1. © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
Crisis Intervention
William Harmening
Roosevelt University
Harmening, Crisis Intervention: The Criminal Justice Response to Chaos, Mayhem, and
Disaster
Chapter 2
FIGHT, FLIGHT, OR FREEZE: THE PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY OF CRISIS

2. © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
To summarize the psychophysiological response to crisis in its
many forms.
To explain the relationship between crisis and stress, and the
impact they have on the body’s homeostatic state.
To explain how the stress response is mediated, and to list the
factors that buffer a person against the effects of stress.
To summarize and explain the potential behavior patterns
demonstrated by an offender under stress
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

3. Understand the psychophysiological
response to crisis in its many forms.
Learning Objectives
After this lecture, you should be able to complete the following Learning Outcomes
1.1

4. 1.1 Psychophysiology of Crisis
The Crisis-Stress Dynamic
The Human brain has evolved over time to facilitate a state of
psychological and physiological equilibrium, or HOMEOSTASIS.
Any threat to this balance can be described as a STRESSOR.
Essentially every crisis brings with it some amount of stress to
the persons involved.
When homeostasis is lost, the resulting physiological and/or
psychological DISEQUILIBRIUM initiates a series of reactions
designed to adapt to the stressor and return to a state of
homeostasis.

5. 5
1.1 Psychophysiology of Crisis
The Crisis-Stress Dynamic
Crisis Producing Event
Physical Reaction Psychological Reaction
(Autonomic Nervous System) (Cognitive Mediation)
HOMEOSTASIS
DISEQUILIBRIUM (Stress)
ADAPTATION
RETURN TO HOMEOSTASIS
or
ACUTE STRESS REACTION
The body attempts to produce more
energy to meet the challenge of
the stressor. May result in physical
exhaustion, which in turn increases
negative psychological reaction.
The individual’s perception narrows
to focus problem-solving entirely on
stressor. May result in tunnel vision
or panic. Panic increases
physiological reaction.
(Fight, Flight, or Freeze)

6. 6
1.1 Psychophysiology of Crisis
General Adaptation Syndrome (Dr. Hans Selye, 1956)
Canadian endocrinologist who proposed a three-stage model of the
stress response
ALARM STAGE – The fight or flight response is activated by the brain with
the introduction of the stressor. This response prepares the individual to
confront the stressor.
RESISTANCE STAGE – The initial surge of energy is now gone, and the body
attempts to adapt to the continuing presence of the stressor.
EXHAUSTION STAGE – The body’s attempt to adapt begins to have a
negative effect. Energy is depleted. Extreme exhaustion may lead to
tonic immobility, or the FREEZE response.

7. 7
1.1 Psychophysiology of Crisis
General Adaptation Syndrome (Selye, 1956)
Normal Level of Functioning
Alarm Resistance Exhaustion
Passage of Time
Resistance
High
Low

8. 8
1.1 Psychophysiology of Crisis
Transactional Model of Stress (Cox & Mackay, 1976)
Proposed a psychological model of the stress in which the amount of
stress experienced varies as a result of the individual’s perception of the
demand the stressor places on them and the extent to which they believe
they can cope with that demand.
Physical and psychological changes that take place with the introduction
of the stressor increase the person’s performance level and their ability to
effectively confront the stressor.
With the continued presence of the stressor, the person may begin to lose
confidence in their ability to mediate the stressor. At that point they have
reached the LEVEL OF OPTIMAL PERFORMANCE. The psychological and
physiological changes that have taken place will now have a negative
effect and decrease the person’s ability to mediate the stressor.

9. 9
1.1 Psychophysiology of Crisis
Transactional Model of Stress (Cox & Mackay, 1976)
PerformanceLevel
Stress level
Stress level increases as perception of ability to cope decreases
Boredom Exhaustion
Optimal Performance

10. Understand the relationship between
crisis and stress, and the impact they
have on the body’s homeostatic state.
Learning Objectives
After this lecture, you should be able to complete the following Learning Outcomes
1.2

11. 11
1.2 Stress Response
The Physical Response to Stress
The AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM controls the body’s response to
stress. It effects:
● Heart rate
● Oxygen intake
● Digestion
● Size of pupils
● Perspiration
● Salivation
The ANS stimulates bodily functions in some situations, and
suppresses them in others. It does this through the influence of two
subsystems:
Sympathetic Nervous
System
Parasympathetic Nervous
System

12. 12
1.2 Stress Response
The SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
is designed to rapidly produce and
deliver energy throughout the body
in response to a stressor. It is
responsible for the fight-or-flight
response.
This response creates a significant
amount of stress on various
physiological systems
impacted, and cannot be sustained
for prolonged periods without
negative consequences.
The PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS
SYSTEM returns the body to a normal
homeostatic state once the stressor
has passed. It is said to cause the
rest-and-digest response.

13. 1.2 Stress Response
The system responsible for activating
the sympathetic nervous system in
response to stress is the
HYPOTHALAMUS-PITUITARY-ADRENAL
AXIS (HPA Axis).
This chain reaction of events begins
when the stressor is introduced into
the sensory experience of the
individual. Once perceived as
such, then the HYPOTHALAMUS, the
interface between the nervous
system and endocrine
system, initiates the fight-or-flight
response.

