up clearly to make sure
the group stays focussed on the topic at hand.
Ensure the statement is clearly stated and everyone has the
same understanding.

 TIP: If using a problem statement, make sure it
 doesn’t seem to suggest a solution. Problem
 statements that read “We need more space”
 suggest a solution that will have everyone only
 thinking down one track. A better problem statement
 would be “The work area is congested”.



Step Three:
Start the ideas coming.
You can do this in a structured way by going around the
room and taking it in turns to call out ideas. If someone can
not think of a suggestion he or she just says ‘pass’ and the
next person carries on so as not to halt the flow of ideas.
This way makes sure everyone is involved and ideas come
one at a time which makes it easier to record them.

However the unstructured approach is generally more
popular.
This is more a free for all session, letting anyone call out an
idea at any time. This is more difficult for the person writing
to keep up with, but has the advantage of letting the ideas
come more freely which results in better quality
brainstorming.

Let people know how long the generating ideas part will go
for; this will make it easier for people to suspend their
negative tendencies to criticise and evaluate immediately if




they know how long they have to suspend them for.
However make sure you remain flexible with this rule.
Sometimes there can be a lot lost by restricting people to
time – if ideas are flowing, or conversely not flowing at all,
people may need a bit more time.

The role of facilitator is important here. The facilitator should
be able to appreciate when to step in to start off the flow of
ideas and when to ease off and let the ideas run. Once the
flow of ideas has started to plateau or stall, the facilitator
should step in and try rephrasing the topic to get a different
    angle. Example questions might be:
-   What would you like done differently about XYZ?
-   What’s dumb about what we do?
-   What do other people perceive as problems in this area?
-   What things or areas could we make better?

    Towards the end of the time ask for any last suggestions to
    give people a chance to get any last thoughts down.

    Step Four:
    Record all ideas and make sure the list is visible to all group
    members as mentioned in Brainstorming Rule 4.




    Step Five:
    As mentioned in rule 5 of the Brainstorming rules, incubating
    the ideas is an important and valuable part of the process.
    Maybe post the list of brainstormed suggestions somewhere
    in the work area. This keeps the subject in mind and can
    help the incubation process.

    Step Six:
    Now you need to evaluate the ideas. The best way of
    organising the evaluation is to begin by grouping the items
    on the list into themes. This should be before any items are
    rejected as being impractical.

    Once sorted, each theme can then be examined to find
    instant winners, ideas that can be quickly and easily
    implemented.
    For a problem solving session you can also evaluate the
    ideas using the Pareto Principle (see module on Pareto
Charts) to isolate the one or two ideas that would solve most
of the problem.
Variations

To generate the flow of ideas you may like to switch between the
structured and unstructured method of brainstorming. If the group
is silent early on, or if the manager has had a lot of input early on,
start off in the freewheeling mode and then switch to the round
robin, structured fashion.
Or if people start to fidget waiting for their turn, switch to the free
wheeling session, but ensure everyone gets a turn to be heard.

Try and make your brainstorming sessions something different.
Another rule could be: Don’t Treat It Like A Meeting. Sitting
around a table can be boring, so encourage people to get up and
pace around or even just stay standing - this can contribute to
the ‘Eureka!’ effect.
You may also like to give everyone access to paper and bright
coloured pens. Sometimes just doodling can spark off ideas, or
alternatively instead of writing the statement to be brainstormed,
draw the situation to further stimulate creative minds.

One further idea is to bring in at least one employee who
is NOT affiliated intimately with the initiative being discussed. This
allows an impartial witness to any short-sightedness and lets you
show other departments how good you are!!

The following are two articles written about the brainstorming
process at Ideo, one of Silicone Valleys foremost creative product
design companies.
7 Secrets to Good Brainstorming
Generating rafts of good ideas is Ideo’s business. Here’s how this
world-class product-development firm keeps the lightbulbs blazing
bright.
by Linda Tischler

According to The Economist's Innovation Survey, half of the U.S.
economy's current growth comes from companies that didn't exist 10 years
ago. Corporate titans have learned to fear the prodigy in his dorm room or
the garage-based whiz kid who's forging a bullet with their company's name
on it. "Innovate or die" is not an idle threat. It's the harsh reality of the
modern, fast-forward economy.
Silicon Valley-based Ideo has sparked some of the most innovative products
of the past decade -- the Apple mouse, the Polaroid I-Zone Pocket Camera,
and the Palm V, among others. But Ideo staffers don't just sit around
waiting for good ideas to pop into their heads. The company has
institutionalized a process whereby ideas are coaxed to the surface through
regular, structured brainstorming sessions. At Ideo, idea-generation
exercises are "practically a religion," Kelley says.
On any given day, multiple brainstorming sessions may spawn hundreds of
ideas and burn through just as many chocolate-chip cookies, the preferred
fuel of world-class idea mongers. Indeed, collective idea generation is so
important at Ideo that a staffer caught trying to noodle a problem alone at
his desk may be called on the carpet for wasting his time and the client's
money.
"The social ecology at many American companies says that when you're
stuck, you're supposed to go back to your desk and think harder, because
you were hired for your skills," Kelley says. "At Ideo, the culture is exactly
the opposite. You have a social obligation to get help."
But a poorly planned brainstorming session could cause more harm than
good, That's why Ideo follows strict rules for sparking good ideas.
Some are simple truths: Morning meetings work best; 3 - 10 participants
should take part; and cookies always spur creativity. Some, like those
outlined below, are a bit more refined.

1. Sharpen the focus.
Start with a well-honed statement of the problem at hand. Edgy is better
than fuzzy. The best topic statements focus outward on a specific customer
need or service enhancement rather than inward on some organizational
goal.

2. Write playful rules.
Ideo's primary brainstorming rules are simple: "Defer judgment" and "One
conversation at a time." The firm believes in its rules so strongly that they're
stenciled in 8-inch letters on conference-room walls. "If I'm the facilitator
and somebody starts a critique or people start talking, I can enforce the
rules without making it feel personal," Kelley says. Other rules include, "Go
for quantity," "Be visual," and "Encourage wild ideas."

3. Number your ideas.
"This rule seems counterintuitive -- the opposite of creativity," Kelley says.
"But numbered lists create goals to motivate participants. You can say, 'Let's
try to get to 100 ideas.' Also, lists provide a reference point if you want to
jump back and forth between ideas."

4. Build and jump.
Most brainstorming sessions follow a power curve: They start out slowly,
build to a crescendo, and then start to plateau. The best facilitators nurture
the conversation in its early stages, step out of the way as the ideas start to
flow, and then jump in again when energy starts to peter out.
"We go for two things in a brainstorm: fluency and flexibility," Kelley says.
"Fluency is a very rapid flow of ideas, so there's never more than a moment
of silence. Flexibility is approaching the same idea from different
viewpoints."

5. Make the space remember.
Good facilitators should also write ideas down on an accessible surface. Ideo
used to hold its brainstorms in rooms wallpapered with whiteboards or
butcher paper. Lately, however, the group has started using easel-sized
Post-it notes. "When the facilitator tries to pull together all the ideas after
the session," Kelley says, "she can stack up nice, tidy rectangular things
instead of spreading butcher paper all the way down the hall."

6. Stretch your mental muscles.
Brainstorming, like marathon running, should begin with warm-up exercises.
Ideo studied various methods of prepping for a session. For a project on the
toy industry, for example, Ideo divided the group into three teams: The first
team did no preparation. The second listened to a lecture on the technology
involved and read background books. The third team took a field trip to a
toy store. Far and away, the toy-store team produced ideas in greater
quantity and quality than the other two.

7. Get physical.
At Ideo, brainstorming sessions are often occasions for show-and-tell.
Participants bring examples of competitors' products, objects that relate to
the problem, or elegant solutions from other fields as springboards for ideas.
Ideo also keeps materials on hand -- blocks, foam core, tubing -- to build
crude models of a concept.
Six Surefire Ways to Kill a Brainstorm

Coming up with good ideas -- even in an ideal environment -- is hard
work. But these tactics will guarantee failure.
by Linda Tischler

A poorly planned brainstorming session could cause more harm than good.
And more frustration than anything else. That's why Silicon Valley design
firm Ideo follows strict rules for sparking good ideas.
These are not those rules.
The six strategies below are absolute no-no's -- surefire innovation killers
from Tom Kelley, general manger of Ideo Product Development.

1. Let the boss speak first.
Nothing kills a brainstorming session like a dominating CEO or the
brownnosers who rush to agree with his every statement. Ideo recommends
that bosses lock themselves out of idea-generation sessions all together.
Send him out for doughnuts, and you'll get better results.




2. Give everybody a turn.
Kelley remembers packing 16 people into a room for one particular meeting.
Each person had two minutes to speak. It was democratic. It was painful. It
was pointless. It was a performance, not a brainstorm. "In a real
brainstorm, the focus should never be on just one person," Kelley says.

3. Ask the experts only.
When it comes to generating truly innovative ideas, deep expertise in a field
can actually be a drawback. "In a brainstorm, we're looking for breadth,"
Kelley says. Cross-pollination from seemingly unrelated fields can lead to
authentic breakthroughs.

4. Go off-site.
By conducting off-site brainstorming sessions, you only reinforce the concept
that great ideas only come on the beach or at high altitudes -- not in the
proximity of your daily work.

5. No silly stuff.
Kelley remembers one brainstorming session doomed by the boss's opening
remarks: All ideas had to result in something the firm could patent and
manufacture. The silence that followed was deafening. Silly is important.
Wild ideas are welcome. Brainstorming should be fun.

6. Write down everything.
Obsessive note taking is toxic to brainstorming. It shifts the focus to the
wrong side of the brain. It makes the session feel like History 101. Doodles
and sketches are fine. A short note that preserves a thought is acceptable.
But detailed writing destroys momentum, dissipates energy, and distracts
from the main purpose of the exercise: unfettered thinking. Each session
should have an assigned scribe who records suggestions. And that person
should not be the group facilitator.


Example Problems (Good to practise on)

* Where to go for my birthday
* Christmas presents
* Coming up with a name for a rock band
* Promotion ideas for a business

For Further Information:
See your mentor expert
See your local advocate
ISSUES ANALYSIS

                   Issue Diagrams




   Purpose: To identify the problem attributes and the
  specific areas that you are going to address. It will not
                     provide solutions.

When To Use It

The Issue Diagram is a tool that you can use as an individual
when you have a specific problem/ objective or in a team
environment where you are trying to get consensus in what the
problem is. It can be especially powerful in multi-functional
discussions.
You can use the Issue Diagram when you have a lot of issues
around a topic as it allows you to organise and summarise natural
groupings to understand the essence of a problem.

Construction:
Two methods: Top Down and Bottom Up.
Generally Bottom Up is easiest to use.
Bottom Up:

1. Place 2-3 pieces of Flipchart paper on the wall.

2. On a whiteboard, or separate piece of Flipchart paper,
   write a broad problem statement. It should be as
   generic as possible and brought into by everybody.
   i.e. “I can’t afford to buy a house”
   Alternatively you can write down an effect
   i.e. “The Zido cycle is too long”

3. Brainstorm by asking “what are all the issues
   contributing to this problem?”.
   Follow the brainstorming rules (see Brainstorming
   Module).
   A quick summary of the brainstorming rules are:




              1. NO CRITICISM
              2. FREEWHEEL
              3. QUANTITY
              4. RECORD ALL IDEAS
              5. INCUBATE
4. Use thin tipped felt pens on Post-It notes. This makes it
                easy for everyone to read. It is also important to use
                Post-Its so that you can shift ideas into groups as
                necessary. Make sure there is only 1 idea per Post-It.
             5. Be prepared to put things to one side if you are getting
                bogged down – return when appropriate. Don’t allow
                solutions to be discussed. Don’t lay blame – encourage
                openness and honesty.


                    I CAN’T AFFORD TO BUY A HOUSE
 Interest
 rates too                     Don’t earn          Market                        Bank
                               enough              prices too                    requirements
 high                                                             Started
                                                   high                          too strict
                                                                  smoking
In competition
                      Haven’t saved         Preferred
with other buyer
                      enough for            house too big                         Problem with
                      deposit               and expensive                         bank & savings
                                                                Need to keep      history
                   TIP: You may like to initially limit the number of Post-Its
                                                                 savings for
                                            Not earning
                   given out in order to make it interest to pullbackup – job
                                            good
                                                   easier         the diagram
                        Bills too high
 Money tied                                 rate total of aboutsituationissues
                   together. Aim for a potentialon                30-40              Only looking
 up in shares      and distribute a set number of Post-Its to group
                                            savings                                  in expensive
                                                                                     area
                   members (depending on the number of people in the
                   group), remembering to stick to 1 issue per Post-It.
                      TIP: Don’t make your points too technical.
                      Outputs are often shared with people outside
                      the meeting or workshop – so try to avoid using
                      language they might not understand.



             6. Collate the issues into groups. You should aim to have
                3-6 major categories. If you have too many more you
                will end up with too much detail.

             7. It should be up to the facilitator to decide the process
                for grouping. Depending on time, the facilitator may like
                to start grouping while everyone else is brainstorming.
                The facilitator may also like to do the sorting if they
                have a pre determined idea of the sort of groups they
would like to see it split into. This doesn’t need to be a
        hard and fast sorting process but good as a prompt.
         Alternatively, without talking, get everyone to sort the ideas
         simultaneously. Sorting in silence will focus everyone on the
         meaning behind and the connections among all ideas, instead
         of emotions and ‘history’ that often arrives in discussions.
        Move the Post-Its where they fit best for you; don’t ask,
        simply move any notes you think belong in another grouping.
        If an idea is moved back & forth, try to see the logical
        connection the other person is making. It may be a good idea
        to create a duplicate Post-It if agreement can’t be reached.



            TIP: It is ok for some notes to stand alone. These
            loners can be as important as others that fit into
            groupings naturally.



                I CAN’T AFFORD TOi BUY A HOUSE

Interest
rates too                        Don’t earn
                                                             Market
high                             enough
                                                             prices too
                                                             high
Not earning
good interest
                                Haven’t saved                In competition
rate on
                                enough for                   with other buyer
savings
                                deposit

                                Bills too high
Money tied
                                                            Preferred
up in shares
                                                            house too big
                                                            and expensive
                                Need to keep
Bank                            savings for
                                                             Only looking
requirements                    backup – job
too strict                                                   in expensive
                                situation                    area

Problem with                     Started
bank & savings                   smoking
history
8. Write a statement that summarises each group on a
   header card or Post-It. It is possible a Post-It within the
   grouping becomes a header card. However don’t just
   choose the “closest one” because its convenient.
   Creating a new, accurate header card can often lead to
   breakthrough ideas.

    BANK                                        HOUSE
                      EARNINGS &                MARKET
                             EXPE




9. Test each ‘major category’. Are they mutually
   exclusive? If not, why not? Review the categories to
   make them mutually exclusive.

10. Refine and tighten the original problem statement.

I’M HAVING PROBLEMS SAVING FOR A HOUSE DEPOSIT


11. Review the diagram.

  Have all the issues been captured? Can any of the
  major categories be broken down further? Do they need
  to be?
I’M HAVING PROBLEMS SAVING FOR A HOUSE DEPOSIT




   BANK                                 HOUSE
                    EARNINGS &          MARKET
                           EXPE


    Interest           Don’t earn         Market
    rates too          enough             prices too
    high                                  high



    Not earning      Haven’t saved      In competition
    good interest    enough for         with other buyer
    rate on          deposit
    savings


                       Bills too high   Preferred
    Money tied                          house too big
    up in shares                        and expensive


                     Need to keep
  Bank                                    Only looking
  requirements       savings for          in expensive
  too strict         backup – job         area
                     situation


Problem with           Started
bank & savings         smoking
history
Top Down:

       1.   Place 2-3 pieces of Flipchart paper on the wall.

       2.   Start with a problem statement. Place it at the top of
            the page.

    I AM HAVING PROBLEMS SAVING FOR A HOUSE DEPOSIT




            TIP: Make sure your problem statement doesn’t
            seem to suggest a solution. Problem statements that
            read “We need more space” suggest a solution that
            will have everyone only thinking down one track. A
            better problem statement would be “The work area is
            congested”.




       3.   Brainstorm ‘major categories’ that are contributing to
            the problem. Write them descending from the
            problem statement. Aim for 3-6 major categories


  I AM HAVING PROBLEMS SAVING FOR A HOUSE DEPOSIT


                                          AMOUNT FOR
SPENDING         INVESTMENT                                       EARNINGS
                                            DEPOSIT
4.     Test each ‘major category’. Are they mutually
       exclusive? If not, why not? Review the categories to
       make them mutually exclusive. Make sure there is no
       overlap between categories. This is because you
       want to spend your time sorting your issues – not
       arguing over the most appropriate category!

5.      Take each ‘major category’ and break down into
        specific components. Brainstorm.
     Following the brainstorming rules (see module on
     Brainstorming), brainstorm all of the issues that are
     contributing to the problem.
     A quick summary of the brainstorming rules are:




               1. NO CRITICISM
               2. FREEWHEEL
               3. QUANTITY
               4. RECORD ALL IDEAS
               5. INCUBATE




6.     Use thin tipped felt pens on Post-It notes. This makes
       it easy for everyone to read. It is also important to
       use Post-Its so that you can shift ideas into groups as
       necessary.
7.   Be prepared to put things to one side if you are
     getting bogged down – return when appropriate.
     Don’t allow solutions to be discussed. Don’t lay
     blame – encourage openness and honesty.
I AM HAVING PROBLEMS SAVING FOR A HOUSE DEPOSIT




 SPENDING         INVESTMENT         AMOUNT FOR        EARNINGS
                                       DEPOSIT

  Rent               Interest Rate     Size Of           Salary
                                       House
  Bills              Amount
                                       Lenders           Job
                     Invested                            Stability
  Entertainment                        Requirement
  Hobbies            Type Of           Savings
                     Account                             Type Of
                                       History           Job
  Transport
                     Money Tied        Amount            Promotion
  Road               Up In Shares      Already Saved     Opportunity
  Luxuries i.e                         Area House
  cigarettes                           is In             Overtime
                                                         available
  Clothes                              Other
                                       Buyers            Bonuses
  Insurance
                                                         Qualifications
  Holidays

  Children

   8.     Review the issue diagram have all of the issues been
          captured? Can any of the major categories be broken
          down further? Do they need to be?
Ls Tools And Principles
I AM HAVING PROBLEMS SAVING FOR A HOUSE DEPOSIT




 SPENDING         INVESTMENT        AMOUNT FOR        EARNINGS
                                      DEPOSIT

  Rent              Interest Rate     Size Of           Salary
                                      House
  Bills             Amount
                                      Lenders           Job
   Gas              Invested                            Stability
   Phone                              Requirement
   Electric
                    Type Of           Savings
                    Account                             Type Of
                                      History           Job
  Entertainment
                    Money Tied        Amount            Promotion
  Hobbies           Up In Shares      Already Saved     Opportunity
                                      Area House
  Transport                                             Overtime
                                      is In
                                                        available
  Food
                                      Other
                                      Buyers            Bonuses
  Luxuries i.e
  cigarettes                                            Qualifications

  Clothes

  Insurance
     Contents
     Car
     Medical

  Holidays

  Children
Interpretation

Look at the issue diagram and through the team identify
the perceived major causes for the problem. Prove the
major cause i.e. collate data to prove the theory
Move to Solution mode – identify what you are going to
do.
You may choose to deal with the area with the most
causes, or some causes may stick out as being more
significant than others.

Example Problems (Good to practise on)

Deciding what school to send your children to
Deciding where to go on holiday
A process is taking too long
The work area is too crowded

For Further Information:

See your mentor expert
See your local advocate
Check the ‘Memory Jogger’ book(held by advocates
ISSUES ANALYSIS

Cause & Effect / Fishbone Analysis




  Purpose: To determine the root cause(s) of the
problem so that solutions will have an impact on the
real problem and not just the effects of the problem.

When To Use It

When you need to explore, identify and graphically
display, in increasing detail, all of the possible causes or
variables related to a problem, condition or process to
discover its root cause.

Construction:
1. Decide what you are trying to achieve.
Are you trying to solve a problem or are you trying to
identify variables in a process?

For a problem solving tool, devise the problem statement
that best describes the issue you want to determine the
root cause of.
This statement should describe the problem, be clear and
concise and understood by everyone.
i.e. The car is going through petrol faster
TIP: Make sure your problem statement doesn’t
     seem to suggest a solution. Problem statements that
     read “We need more space” suggest a solution that
     will have everyone only thinking down one track. A
     better problem statement would be “The work area is
     congested”.




If using the tool to identify variables in a process, then
write down the name of the process. E.g. hplc method
reference

2.    Tape together 3 pieces of flipchart paper and place
      on wall.

3.    Write the problem statement/ process name in a box
      in the middle of the far right hand side of the paper,
      at the ‘head’ of the fish, followed by a line which is
      the ‘backbone’.
                                                            PROBLEM
                                                           STATEMENT/
                                                            PROCESS



4.    Depending on which version you are using, there are
      two ways to categorise the causes.

The causes can be determined by
a) representing each step in the process involved (a
   process classification type fishbone) or
b) deciding the ‘major’ causes for problem solving and
   then asking of each major cause: - ‘why does this
   happen?’ (a dispersion analysis type fishbone)

5.    From the ‘back bone’ of the fish, draw one fishbone
      for each major cause category or step in the process.
For a Process Classification Type Fishbone, a maximum
  of 6-8 major steps should be identified, to ensure major
  classes of cause.

  For a Dispersion Analysis Type Fishbone, the most
  common way to group the major causes is under the 6 M
  categories:  Manpower/      Machines/     Measurement/
  Methods/ Materials/ Mother Earth (Environment).