14. 1.2 Stress Response
Once the fight-or-flight response is activated, if the body
is not returned in short order to a homeostatic state
through the influence of the PARASYMPATHETIC
NERVOUS SYSTEM, such as in times of extreme and
prolonged stress, then the person can become
overwhelmed both physically and psychologically by
the body’s efforts to adapt to the stressor. In this
case, tonic immobility, or the FREEZE response is a
possibility.

15. 15
1.2 Stress Response
Optimal
Positive Stress
Flight
Escape Stressor
Fight
Confront Stressor
Freeze
Surrender to
Stressor
Intensity and duration
of stressor
Ability to mediate
stressor
High
High Low
Low
The Stress Response Continuum

16. Understand how the stress response is
mediated, and the factors that buffer a
person against the negative effects of
stress.
Learning Objectives
After this lecture, you should be able to complete the following Learning Outcomes
1.3

17. 17
1.3 Mediating Stress
The amount of stress we experience in a
given situation is mediated by our
perception of how prepared we are to
effectively confront it.
Sapolsky (2004) has argued that the
amount of stress experienced is determined
by two psychological factors:
CONTROL PREDICTABILITY

18. 18
1.3 Mediating Stress
CONTROL: The feeling that one is in control of the
situation buffers the individual against stress. EX: A
well-trained and well-armed police officer feels a
relatively high degree of control most of the
time, and thus they experience less stress than a
civilian would in a similar situation.
PREDICTABILITY: Being familiar with a crisis-
producing situation, including the potential
outcomes, also provides a buffer against stress. EX:
As a result of training and experience, a police
officer knows what to expect most of the time
when entering a crisis situation. This high level of
predictability increases control and reduces stress.

19. 19
1.3 Mediating Stress
LOCUS OF CONTROL (Rotter, 1954, 1990)
A person can have either an INTERNAL or EXTERNAL locus of control.
Those with an internal orientation believe they are in control of their
own destiny, regardless of the circumstances. Those with an external
orientation believe their fate is determined by external forces, and
that they have little control over their circumstances.
Self-efficacy is the belief one has in their ability to achieve a
successful outcome. High self-efficacy leads to a high level of
confidence. Thus the following…
Internal locus + Self-efficacy = Control
Experience + Training = Predictability
Control + Predictability = Reduced levels of stress

20. 20
1.3 Mediating Stress
LOCUS OF CONTROL (Rotter, 1954, 1990)
Assertive
Helpless
Confident
Cautious
Doubting
Indecisive
Low
High
Abilitytomediatethestressor
High
Low
Levelofstressexperience

21. 21
1.3 Mediating Stress
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
1. It is important that those agencies tasked with
crisis response focus their hiring and recruiting
efforts on individuals who demonstrate an
INTERNAL orientation.
2. Repetitive and realistic training is critical to
increasing a sense of control and predictability
in those who respond to crisis.

22. Understand the potential patterns of
behavior demonstrated by a criminal
offender under stress.
Learning Objectives
After this lecture, you should be able to complete the following Learning Outcomes
1.4

23. 23
1.4 Offender Behavior Patterns
When we look at the dual dimensions of control and
predictability in criminal offenders, we see four
distinct RESPONSE MODES emerge.
It is critical that criminal justice professionals
understand these potential response modes in order
to adapt their own response to predictable
outcomes. The four potential response modes are:
● Offense Mode
● Defense Mode
● Escape Mode
● Panic Mode

24. 24
1.4 Offender Behavior Patterns
Low Stress
Offense
Moderate-High
Stress
Escape
Moderate–Low
Stress
Defense
High Stress
Panic
High Control Low Control
High
Predictability
Low
predictability
RESPONSE MODES

25. 25
1.4 Offender Behavior Patterns
When we describe someone as being in “survival
mode,” we are really talking about someone
responding in OFFENSE MODE.
Ex: A criminal offender who has no intention of ever
returning to prison, and who is being confronted by
police officers with a warrant for his arrest. The
situation is highly predictable for the offender, and
the fact that he has a gun, and no intention of being
taken alive, gives him a high degree of control. He
experiences less stress, and is thus able to think
clearer. This, along with the initial surge of energy
from his fight-or-flight mechanism being
activated, makes him a dangerous individual to
confront.

26. © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
The human brain has evolved to maintain in the individual a
state of homeostasis. The introduction of a stressor will cause
disequilibrium to occur, potentially requiring intervention in
order to return the person to homeostasis.
With the introduction of a stressor, the person’s sympathetic
nervous system is activated through the influence of various
neuro-chemicals and hormones (fight-or-flight). When the
stressor has been removed, then the parasympathetic nervous
system attempts to return the person’s physiological system to
homeostasis (rest-and-digest).
Various psychological factors, including a person’s perceived
level of control and predictability, will impact the level of stress
they experience in a crisis situation.
A criminal offender will demonstrate one of four potential
response modes in a crisis situation;
offense, defense, escape, or panic. Understanding these
patterns of behavior allows those responding to adapt to
predictable outcomes.
CHAPTER SUMMARY
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4

27. © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. How does training benefit a police officer in a stressful
situation? How does a nothing-to-lose mentality benefit an
offender?
2. Consider a bank robber trapped inside a bank by
responding police officers. Employees are inside and the
robber is armed. Describe how the robber might respond
under each of the four response modes described in the
chapter.
3. Describe the type of orientation (locus of control) the child
of an abusive, authoritarian parent might demonstrate
during adolescence and into adulthood, and why.