 MANPOWER      MACHINES          ENVIRONMENTAL



                                                             PROBLEM
                                                            STATEMENT




MEASUREMENT     METHODS          MATERIALS



        TIP: Other types of groupings may be Places/
        Procedures/ People/ Policies or Surroundings/
        Suppliers/ Systems/ Skills.
        Don’t confine yourself to these however; add and
        delete categories as you feel are appropriate.
        Make the categories fit the problem. For example,
        particular problem statements may mean you
        need to focus on areas such as Communications
        or Training, so you should add a ‘fishbone’ for
        this.



  6.   Generate the major causes to build the diagram.
       These causes many come from:
           - brainstorming (see Brainstorming Module)
           - data collection
Group members can call out suggestions for causes/
variables to the facilitator. The group member should also
state which category the cause comes under. If they don’t
know, then the facilitator should decide, as opening up a
discussion for each cause will make the process very
long!

Another recommended alternative is to use Post It notes
for each idea. This makes it easier to move causes around
between category as well as re-word them at a later date if
necessary.
Also use thin tipped felt tip pens so that everyone can
read the Post Its.

If you are having problems getting ideas started, use the
cause categories as catalyst questions.
For example, what in “materials” might cause the car to be
going through petrol faster?

7.   Make sure you follow the Brainstorming rules to get
     the best ideas. Remember Brainstorming is about
     quantity   over   quality.  (Refer   Module     on
     Brainstorming).
A quick summary of the brainstorming rules are:




             1.   NO CRITICISM
             2.   FREEWHEEL
             3.   QUANTITY
             4.   RECORD ALL IDEAS
             5.   INCUBATE




8.   Place the brainstormed or data based causes from
     Step 3 in the appropriate categories on the ‘bones’.
MEASUREMENT                METHODS                MATERIALS
                  Car not being            Poor quality
Odometer          maintained               of petrol
faulty


                          Driven with
                          window open
                                              Air filter blocked


Petrol gauge reading         Car used to
incorrect                    tow caravan
                                                                        THE CAR IS
                                                                        GOING
     Car being             Car is getting older                         THROUGH
     used more                                        Spend more time   PETROL FASTER
                          Handbrake left on           in traffic jams

                           Petrol Leak

  Different            Tires are wearing
  driver
                                                  Bad weather
                                                  conditions
                   Blown head gasket

                 Air conditioning on

MANPOWER                MACHINES              MOTHER NATURE

      9. For each cause listed on the bones, ask repeatedly:
      -why does it happen? OR
      -what could happen?
      This will give rise to a deeper understanding of the
      problem and identify further causes.
MEASUREMENT                         METHODS                                 MATERIALS
                    Car not being maintained                 Poor quality of petrol
Odometer                        too busy
faulty                          can’t afford                        change of supplier
Been damaged                    forget about it                     now using unleaded
                                                                    bits in petrol
                              Driven with window open
                                      window broken                            Air filter blocked
Petrol gauge incorrect
                                      hot
     Car not being maintained         muggy                                           getting old

                                           Car used to tow caravan
                                                                                                               THE CAR IS
                                                                                                                 GOING
                                             Car is getting older                                              THROUGH
        Car being used more                                                Spend more time in traffic jams   PETROL FASTER
        daughter using car                   Handbrake left on                  new job
        more shopping                     inexperienced driver                  new route to work
        more holidays                      Petrol Leak                          road works
        train strike                      hole in tank                          more accidents
                                          damaged pipes
 Different driver                  Tires are wearing                 Bad weather conditions
daughter just got    not enough air
licence                                                        English ‘summertime’
                     being driven badly by daughter            need to drive cautiously
change of owner
                             Blown head gasket                 due to road conditions
                         Air conditioning on
                            muggy hot weather
 MANPOWER                                 MACHINES                             MOTHER NATURE
10. Check for sufficiency along each bone – are all aspects of
      cause addressed?
If not, then add new category type and roots.

Interpretation

Interpret or test for root causes or drivers of the effect by one or
more of the following methods:

 Look for causes that appear repeatedly

 Looking for obvious clues – i.e. one branch of your fishbone
  having the majority of causes attached to it.

 Select key causes through an unstructured consensus process
  or one that is structured, such as multi voting.

 Gather data through check sheets or in other formats to
  determine the relative frequencies and weightings of the
  different causes.

The Cause & Effect Fishbone is an integral part of the PF/ CE/
CNX/ SOP process. For further details on this, please contact
your mentor expert.

Variations

FISHBONE SOLUTIONS DIAGRAM
The Fishbone diagram can also be used as a solution generating
tool, as opposed to a cause discovery tool.
To use it as a Solutions tool, follow Steps 1-3.
Then decide which categories you are going to brainstorm for
solutions to the problem. You may use the same category titles as
you have used for the Cause & Effect Fishbone.
Then follow the Brainstorming rules to come up with solutions in
each area.

OPEN AIR FISHBONE

Traditionally, Cause & Effect Diagrams have been created in a
meeting setting. The completed fishbone is reviewed by others
and or confirmed with data collection.

An effective alternative is to display a large, highly visible blank
fishbone chart with a problem statement at the head in a
prominent work area. Everyone posts both potential causes and
solutions on post-it notes in each of the categories.

Causes and solutions are reviewed, tested and posted.

This technique opens up the process to the knowledge and
creativity of every person in the operation.

Example Problems (Good to practise on)

PROBLEM SOLVING

•   There is never fresh milk in the fridge
•   The lawn mower keeps breaking down
•   I can’t get my reports in on time

PROCESS VARIABLES

•   Planning to go on holiday
•   Getting documents authorised


     Remember the Fishbone diagram only
     represents a point in time and it can be useful
     to revisit the tool to see if there are new
     causes or variables affecting the situation
     since improvements were made.
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Ls Tools And Principles

  • 2. Preface The changing business environment along with fierce competition and pressures from the investors have forced even highly stable and mature organizations to look for ways of improving productivity and excellence in every echelon of business. The business gurus and perfectionists have long been in the process of coining theories and suggesting methodologies for transforming businesses and sustaining Excellencies. These strategic initiatives really provide miracle benefits, alone; General Electric claims benefits worth US $ 12b from six sigma initiatives. The challenges faced by the various manufacturing sectors are even more severe and required a pool of strategies to be remained in business. Though Operational Excellence tools provide equally good mechanism of achieving accelerated excellence in services and non manufacturing sector yet it’s applicability in manufacturing sector have harvested un parallel results and we believe can do even far more better. Operational excellence is the most advance form of strategic initiatives and combines all the theories and methodologies in the journey to excellence. Substantial amount of material on the subject is available on the Internet in the form of publications, books and articles. Our focus was to exploit these sources and develop a guide book covering important principles and tools required for embedding operational excellence as a way of life in convenient desk top book form. All our efforts were to precise and concise the available material into a meaningful and useful publication. Hope, our humble effort will help in reinforcing the understanding of Operational Excellence Philosophy. Dr. Abid Ali Sajjad Shaukat
  • 3. Operational Excellence – Principles and Tools Table of Contents 1. Data Analysis and Presentation a. Pareto Charts b. Histogram c. Radar Analysis 2. Issue Analysis a. 5 Whys b. Brainstorming c. Issue Diagrams d. Fishbone Diagram e. Reality Tree 3. Preparing For Change a. FMEA b. Force Field Analysis c. Gantt Chart d. Project Start e. DMAIC Process 4. Process Mapping a. Time Value Map b. Logical Flow Chart c. Value Stream Mapping d. Load Charts e. IPO Diagram 5. Problem Solving a. Problem Solving Method 6. Organizing the Workplace a. 5 S b. Visual Factory 7. Statistical Process Control a. SPC / Control Charts b. Design of Experiments (DOE) 8. Meeting Tools a. Spacer b. AAR 9. Additional Tools a. Prioritization Model b. Kaizen Blitz c. Six Sigma Vs Lean Sigma d. Kanbans
  • 5. DATA ANALYSIS & PRESENTATION Pareto Charts Purpose: To focus efforts on the problems that offers the greatest potential for improvement by showing their relative frequency or size in a descending bar graph. When To Use It It can be used to help a team focus on the causes that will have the greatest impact if solved. It displays the relative importance of problems in a simple, quickly interpreted, visual format. Pareto Charts also help prevent “shifting the problem” where the “solution” removes some causes but worsens others. Underlying Principle The theory behind Pareto Charts originated in 1897 when an Italian economist called Vilfredo Pareto created a formula representing the uneven distribution of wealth. It showed that 20% of the Italy’s population earned 80% of the wealth. This is otherwise known as the 80-20 rule. The Pareto Principle was extended to: 20% of the sources are responsible for 80% of any issue. This principle was then applied to defect analysis, separating the ‘Vital Few’ from the ‘Trivial Many’. The graphical illustration of this, the Pareto Chart, shows the relative frequency of the sources to provide a prioritisation tool to help organise process improvement activities.
  • 6. Construction: PLEASE NOTE THAT GUIDELINES TO TAKE YOU THROUGH THE EXCEL SPREADSHEET PRODUCTION OF PARETO CHARTS ARE PRESENTED AT THE END OF THIS SECTION. 1. Decide which problem you want to know more about. E.g. Being late to work 2. Choose the causes or problems that will be monitored, compared and ranked. This can be done by brainstorming or with data collection. For brainstorming (see Brainstorming Module) ask what might be the typical causes, issues or problems surrounding your general problem area. Collect all ideas and then choose the top six - ten issues. If using the brainstorming method, use Post It notes, with only 1 idea clearly written on each Post-It note in felt tip pen. E.g. reasons for being late: - Oversleeping (oversleep) - Things to be done at home (house tasks) - Arguing with spouse/ children (argue) - Leaving things behind (go back) - Traffic (traffic) - Had to take kids to school (kids) For data collecting, base these top six - ten issues on existing data. 3. Choose the most meaningful unit of measurement for your issues. This will normally be one of: - time - frequency - cost - size - errors
  • 7. E.g. frequency 4. Choose the relevant period of time to be studied. For example, if measuring late deliveries to the customer, doing it over a month may show a different pattern to collecting data over a week. While Fridays may regularly show late deliveries, it may actually be that the bulk of the problems occur at month end or at a particularly busy period in the month. Longer studies tend to translate to better information. E.g. 1 month 5. Gather the necessary data on each problem category either by ’real time’ or reviewing historical data. L = late SEPTEMBER 2001 MON TUES WED THURS FRI SAT SUN 1 2 3 L- kids 4 L- go 5 6 7 8 9 back 10 L- 11 12 13 L- 14 15 16 traffic Oversleep 17 18 L- 19 L- 20 L - 21 L- 22 23 kids kids oversleep oversleep 24 L- 25 26 27 L- 28 29 30 traffic oversleep 6. Put the data into a table reflecting the unit of measurement and its percentage of the overall total.
  • 8. REASON FOR LATENESS FREQUENCY PERCENT OF TOTAL Traffic 2 20% Oversleeping 4 40% Take kids to school 3 30% Left something behind at home 1 10% Arguing with spouse/ kids 0 0 Things to be done at home 0 0 TOTAL 10 100% 7. Compare the relative frequency or cost of each problem category. 8. Construct your chart. Place the problem categories along the bottom axis (the horizontal one). At the beginning of this axis, place the problem category that has the highest measurement unit, (in our example, frequency) from your data compilation. Then place the next highest frequency category, then the next highest etc. On the tall axis (the vertical one) place the numbers measuring the frequency of each problem category. TIP: If you started out with more than 5 or six categories, you may like to group the remaining categories with insignificant frequencies into an ‘Other’ category.
  • 9. BEING LATE TO WORK 5 Number of Times Late 4 3 2 1 0 Oversleeping Take kids to Traff ic Left Arguing Home tasks school something behind FREQUENCY Reasons For Being Late 9. Draw the cumulative percentage line showing the portion of the total that each problem category represents. BEING LATE TO WORK 4.5 120 4 100 3.5 FREQUENCY 3 80 2.5 FREQUENCY 60 2 cumulative freq 1.5 40 1 20 0.5 0 0 nd ol ng s g fic sk in ho af hi pi gu ta Tr be sc ee Ar e l to ng rs m ve Ho hi ds O et ki om ke s Ta ft Le REASONS We can now see from our Cumulative Frequency line that the first two causes contribute 70% of the total reasons.
  • 10. However it is important to remember that this chart only shows one measurement. If for example, our late to work chart was then calculated with how many minutes each event made you late, you may get quite a different picture. REASON FOR LATENESS FREQUENCY HOW LATE TOTAL MINS (from original graph) (MINUTES) LATE Traffic 2 15 30 mins Oversleeping 4 10 40 mins Take kids to school 3 45 135 mins Left something behind at home 1 20 20 mins Arguing with spouse/ kids 0 5 0 mins Things to be done at home 0 10 0 mins By incorporating this into our graph, we can see that even though we are most often late by oversleeping, it is when we have to take the kids to school that causes the substantial lateness. BEING LATE TO WORK 160 120 140 100 Minutes late 120 100 80 80 60 60 40 40 20 20 0 0 ol g g s fic ... in in sk ho af be ep gu ta Tr sc le Ar ng e to rs m hi total minutes late ve Ho ds et O om ki cumulative freq ke s Ta ft Le Reasons for being late TOOL TAKEAWAY: (remember this if nothing else!) – The most important thing about Pareto charts is to make sure you are analysing the right unit of measurement, in order to effect the real underlying issue.
  • 11. Computer Tips Use Excel to complete your Pareto charts. Make the table of your data collection into an excel spreadsheet. Make sure you include the column titles for whatever unit of measurement you have used, along the top of the table with the causes listed down the left hand side and the frequency recorded in the columns. Your table should have three columns, with the Causes, Frequency and Cumulative Percentage total in the third column. Make sure your Categories are in the correct order with the most frequent at the top of the table. REASON FOR LATENESS FREQUENCY cumulative % Oversleeping 4 40 Take kids to school 3 70 Traffic 2 90 Left something behind 1 100 Arguing 0 100 Home tasks 0 100 Once your table is complete, highlight the table, then use the Chart Wizard button to complete the Chart. The chart wizard button looks like Alternatively on the Chart drop down menu at the top of the page, select the ‘Chart’ option. Click on the chart wizard and a dialogue box will come up with two option tabs at the top; Standard Types or Custom Types. Select Custom Types, scroll down the chart types until you reach “Line – Column on 2 Axes”. Once this is selected, click on ‘next’ button at the bottom of the dialogue box. The next step of the Chart Wizard will bring up the text you have previously highlighted from your table. You should have the Series to be displayed in ‘columns’. Once this is done, click on
  • 12. At Step three of the chart wizard you should enter in the title of your chart, and the titles of the axes. The X axis is the title of your categories i.e. Reasons For Being Late, while the Y axis is the unit of measurement used, i.e. Number of times late. Click on Next once these boxes are complete. Select the option to have the graph as an object in either your current worksheet, or if you want the graph on a whole separate page, then select it to be placed as a new sheet. Click on finish and your graph will appear. To change any of the details, highlight your chart again and go through the steps until you reach the information you want to change. Alternatively if you click on the part of the chart you want to change (i.e. titles, formatting etc) it should let you change it. Note any changes to the data in your original table will automatically be reflected in your Pareto Chart. Interpretation Generally, the tallest bars indicate the biggest contributors to the overall problem. So normally you would pick these categories to deal with first. However you need to remember that Pareto charts only deal with one dimension at a time, and other variables may have an impact on your decision making. See some of the variations suggested below to provide further ideas on interpretation. Variations The Pareto Chart is one of the most widely and relatively used improvement tools. The variations used most frequently are:
  • 13. A. Major Cause Breakdowns in which the “tallest bar” is broken into subcauses in a second, linked Pareto. For example- breaking down the causes for oversleeping might come down to: - forgot to set alarm - late night the night before - children up all night - slept through the alarm B. Before and After in which the “new Pareto” bars are drawn side by side with the original Pareto, showing the effect of a change. It can be drawn as one chart or two separate charts. C. Change the Source of Data in which data is collected on the same problem but from different departments, locations, equipment, and so on, and shown in side-by- side Pareto Charts. D. Change Measurement Scale in which the same categories are used but measured differently. Typically “cost” and “frequency” are alternated. (in this module, frequency and time were used) Example Problems (Good to practise on) * There is never enough milk in the fridge * Types of errors on letters * Types of department complaints For Further Information: See your mentor expert See your local advocate Check the ‘Memory Jogger’ book (held by advocate)
  • 14. DATA ANALYSIS & PRESENTATION Histograms Purpose: It is a visual summary of data that is often difficult to understand in a spreadsheet or tabular form. A histogram summarises data from a process that has been collected over a period of time, and graphically presents its frequency distribution in bar chart form. When To Use It Histograms are useful when you are looking at one issue or problem and trying to make sense of the data collected. It helps you to see whether a piece of data is in the mainstream or is an extreme. Histograms also reflect a range of information, for example, how long it takes people to do a certain task, heights of people in a group etc. PLEASE NOTE THAT GUIDELINES TO TAKE YOU THROUGH THE EXCEL SPREADSHEET PRODUCTION OF HISTOGRAMS ARE PRESENTED AT THE END OF THE CONSTRUCTION SECTION . Construction: 1. Decide on the area you wish to investigate.
  • 15. 2. Decide what you want to measure about the issue. Your data must be variable, i.e. measured on a continuous scale. For example: temperature, time, dimensions, height, weight, speed, cost. i.e. monthly rental on 1 bedroom flat in London 3. Collect data on the issue. The more data points you have the more useful your graph will be. 50 is a good number of data points, as it will reflect any trends. Normally over 50 data points should be collected to see meaningful patterns. MONTHLY RENTALS FOR 1 BEDROOM FLATS IN LONDON 710 735 740 800 935 980 820 855 920 840 870 790 800 880 910 1010 790 695 840 820 860 870 870 660 835 945 910 995 990 1000 1040 880 845 780 785 775 710 715 875 890 875 930 750 750 965 1000 840 840 695 835 910 780 840 780 900 975 TIP: You might also want to consider collecting data for a specific period of time, depending on the topic. These may be values recorded on an issue within an hour, a shift, a day, a week etc. 4. Divide your data into ‘classes’. This is a measure of grouping all your data into sections. One way to determine how many classes you should have is the square root rule. Take the number of data points
  • 16. collected, and find the square root. Round it up to the nearest whole number TIP: as a rough guide, consider this for the number of classes. NO. OF DATA POINTS NO. OF CLASSES Under 50 5-7 6-10 7-12 Over 250 10-20 i.e. n = 56 √56 = 7.48 = 8 5. Determine the range. Take the lowest value in your data points and subtract it from the highest value. i.e. 1040 – 660 = 380 6. Now you know how many classes you are going to have, you need to know how big to make those classes. To do this, divide the range by the number of classes and round up. i.e. 380 ÷ 8 = 47.5 = 50 (rounded up to nearest 10) TIP: It is usually more useful if all class widths are the same. It is easier to compare the areas of 2 rectangles of equal width than to compare the areas of 2 rectangles with different widths. TIP: Depending on your data, you may find it easier to start at your lowest value and go up in groups of 1, 10, 20, or 100 – whichever seems most obviously appropriate for your data. i.e. heights – classes of 2 inches at a time rents - £50 intervals at a time
  • 17. 7. Now construct your classes. It is important that your first class should contain your lowest value and your last class should contain your highest value. If the first or last class is empty, you may need to change the class width, the number of classes or the anchoring (the number system) of the classes. 650 - 699 700 – 749 750 – 799 800 – 849 850 – 899 900 – 949 950 – 999 1000 - 1049 8. For a final check on your classes, look to make sure they are: - exhaustive – so every data point can be inserted into a class. The classes must span the entire range of data collected. - mutually exclusive - the classes do not overlap and each data point fits into only 1 class. The usual procedure is to assume that each class interval opens on the left and closes on the right. Class 1 = 0 – 5 , not incl. 6 Class 2 = from 6 up, but not incl. 12 Class 3 = from 12 up, but not incl. 18 Class 4 = from 18 up, but not incl. 24 Class 5 = from 24 up, but not incl. 30 Class 6 = from 30 up, but not incl. 36 6 12 18 24 30 36 So the data point 18 would belong in the 4 th class, not the third class. 9. Now distribute your data amongst your classes.
  • 18. 650 - 699 660 695 695 700 – 749 710 735 740 710 715 750 – 799 790 790 780 785 775 750 750 780 780 800 – 849 800 820 840 800 840 820 835 845 840 840 835 840 850 – 899 855 880 860 870 870 880 875 890 875 870 900 – 949 935 920 910 945 910 910 930 900 950 – 999 980 990 995 975 965 1000 - 1049 1010 1000 1040 1000 10. Plot the classes along the X (horizontal) axis. 99 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 04 74 79 84 89 94 99 -6 -1 – – – – – – 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 65 00 85 70 75 80 90 95 10 Monthly Rent (£) 11. Decide on the intervals for the Y axis. This should be in whole numbers and may be in intervals of 1, 2, 5 or 10 depending on how many data points are collected. Once again it will depend on the range or frequency of your data. 12. For each of your classes, count the number of data items that fall into that category (see Variations section for Stem and Leaf diagram). Bring the bar up to this level on the Y axis.
  • 19. Repeat for each one of your classes. Monthly Rent paid on 1 bedroom flats in London 14 12 Frequency 10 8 6 4 2 0 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 99 04 74 79 84 89 94 99 -6 -1 – – – – – – 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 10 Monthly Rent (£) Frequency Computer Tips Use Excel to complete your Histograms. Make the table of your data collection into an excel spreadsheet. Have a column containing your classes and a second column of their frequency. Once your table is complete, highlight the table, including column titles then use the Chart Wizard button to complete the Chart. The chart wizard button looks like Alternatively on the Chart drop down menu at the top of the page, select the ‘Chart’ option.
  • 20. Click on the chart wizard and a dialogue box will come up with two option tabs at the top; Standard Types or Custom Types. Select Standard Types, and highlight “Column”. Once this is selected, click on ‘next’ button at the bottom of the dialogue box. The next step of the Chart Wizard will bring up the text you have previously highlighted from your table. You should have the Series to be displayed in ‘columns’. Once this is done, click on At Step three of the chart wizard you should enter in the title of your chart, and the titles of the axes. The X axis is the title of your categories i.e. Monthly Rent (£), while the Y axis is the unit of measurement used, i.e. Frequency. Click on Next once these boxes are complete. Select the option to have the graph as an object in either your current worksheet, or if you want the graph on a whole separate page, then select it to be placed as a new sheet. Click on finish and your graph will appear. To change any of the details, highlight your chart again and go through the steps until you reach the information you want to change. Alternatively if you click on the part of the chart you want to change (i.e. titles, formatting etc) it should let you change it. Note any changes to the data in your original table will automatically be reflected in your Histogram. Interpretation Histograms show centering, dispersion (spread) and shape (relative frequency) of data.
  • 21. The shape of the Histogram (the frequency distribution) tells us a lost about probability. If a height Histogram was representative of the overall population, we could conclude the probability of finding people v. short (under 65 inches) or very tall (over 72 inches) is low. The shape of this distribution is called the normal distribution and looks like a bell shaped curve. Most sets of data fall into a ‘normal’ distribution i.e. there are a lot of medium height people and a few tall and a few short in most populations. As a Histogram picks up these patterns and expresses them in a graphical form it makes it easy to highlight whether a piece of data is in the mainstream or at an extreme. Not all data falls conveniently into a normal distribution. Other main possibilities include: POSITIVELY SKEWED NEGATIVELY SKEWED BI-MODAL FLAT OR UNITARY
  • 22. To interpret your Histogram you need to ask: Why this shaped distribution and what is it telling us? For example, if assessing how long it took to perform a certain task and it falls into normal distribution, you may look to cut out the extremes, in order to have more values fall into the centre. Alternatively if it is a skewed distribution you may only need to adjust 1 extreme. Histograms can be good comparison diagrams. Constructing a second Histogram some time after the original may reflect the changes made as steps taken to improve processes. JUNE DECEMBER 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 26 (seconds) (seconds) TIME TAKEN TO ANSWER TELEPHONE (seconds) Here you can see an improvement in times from June to December, suggesting that measures put in place after June have had an effect and increased performance. Histograms can also be used to examine your data for accuracy and/or process changes. FIGURE A FIGURE B
  • 23. Figure A is a Histogram with a fairly symmetrical shape with no obvious outliers (extreme data values) which might be due to an error or process change. However figure B may reflect that the far right data is not a part of the symmetric shaped Histogram. So it may be a good idea to investigate the far right data in order to check whether it is incorrect, inaccurate or something in the process changed when that data was collected. Variations Stem & Leaf Display The Stem & leaf Display is a cross between a frequency distribution and a histogram. It reflects the shape of the histogram, but displays all the original data points, providing some more detail. While a histogram will show you how many values may fall in a class, it will not reflect the pattern of that data, i.e. Whether or not all the data in the class 18-24 is made up of mostly 18 scores or if it is evenly distributed across the class. The ‘stem’ of the diagram is normally determined by the leading digit in your collected data. The following ‘leaves’ are then all the numbers in that data set. For example, if I was collecting data on ages of people buying the latest Oasis CD, I might come up with the following data collection: 18 16 30 29 28 21 17 41 8 17 32 26 16 24 27 17 17 33 19 18 31 27 23 38 33 14 13 26 11 28 21 19 25 22 17
  • 24. 12 21 21 25 26 23 20 22 19 21 14 45 15 24 Given that all our data was all integers with one or 2 digits, we can use the tens digit as our choice for the stem. The leaf is then the following digit, as illustrated below. Alternatively you can use the classes already determined in preparing your histogram. Sort or order the data, then the following diagram can be displayed. Stem Leaf 0 8 1 123445667777788999 2 0111112233445566677889 3 0123348 4 15 So the Stem & Leaf display still shows the individual elements in each class, while still retaining the ‘feel’ or ‘shape’ of a histogram. Example Problems (Good to practise on) * ages of people at work * how many cups of tea people drink * how long it takes people to get to work For Further Information: See your mentor expert See your local advocate Check the ‘Memory Jogger’ book(held by advocates)
  • 25. DATA ANALYSIS & PRESENTATION Radar Charts Purpose: To visually show in one graphic the size of gaps among a number of both current performance areas and ideal performance areas. When To Use It Radar Charts are useful to illustrate strengths and weaknesses in important areas of performance. Construction: PLEASE NOTE THAT GUIDELINES TO TAKE YOU THROUGH THE EXCEL SPREADSHEET PRODUCTION OF RADAR CHARTS ARE PRESENTED AT THE END OF THIS SECTION. 1. Decide on the issue to be assessed. It may be the performance of an organization, groups or process. i.e. skill areas I need to improve to go for a job promotion 2. Assemble the right team of people capable of rating the selected organization, group or process. Try to get varied perspectives to avoid ‘blind spots’. i.e. probably just me, or if appropriate, my boss or my partner 3. Select the rating categories. On average, choose between 5- 10 categories you want to rate performance on.
  • 26. Brainstorm to create the categories. Alternatively, if you have done previous study of this issue, you may like to use the category headings from an Issue Diagram (see Issue Diagram Module) i.e. people management budgeting problem solving & facilitation communication skills computer skills industry knowledge & experience 4. One you have your headings, if possible see if there are any similarities between them. For example you may like to have the categories of Financial Performance and Share Price close together or Number of Staff and Training for example. i.e. people management communication skills problem solving & facilitation budgeting computer skills industry knowledge & experience 5. Once selected, define your rating categories. Determine the definition on non-performance and full performance within each category so that ratings are done consistently. For each definition assign it a number in a range. Make it the same number for all categories. i.e. 1 = non performance, 5 = full performance
  • 27. CATEGORY 1 2 3 4 5 People No experience Managed teams Managed teams of at Management managing people of at least 5 least 10 people in a people variety of situations. (min 5 different situations) Communication Problem Good at Comfortable with Skills communicating presenting on communicating with with people; topics to various all levels of staff in formally or groups many situations informally Prob Solv & Unable to work Can demonstrate Comfortable taking Facilitation through Prob problem solving unfamiliar groups Solving process skills in small through complex independently groups problem solving workshops Budgeting No experience of Able to budget Advanced level of managing or and stick to budgeting skills; able being responsible budget on less to deliver accurate for a budget complex projects budgets on complex issues Computer Skills Limited Substantial Advanced knowledge knowledge of knowledge of of Word, Excel, Microsoft word word, excel, Powerpoint, Access and excel powerpoint and and Microsoft Project access Industry Know. & Role experience Worked in wide Worked in more than Exp in 1 sector range of roles one company in the within the industry, in a range of company over the roles over last 10 last five years years. 6. Decide what rating your ideal should contain in each of the categories. This can be done based on a subjective assessment, or on information available, but should be agreed upon by the whole group. JOB XYZ COMPETENCIES RATING REQUIRED People Management 5 Communication Skills 5 Problem Solving & Facilitation Skills 5 Budgeting 3 Computer Skills 3 Industry Knowledge & Experience 4
  • 28. 7. Using a large piece of flipchart paper, draw as many spokes as there are rating categories. Write down each rating category at the end of each spoke around the perimeter of the wheel, paying attention to any links you highlighted between categories in step 4, placing them next to each other. Mark each spoke on a 0 to ‘n’ scale where n is the highest number on your scale in step 5 = highest performance. The ‘0’ at the centre is equal to ‘no performance’. 8. Rate all performance categories. Performance can be People Management 5 4 Industry Know ledge & 3 Communication Skills Experience 2 1 0 Computer Skills Problem Solving & Facilitation Budgeting measured objectively or subjectively. Get each individual to make their own rating. These ratings can either be recorded on your Radar Chart using markers or coloured stickers directly on to the flipchart or they can be written down. Once individual ratings have been determined, the final ratings for each category should be decided by either consensus or an average of individual scores.
  • 29. JOB XYZ COMPETENCIES CURRENT RATING People Management 3 Communication Skills 4 Problem Solving & Facilitation Skills 3 Budgeting 4 Computer Skills 3 Industry Knowledge & Experience 2 9. Record final ratings on chart, as well as the required rating measures. TIP: make team ratings highly visible on the chart – make sure it is distinguishable from individual team members ratings if these have been recorded directly on to the flipchart. 10. Connect the team ratings for each category and highlight as needed. JOB XYZ COMPETENCIES People Management 5 4 Industry Knowledge & 3 Communication Skills Experience 2 1 0 Problem Solving & Computer Skills Facilitation Budgeting CURRENT RATING REQUIRED RATING
  • 30. Computer Tips Use Excel to complete your Radar Charts. Make the table of your data collection into an excel spreadsheet. Have one column for your Category heading, one column for your Required Rating and one column for your Current Rating. Once your table is complete, highlight the table, then use the Chart Wizard button to complete the Chart. The chart wizard button looks like Alternatively on the Chart drop down menu at the top of the page, select the ‘Chart’ option. Click on the chart wizard and a dialogue box will come up with two option tabs at the top; Standard Types or Custom Types. Select Standard Types, and highlight “Radar”. Once this is selected, click on ‘next’ button at the bottom of the dialogue box. The next step of the Chart Wizard will bring up the text you have previously highlighted from your table. You should have the Series to be displayed in ‘columns’. Once this is done, click on At Step three of the chart wizard you need to enter in the title of your chart. Click on Next once this is complete. Select the option to have the graph as an object in either your current worksheet, or if you want the graph on a whole separate page, then select it to be placed as a new sheet. Click on finish and your graph will appear. To change any of the details, highlight your chart again and go through the steps until you reach the information you want to change.
  • 31. Alternatively if you click on the part of the chart you want to change (i.e. titles, formatting etc) it should let you change it. Note any changes to the data in your original table will automatically be reflected in your Radar Chart. Interpretation The interpretation of your Radar Chart lies in the difference between the two shapes. The Radar chart will show you what areas you have not yet reached the required performance level and also what areas you have exceeded the required performance level. Using our example, our skill level was fine for the competencies of Computer Skills and Budgeting, but our skill levels were not up to the required level for Industry Knowledge & Experience, People Management, Communication and Problem Solving & Facilitation Skills. The overall ratings will identify the categories with the biggest performance gaps. However it will not show the relative importance of the categories themselves. For example, the potential employer may believe that not being up to scratch on People Management is not as important as having the right level of skills for Communication. They may decide that sending you on a course will take you near enough to the required level. When selecting a performance measure to improve, work on the biggest gap in the most critical category. For our job at XYZ, the area requiring the most work might be our Industry Knowledge & Experience and our Problem Solving & Facilitation skills. The Radar Chart works well as a visual ‘report card’. It can be used to review progress towards a required
  • 32. state over time. Post the Radar Chart in a prominent place. Review progress regularly and update the chart accordingly. Variations A Radar Chart doesn’t have to measure performance but can also be a pictorial reflection of the ‘shape’ of the issue, reflecting its priorities. Given the same categories the shape can then be redrawn to reflect the change needed to move away from the ‘old’ shape to the ‘new’ shape. Work can then begin on how to achieve this process. One Radar Chart can also reflect the range of ratings within the team, the average team rating, the deserved level of performance for each category and the level required to be world class standard per that category. Example Problems (Good to practise on) * 5s in your area (see module on 5S) * options for buying a new car For Further Information: See your mentor expert See your local advocate Check the ‘Memory Jogger’ book (held by advocates)
  • 34. ISSUES ANALYSIS 5 Whys Analysis Purpose: To be able to move past symptoms and get to the true root cause of a problem. When To Use It The 5 Whys Analysis is a good tool to use when you quickly want to get to the root cause of a problem. It can be used in conjunction with a Fishbone Analysis (see Fishbone Analysis Module) and Pareto Chart (see Pareto Chart Module). Construction: The 5 Whys Analysis is a brainstorming technique that identifies root cause by asking WHY events occurred or conditions existed. The simple yet powerful tool gets you write down the problem and ask why, peeling back the layers unitl you get to a root cause. It involves selecting one event associated with an action and asks why the event occurred. This produces the most direct cause for each event. Then, for each of these sub events or cause, in turn you need to ask why that happened. It has been found that by the time you ask why 5 times, and got 5 sensible answers, you can normally see where the problem originated, thereby enabling you to treat the root cause rather than the symptoms.
  • 35. Example of Using 5 Whys To Discover Root Cause PROBLEM: There is a damp patch on the ceiling Because water is dripping through from the roof Because there is a hole under the eaves Because birds have been nesting there Because they can’t nest in the trees Because there are no trees tall enough for them to stay out of reach of the cat!! So need to secure hole in eaves and provide birdhouse that cat can’t get to. TIP: Ensure that the 5 Whys still make sense when you read them backwards. If you can’t finish the 5 Whys, because you get stuck on an ‘I don’t know’ answer, you need to go out and find out why, before continuing with the 5 Whys Analysis.
  • 36. Example from a kitchen range manufacturer PROBLEM: There is too much work in process inventory, yet we never seem to have the right parts. WHY? 1 The enamelling process is unpredictable, and the press room does not respond quickly enough. WHY? 2 It takes them too long to make a changeover between parts, so the lot sizes are too big, and often the wrong parts. WHY? 3 Many of the stamping dies make several different parts, and must be reconfigured in the tool room between runs, which takes as long as eight hours. WHY? 4 The original project management team had cost overruns on the building site work, so they skimped on the number of dies they traded dedicated dies and small lot sizes for high work-in process (which was not measured by their project budget!) WHY? 5 ROOT CAUSE: Company management did not understand lean Manufacturing and they did not set appropriate targets when the plant was launched. TIP: Quite often, a 5 Whys Analysis will point to the Example using themanagement or training issue! root cause being a template:
  • 37. This template gathers information to help you complete your 5 Whys Analysis. This form captures historical data, problem priorities, Pareto analysis, corrective action and verification. 1. As you can see from the template, the first step is to establish the primary cause of the error. You can do this by either using a Pareto Chart (See Pareto Chart Module) or a Fishbone Diagram (See Fishbone Diagram Module).
  • 38. 2. Once the top cause has been selected, then ask the question as to why that happens 5 times. 3. Once root cause is determined, establish temporary and permanent measures to correct the error. 4. Update in three months time to show improvement. Historical Example: FOR WANT OF A NAIL A SHOE WAS LOST FOR WANT OF A SHOE A HORSE WAS LOST FOR WANT OF A HORSE A RIDER WAS LOST FOR WANT OF A RIDER AN ARMY WAS LOST FOR WANT OF AN ARMY A BATTLE WAS LOST FOR WANT OF A BATTLE A WAR WAS LOST FOR WANT OF A WAR A KINGDOM WAS LOST AND ALL FOR THE WANT OF A LITTLE HORSESHOE NAIL.
  • 39. Example Problems (Good to practise on) * why is the monthly report always late? * why do I always get injured playing sport? * why do we have high staff turnover in our department? For Further Information: See your mentor expert See your local advocate
  • 40. ISSUES ANALYSIS Brainstorming Purpose: To establish a common method for teams to creatively and efficiently generate a high volume of ideas on any topic by creating a process that is free of criticism and judgment. When To Use It Can be used individually, but is usually more effective in a group when you need to generate a lot of ideas; whether they be solutions or causes or data. Brainstorming is a well known but often badly practised technique – it is important to learn to use it properly. Also remember that many solutions to complex problems come from ideas that might seem ‘crazy’ at first, so brainstorming is intended to encourage fresh thinking and ‘crazy’ ideas. Rules For Brainstorming: There are five simple rules designed to prevent barriers to the flow of ideas.
  • 41. 1. NO CRITICISM There should be no criticism of any ideas thrown up during a session. This means suspending any judgement of ideas and suggestions until the appropriate time. TIP: This can be very challenging and difficult to deal with! Perhaps have a forfeit of penalty system for those “Yes, but…” people. This should also apply to body language as well, which can also be negative and critical. Also, make sure you don’t succumb to self censorship, criticising in your head what you are thinking that might stop you from suggesting ideas. No criticism is important as what may seem unrealistic and way off base can sometimes be enough to develop into a good idea or inspire someone else along a different track altogether. Remember that the brain is a complex machine and our thoughts are rarely in a logical ordered fashion, but instead tend to jump around randomly – there is no telling what can spark off a great suggestion from someone else. 2. FREEWHEELING Often we have our best ideas when our brain waves are in the so- called ‘Theta’ pattern. This occurs when we are just dropping off to sleep, just waking up, driving on a long journey or relaxing in a bath or shower, times during which our minds roam free. It is this state you should try and encourage in a brainstorming session. As such, freewheeling encourages people to come up with random ideas ‘off the top of their heads’. Don’t worry about how TIP: Maybe spend a few minutes concentrating on the most way-out ideas possible concerning the current topic as part of your brainstorming session.
  • 42. impractical the ideas are. In fact brainstorming sessions are much more effective if really crazy ideas are encouraged. There are two ways to record the ideas from the brainstorm. The first is to have everyone call out the ideas and have a scribe write them down. This lets others generate ideas from everyone else’s ideas, but it can be difficult to get all the ideas down and quieter members of the group may not be heard. The second approach is to have individuals’ complete Post-It notes, using 1 Post-It per idea. This approach is effective where you may have a mix of seniority or someone that exerts personal power and others withdraw. It can also let you move the ideas around once the brainstorming process is finished. However, be aware that the Post-It note approaches which can sometimes mean people get caught up in their own thinking channel without an opportunity to be inspired by the ideas from everyone else. If the Post-It note approach is used, ensure there is time set aside to read out each of the Post-It notes – with NO criticism – and then a few further minutes for any last minute brainstorms. To decide which approach to use, the facilitator should ask the group which approach they would prefer, and try and gain consensus. Whichever approach is used, the facilitator needs to make sure the points noted are accurate and specific enough. 3. QUANTITY Brainstorming promotes quantity over quality. Take existing suggestions or ideas and use them as a springboard for further possibilities. Typically groups might like to aim at producing 100 ideas in 20 minutes, although if a brainstorming session is going well, a list of 250 ideas can easily be produced. 4. RECORD ALL IDEAS Every single idea must be written down, however extraordinary it may seem, and even if it is that same as a previous idea but expressed in a different way.
  • 43. It is also important to make sure the group can see the list being compiled. The scribe, who should be someone different to the facilitator, needs to write the ideas on flipchart paper and the sheets need to be posted around the room when full so that they remain in view and therefore ‘live’. TIP: All team members should be prepared to help the scribe get all ideas down by repeating themselves. The scribe should abbreviate as much as possible without changing the content of the suggestion. 5. INCUBATE If possible, give yourself an opportunity to process the ideas. ‘Sleeping on it’ ensures you have had the chance to really think about the brainstormed suggestions. This is not always possible but do try and put some kind of break in there, even if it is just for 5 or 10 minutes. TIP: Many problem solving groups incubate their brainstorming sessions for a week and come back to the lists at the next group meeting with a further few minutes of brainstorming to see if any more ideas have occurred to anyone during the week. Steps For Running Brainstorming Meetings: As well as the rules of brainstorming there are also some steps to note in running a successful brainstorming meeting and evaluating the ideas after they have been incubated. Step One:
  • 44. Restate, write up and reinforce the rules of Brainstorming! It can be easy to assume everyone can slot into the role of brainstorming- they won’t. So make sure you promote the rules and stick to them. 1. NO CRITICISM 2.FREEWHEEL 3.QUANTITY 4.RECORD ALL IDEAS 5. INCUBATE Step Two: Write up the subject to be brainstormed. This can either be a problem statement, or a subject proceeded by the phrase “what are all the ways we can…?” Make sure you do write the heading up clearly to make sure the group stays focussed on the topic at hand. Ensure the statement is clearly stated and everyone has the same understanding. TIP: If using a problem statement, make sure it doesn’t seem to suggest a solution. Problem statements that read “We need more space” suggest a solution that will have everyone only thinking down one track. A better problem statement would be “The work area is congested”. Step Three: Start the ideas coming.
  • 45. You can do this in a structured way by going around the room and taking it in turns to call out ideas. If someone can not think of a suggestion he or she just says ‘pass’ and the next person carries on so as not to halt the flow of ideas. This way makes sure everyone is involved and ideas come one at a time which makes it easier to record them. However the unstructured approach is generally more popular. This is more a free for all session, letting anyone call out an idea at any time. This is more difficult for the person writing to keep up with, but has the advantage of letting the ideas come more freely which results in better quality brainstorming. Let people know how long the generating ideas part will go for; this will make it easier for people to suspend their negative tendencies to criticise and evaluate immediately if they know how long they have to suspend them for. However make sure you remain flexible with this rule. Sometimes there can be a lot lost by restricting people to time – if ideas are flowing, or conversely not flowing at all, people may need a bit more time. The role of facilitator is important here. The facilitator should be able to appreciate when to step in to start off the flow of ideas and when to ease off and let the ideas run. Once the flow of ideas has started to plateau or stall, the facilitator
  • 46. should step in and try rephrasing the topic to get a different angle. Example questions might be: - What would you like done differently about XYZ? - What’s dumb about what we do? - What do other people perceive as problems in this area? - What things or areas could we make better? Towards the end of the time ask for any last suggestions to give people a chance to get any last thoughts down. Step Four: Record all ideas and make sure the list is visible to all group members as mentioned in Brainstorming Rule 4. Step Five: As mentioned in rule 5 of the Brainstorming rules, incubating the ideas is an important and valuable part of the process. Maybe post the list of brainstormed suggestions somewhere in the work area. This keeps the subject in mind and can help the incubation process. Step Six: Now you need to evaluate the ideas. The best way of organising the evaluation is to begin by grouping the items on the list into themes. This should be before any items are rejected as being impractical. Once sorted, each theme can then be examined to find instant winners, ideas that can be quickly and easily implemented. For a problem solving session you can also evaluate the ideas using the Pareto Principle (see module on Pareto
  • 47. Charts) to isolate the one or two ideas that would solve most of the problem.
  • 48. Variations To generate the flow of ideas you may like to switch between the structured and unstructured method of brainstorming. If the group is silent early on, or if the manager has had a lot of input early on, start off in the freewheeling mode and then switch to the round robin, structured fashion. Or if people start to fidget waiting for their turn, switch to the free wheeling session, but ensure everyone gets a turn to be heard. Try and make your brainstorming sessions something different. Another rule could be: Don’t Treat It Like A Meeting. Sitting around a table can be boring, so encourage people to get up and pace around or even just stay standing - this can contribute to the ‘Eureka!’ effect. You may also like to give everyone access to paper and bright coloured pens. Sometimes just doodling can spark off ideas, or alternatively instead of writing the statement to be brainstormed, draw the situation to further stimulate creative minds. One further idea is to bring in at least one employee who is NOT affiliated intimately with the initiative being discussed. This allows an impartial witness to any short-sightedness and lets you show other departments how good you are!! The following are two articles written about the brainstorming process at Ideo, one of Silicone Valleys foremost creative product design companies.
  • 49. 7 Secrets to Good Brainstorming Generating rafts of good ideas is Ideo’s business. Here’s how this world-class product-development firm keeps the lightbulbs blazing bright. by Linda Tischler According to The Economist's Innovation Survey, half of the U.S. economy's current growth comes from companies that didn't exist 10 years ago. Corporate titans have learned to fear the prodigy in his dorm room or the garage-based whiz kid who's forging a bullet with their company's name on it. "Innovate or die" is not an idle threat. It's the harsh reality of the modern, fast-forward economy. Silicon Valley-based Ideo has sparked some of the most innovative products of the past decade -- the Apple mouse, the Polaroid I-Zone Pocket Camera, and the Palm V, among others. But Ideo staffers don't just sit around waiting for good ideas to pop into their heads. The company has institutionalized a process whereby ideas are coaxed to the surface through regular, structured brainstorming sessions. At Ideo, idea-generation exercises are "practically a religion," Kelley says. On any given day, multiple brainstorming sessions may spawn hundreds of ideas and burn through just as many chocolate-chip cookies, the preferred fuel of world-class idea mongers. Indeed, collective idea generation is so important at Ideo that a staffer caught trying to noodle a problem alone at his desk may be called on the carpet for wasting his time and the client's money. "The social ecology at many American companies says that when you're stuck, you're supposed to go back to your desk and think harder, because you were hired for your skills," Kelley says. "At Ideo, the culture is exactly the opposite. You have a social obligation to get help." But a poorly planned brainstorming session could cause more harm than good, That's why Ideo follows strict rules for sparking good ideas. Some are simple truths: Morning meetings work best; 3 - 10 participants should take part; and cookies always spur creativity. Some, like those outlined below, are a bit more refined. 1. Sharpen the focus. Start with a well-honed statement of the problem at hand. Edgy is better than fuzzy. The best topic statements focus outward on a specific customer need or service enhancement rather than inward on some organizational goal. 2. Write playful rules. Ideo's primary brainstorming rules are simple: "Defer judgment" and "One conversation at a time." The firm believes in its rules so strongly that they're stenciled in 8-inch letters on conference-room walls. "If I'm the facilitator and somebody starts a critique or people start talking, I can enforce the
  • 50. rules without making it feel personal," Kelley says. Other rules include, "Go for quantity," "Be visual," and "Encourage wild ideas." 3. Number your ideas. "This rule seems counterintuitive -- the opposite of creativity," Kelley says. "But numbered lists create goals to motivate participants. You can say, 'Let's try to get to 100 ideas.' Also, lists provide a reference point if you want to jump back and forth between ideas." 4. Build and jump. Most brainstorming sessions follow a power curve: They start out slowly, build to a crescendo, and then start to plateau. The best facilitators nurture the conversation in its early stages, step out of the way as the ideas start to flow, and then jump in again when energy starts to peter out. "We go for two things in a brainstorm: fluency and flexibility," Kelley says. "Fluency is a very rapid flow of ideas, so there's never more than a moment of silence. Flexibility is approaching the same idea from different viewpoints." 5. Make the space remember. Good facilitators should also write ideas down on an accessible surface. Ideo used to hold its brainstorms in rooms wallpapered with whiteboards or butcher paper. Lately, however, the group has started using easel-sized Post-it notes. "When the facilitator tries to pull together all the ideas after the session," Kelley says, "she can stack up nice, tidy rectangular things instead of spreading butcher paper all the way down the hall." 6. Stretch your mental muscles. Brainstorming, like marathon running, should begin with warm-up exercises. Ideo studied various methods of prepping for a session. For a project on the toy industry, for example, Ideo divided the group into three teams: The first team did no preparation. The second listened to a lecture on the technology involved and read background books. The third team took a field trip to a toy store. Far and away, the toy-store team produced ideas in greater quantity and quality than the other two. 7. Get physical. At Ideo, brainstorming sessions are often occasions for show-and-tell. Participants bring examples of competitors' products, objects that relate to the problem, or elegant solutions from other fields as springboards for ideas. Ideo also keeps materials on hand -- blocks, foam core, tubing -- to build crude models of a concept.
  • 51. Six Surefire Ways to Kill a Brainstorm Coming up with good ideas -- even in an ideal environment -- is hard work. But these tactics will guarantee failure. by Linda Tischler A poorly planned brainstorming session could cause more harm than good. And more frustration than anything else. That's why Silicon Valley design firm Ideo follows strict rules for sparking good ideas. These are not those rules. The six strategies below are absolute no-no's -- surefire innovation killers from Tom Kelley, general manger of Ideo Product Development. 1. Let the boss speak first. Nothing kills a brainstorming session like a dominating CEO or the brownnosers who rush to agree with his every statement. Ideo recommends that bosses lock themselves out of idea-generation sessions all together. Send him out for doughnuts, and you'll get better results. 2. Give everybody a turn. Kelley remembers packing 16 people into a room for one particular meeting. Each person had two minutes to speak. It was democratic. It was painful. It was pointless. It was a performance, not a brainstorm. "In a real brainstorm, the focus should never be on just one person," Kelley says. 3. Ask the experts only. When it comes to generating truly innovative ideas, deep expertise in a field can actually be a drawback. "In a brainstorm, we're looking for breadth," Kelley says. Cross-pollination from seemingly unrelated fields can lead to authentic breakthroughs. 4. Go off-site. By conducting off-site brainstorming sessions, you only reinforce the concept that great ideas only come on the beach or at high altitudes -- not in the proximity of your daily work. 5. No silly stuff. Kelley remembers one brainstorming session doomed by the boss's opening remarks: All ideas had to result in something the firm could patent and manufacture. The silence that followed was deafening. Silly is important. Wild ideas are welcome. Brainstorming should be fun. 6. Write down everything. Obsessive note taking is toxic to brainstorming. It shifts the focus to the wrong side of the brain. It makes the session feel like History 101. Doodles
  • 52. and sketches are fine. A short note that preserves a thought is acceptable. But detailed writing destroys momentum, dissipates energy, and distracts from the main purpose of the exercise: unfettered thinking. Each session should have an assigned scribe who records suggestions. And that person should not be the group facilitator. Example Problems (Good to practise on) * Where to go for my birthday * Christmas presents * Coming up with a name for a rock band * Promotion ideas for a business For Further Information: See your mentor expert See your local advocate
  • 53. ISSUES ANALYSIS Issue Diagrams Purpose: To identify the problem attributes and the specific areas that you are going to address. It will not provide solutions. When To Use It The Issue Diagram is a tool that you can use as an individual when you have a specific problem/ objective or in a team environment where you are trying to get consensus in what the problem is. It can be especially powerful in multi-functional discussions. You can use the Issue Diagram when you have a lot of issues around a topic as it allows you to organise and summarise natural groupings to understand the essence of a problem. Construction: Two methods: Top Down and Bottom Up. Generally Bottom Up is easiest to use.
  • 54. Bottom Up: 1. Place 2-3 pieces of Flipchart paper on the wall. 2. On a whiteboard, or separate piece of Flipchart paper, write a broad problem statement. It should be as generic as possible and brought into by everybody. i.e. “I can’t afford to buy a house” Alternatively you can write down an effect i.e. “The Zido cycle is too long” 3. Brainstorm by asking “what are all the issues contributing to this problem?”. Follow the brainstorming rules (see Brainstorming Module). A quick summary of the brainstorming rules are: 1. NO CRITICISM 2. FREEWHEEL 3. QUANTITY 4. RECORD ALL IDEAS 5. INCUBATE
  • 55. 4. Use thin tipped felt pens on Post-It notes. This makes it easy for everyone to read. It is also important to use Post-Its so that you can shift ideas into groups as necessary. Make sure there is only 1 idea per Post-It. 5. Be prepared to put things to one side if you are getting bogged down – return when appropriate. Don’t allow solutions to be discussed. Don’t lay blame – encourage openness and honesty. I CAN’T AFFORD TO BUY A HOUSE Interest rates too Don’t earn Market Bank enough prices too requirements high Started high too strict smoking In competition Haven’t saved Preferred with other buyer enough for house too big Problem with deposit and expensive bank & savings Need to keep history TIP: You may like to initially limit the number of Post-Its savings for Not earning given out in order to make it interest to pullbackup – job good easier the diagram Bills too high Money tied rate total of aboutsituationissues together. Aim for a potentialon 30-40 Only looking up in shares and distribute a set number of Post-Its to group savings in expensive area members (depending on the number of people in the group), remembering to stick to 1 issue per Post-It. TIP: Don’t make your points too technical. Outputs are often shared with people outside the meeting or workshop – so try to avoid using language they might not understand. 6. Collate the issues into groups. You should aim to have 3-6 major categories. If you have too many more you will end up with too much detail. 7. It should be up to the facilitator to decide the process for grouping. Depending on time, the facilitator may like to start grouping while everyone else is brainstorming. The facilitator may also like to do the sorting if they have a pre determined idea of the sort of groups they
  • 56. would like to see it split into. This doesn’t need to be a hard and fast sorting process but good as a prompt. Alternatively, without talking, get everyone to sort the ideas simultaneously. Sorting in silence will focus everyone on the meaning behind and the connections among all ideas, instead of emotions and ‘history’ that often arrives in discussions. Move the Post-Its where they fit best for you; don’t ask, simply move any notes you think belong in another grouping. If an idea is moved back & forth, try to see the logical connection the other person is making. It may be a good idea to create a duplicate Post-It if agreement can’t be reached. TIP: It is ok for some notes to stand alone. These loners can be as important as others that fit into groupings naturally. I CAN’T AFFORD TOi BUY A HOUSE Interest rates too Don’t earn Market high enough prices too high Not earning good interest Haven’t saved In competition rate on enough for with other buyer savings deposit Bills too high Money tied Preferred up in shares house too big and expensive Need to keep Bank savings for Only looking requirements backup – job too strict in expensive situation area Problem with Started bank & savings smoking history
  • 57. 8. Write a statement that summarises each group on a header card or Post-It. It is possible a Post-It within the grouping becomes a header card. However don’t just choose the “closest one” because its convenient. Creating a new, accurate header card can often lead to breakthrough ideas. BANK HOUSE EARNINGS & MARKET EXPE 9. Test each ‘major category’. Are they mutually exclusive? If not, why not? Review the categories to make them mutually exclusive. 10. Refine and tighten the original problem statement. I’M HAVING PROBLEMS SAVING FOR A HOUSE DEPOSIT 11. Review the diagram. Have all the issues been captured? Can any of the major categories be broken down further? Do they need to be?
  • 58. I’M HAVING PROBLEMS SAVING FOR A HOUSE DEPOSIT BANK HOUSE EARNINGS & MARKET EXPE Interest Don’t earn Market rates too enough prices too high high Not earning Haven’t saved In competition good interest enough for with other buyer rate on deposit savings Bills too high Preferred Money tied house too big up in shares and expensive Need to keep Bank Only looking requirements savings for in expensive too strict backup – job area situation Problem with Started bank & savings smoking history
  • 59. Top Down: 1. Place 2-3 pieces of Flipchart paper on the wall. 2. Start with a problem statement. Place it at the top of the page. I AM HAVING PROBLEMS SAVING FOR A HOUSE DEPOSIT TIP: Make sure your problem statement doesn’t seem to suggest a solution. Problem statements that read “We need more space” suggest a solution that will have everyone only thinking down one track. A better problem statement would be “The work area is congested”. 3. Brainstorm ‘major categories’ that are contributing to the problem. Write them descending from the problem statement. Aim for 3-6 major categories I AM HAVING PROBLEMS SAVING FOR A HOUSE DEPOSIT AMOUNT FOR SPENDING INVESTMENT EARNINGS DEPOSIT
  • 60. 4. Test each ‘major category’. Are they mutually exclusive? If not, why not? Review the categories to make them mutually exclusive. Make sure there is no overlap between categories. This is because you want to spend your time sorting your issues – not arguing over the most appropriate category! 5. Take each ‘major category’ and break down into specific components. Brainstorm. Following the brainstorming rules (see module on Brainstorming), brainstorm all of the issues that are contributing to the problem. A quick summary of the brainstorming rules are: 1. NO CRITICISM 2. FREEWHEEL 3. QUANTITY 4. RECORD ALL IDEAS 5. INCUBATE 6. Use thin tipped felt pens on Post-It notes. This makes it easy for everyone to read. It is also important to use Post-Its so that you can shift ideas into groups as necessary.
  • 61. 7. Be prepared to put things to one side if you are getting bogged down – return when appropriate. Don’t allow solutions to be discussed. Don’t lay blame – encourage openness and honesty.
  • 62. I AM HAVING PROBLEMS SAVING FOR A HOUSE DEPOSIT SPENDING INVESTMENT AMOUNT FOR EARNINGS DEPOSIT Rent Interest Rate Size Of Salary House Bills Amount Lenders Job Invested Stability Entertainment Requirement Hobbies Type Of Savings Account Type Of History Job Transport Money Tied Amount Promotion Road Up In Shares Already Saved Opportunity Luxuries i.e Area House cigarettes is In Overtime available Clothes Other Buyers Bonuses Insurance Qualifications Holidays Children 8. Review the issue diagram have all of the issues been captured? Can any of the major categories be broken down further? Do they need to be?
  • 64. I AM HAVING PROBLEMS SAVING FOR A HOUSE DEPOSIT SPENDING INVESTMENT AMOUNT FOR EARNINGS DEPOSIT Rent Interest Rate Size Of Salary House Bills Amount Lenders Job Gas Invested Stability Phone Requirement Electric Type Of Savings Account Type Of History Job Entertainment Money Tied Amount Promotion Hobbies Up In Shares Already Saved Opportunity Area House Transport Overtime is In available Food Other Buyers Bonuses Luxuries i.e cigarettes Qualifications Clothes Insurance Contents Car Medical Holidays Children
  • 65. Interpretation Look at the issue diagram and through the team identify the perceived major causes for the problem. Prove the major cause i.e. collate data to prove the theory Move to Solution mode – identify what you are going to do. You may choose to deal with the area with the most causes, or some causes may stick out as being more significant than others. Example Problems (Good to practise on) Deciding what school to send your children to Deciding where to go on holiday A process is taking too long The work area is too crowded For Further Information: See your mentor expert See your local advocate Check the ‘Memory Jogger’ book(held by advocates
  • 66. ISSUES ANALYSIS Cause & Effect / Fishbone Analysis Purpose: To determine the root cause(s) of the problem so that solutions will have an impact on the real problem and not just the effects of the problem. When To Use It When you need to explore, identify and graphically display, in increasing detail, all of the possible causes or variables related to a problem, condition or process to discover its root cause. Construction: 1. Decide what you are trying to achieve. Are you trying to solve a problem or are you trying to identify variables in a process? For a problem solving tool, devise the problem statement that best describes the issue you want to determine the root cause of. This statement should describe the problem, be clear and concise and understood by everyone. i.e. The car is going through petrol faster
  • 67. TIP: Make sure your problem statement doesn’t seem to suggest a solution. Problem statements that read “We need more space” suggest a solution that will have everyone only thinking down one track. A better problem statement would be “The work area is congested”. If using the tool to identify variables in a process, then write down the name of the process. E.g. hplc method reference 2. Tape together 3 pieces of flipchart paper and place on wall. 3. Write the problem statement/ process name in a box in the middle of the far right hand side of the paper, at the ‘head’ of the fish, followed by a line which is the ‘backbone’. PROBLEM STATEMENT/ PROCESS 4. Depending on which version you are using, there are two ways to categorise the causes. The causes can be determined by a) representing each step in the process involved (a process classification type fishbone) or b) deciding the ‘major’ causes for problem solving and then asking of each major cause: - ‘why does this happen?’ (a dispersion analysis type fishbone) 5. From the ‘back bone’ of the fish, draw one fishbone for each major cause category or step in the process.
  • 68. For a Process Classification Type Fishbone, a maximum of 6-8 major steps should be identified, to ensure major classes of cause. For a Dispersion Analysis Type Fishbone, the most common way to group the major causes is under the 6 M categories: Manpower/ Machines/ Measurement/ Methods/ Materials/ Mother Earth (Environment). MANPOWER MACHINES ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEM STATEMENT MEASUREMENT METHODS MATERIALS TIP: Other types of groupings may be Places/ Procedures/ People/ Policies or Surroundings/ Suppliers/ Systems/ Skills. Don’t confine yourself to these however; add and delete categories as you feel are appropriate. Make the categories fit the problem. For example, particular problem statements may mean you need to focus on areas such as Communications or Training, so you should add a ‘fishbone’ for this. 6. Generate the major causes to build the diagram. These causes many come from: - brainstorming (see Brainstorming Module) - data collection
  • 69. Group members can call out suggestions for causes/ variables to the facilitator. The group member should also state which category the cause comes under. If they don’t know, then the facilitator should decide, as opening up a discussion for each cause will make the process very long! Another recommended alternative is to use Post It notes for each idea. This makes it easier to move causes around between category as well as re-word them at a later date if necessary. Also use thin tipped felt tip pens so that everyone can read the Post Its. If you are having problems getting ideas started, use the cause categories as catalyst questions. For example, what in “materials” might cause the car to be going through petrol faster? 7. Make sure you follow the Brainstorming rules to get the best ideas. Remember Brainstorming is about quantity over quality. (Refer Module on Brainstorming).
  • 70. A quick summary of the brainstorming rules are: 1. NO CRITICISM 2. FREEWHEEL 3. QUANTITY 4. RECORD ALL IDEAS 5. INCUBATE 8. Place the brainstormed or data based causes from Step 3 in the appropriate categories on the ‘bones’.
  • 71. MEASUREMENT METHODS MATERIALS Car not being Poor quality Odometer maintained of petrol faulty Driven with window open Air filter blocked Petrol gauge reading Car used to incorrect tow caravan THE CAR IS GOING Car being Car is getting older THROUGH used more Spend more time PETROL FASTER Handbrake left on in traffic jams Petrol Leak Different Tires are wearing driver Bad weather conditions Blown head gasket Air conditioning on MANPOWER MACHINES MOTHER NATURE 9. For each cause listed on the bones, ask repeatedly: -why does it happen? OR -what could happen? This will give rise to a deeper understanding of the problem and identify further causes.
  • 72. MEASUREMENT METHODS MATERIALS Car not being maintained Poor quality of petrol Odometer too busy faulty can’t afford change of supplier Been damaged forget about it now using unleaded bits in petrol Driven with window open window broken Air filter blocked Petrol gauge incorrect hot Car not being maintained muggy getting old Car used to tow caravan THE CAR IS GOING Car is getting older THROUGH Car being used more Spend more time in traffic jams PETROL FASTER daughter using car Handbrake left on new job more shopping inexperienced driver new route to work more holidays Petrol Leak road works train strike hole in tank more accidents damaged pipes Different driver Tires are wearing Bad weather conditions daughter just got not enough air licence English ‘summertime’ being driven badly by daughter need to drive cautiously change of owner Blown head gasket due to road conditions Air conditioning on muggy hot weather MANPOWER MACHINES MOTHER NATURE
  • 73. 10. Check for sufficiency along each bone – are all aspects of cause addressed? If not, then add new category type and roots. Interpretation Interpret or test for root causes or drivers of the effect by one or more of the following methods:  Look for causes that appear repeatedly  Looking for obvious clues – i.e. one branch of your fishbone having the majority of causes attached to it.  Select key causes through an unstructured consensus process or one that is structured, such as multi voting.  Gather data through check sheets or in other formats to determine the relative frequencies and weightings of the different causes. The Cause & Effect Fishbone is an integral part of the PF/ CE/ CNX/ SOP process. For further details on this, please contact your mentor expert. Variations FISHBONE SOLUTIONS DIAGRAM The Fishbone diagram can also be used as a solution generating tool, as opposed to a cause discovery tool. To use it as a Solutions tool, follow Steps 1-3. Then decide which categories you are going to brainstorm for solutions to the problem. You may use the same category titles as you have used for the Cause & Effect Fishbone.
  • 74. Then follow the Brainstorming rules to come up with solutions in each area. OPEN AIR FISHBONE Traditionally, Cause & Effect Diagrams have been created in a meeting setting. The completed fishbone is reviewed by others and or confirmed with data collection. An effective alternative is to display a large, highly visible blank fishbone chart with a problem statement at the head in a prominent work area. Everyone posts both potential causes and solutions on post-it notes in each of the categories. Causes and solutions are reviewed, tested and posted. This technique opens up the process to the knowledge and creativity of every person in the operation. Example Problems (Good to practise on) PROBLEM SOLVING • There is never fresh milk in the fridge • The lawn mower keeps breaking down • I can’t get my reports in on time PROCESS VARIABLES • Planning to go on holiday • Getting documents authorised Remember the Fishbone diagram only represents a point in time and it can be useful to revisit the tool to see if there are new causes or variables affecting the situation since improvements were made.