This document provides a model of brand that maps related concepts and examples. The model defines a brand as being more than just a name or symbol, and as consisting of both a signifier (name) and a signified (perception). It also discusses how a brand is created through managing customer experience, and how a brand's position, reach, and reputation can be measured. The document organizes these concepts using a concept map to show how different elements of brands are interrelated.

1. a model of brand graphic devices logos
logotypes
crests
typographic
geometric
representational
graphic devices
may be deployed as
monograms static identity systems
Overview More than a name or symbol Measuring brand flags with fixed rules
Target
This diagram is a model of brand, a term People speaking informally about brand An important aspect of managing a brand United Airlines
often used in business, marketing, and often use the term to mean the name or is measuring it. The diagram contains a trade dress package graphics Tiffany’s blue box
design. The diagram defines brand by symbol of a company. While this shorthand section on measuring brands. People who Gateway’s spotted box kinetic identity systems 3
mapping related concepts and examples. is convenient, it misses an important truth. understand brand development often with rules allowing variation
A brand is at least two things: a name and disagree on how to describe and measure package form Coke’s hour-glass bottle MTV
a perception of what the name means. it, and experts often use different terms. L’eggs shell carton MIT Media Lab
1
Concept maps I propose three terms: position, reach, and
reputation. These three dimensions seem product form iconic products such as
Concept maps are webs of linked terms name to cover the subject as simply as possible. Apple iMac
that help us visualize our mental models Volkswagen Beetle
and clarify our thinking. In concept maps,
2
verbs connect nouns to form propositions. Brands as signs uniforms Boy Scout uniforms
Examples and details also accompany the the Swiss Guards’ uniforms
terms. More important terms receive typo- brand
The idea that a brand is both a name and
graphic emphasis; less important ones and a perception parallels Saussure’s model of form of buildings iconic buildings such as
examples are grayed back and pushed to a sign. Saussure describes signs as having McDonald’s stores with golden arches
the periphery. two aspects: signifier and signified. A brand Transamerica’s pyramid tower
name is a signifier and the perception of
perception
what it means is the signified. form of vehicles Cushman carts driven by meter maids
Organization the brown UPS trucks
The diagram attempts to present a com- signifier name
prehensive model of brand. It is framed
around four main ideas: Creating a great customer experience spokesmen celebrity endorsers Bill Cosby for Jello
1) a brand is more than a name or symbol
2) creating a great customer experience is Of course, perception of a brand does not founders / managers Martha Stewart for herself
the essence of good branding arise on its own. Rather, it grows out of Dave Thomas for Wendy’s
sign brand
3) perceptions of a brand can be measured experience with a product. Here, product Bill Gates for Microsoft
4) brands are a form of sign is used in a broad sense incorporating the
results of many activities commonly as- invented characters human-like figures, which inhabit real or fantasy worlds
sociated with marketing. Likewise, experi- based on
ence means here any point at which the product – the M&Ms men
signified perception
contact is made with a potential customer. animals – Morris The Cat
people – Cap’n Crunch
can be
symbols
magical creatures – Keebler Elves
Peirce suggests a more complex model
of signs. His model has three parts: object, mascots the GOP elephant
representamen, and interpretant. The
concept of brand as formed by the triad:
product, name, and perception, parallels symbols do not represent brands
words abbreviations Coke for Coca-Cola
Peirce’s three-part model. directly; instead, symbols call to
GM for General Motors
product experience perception mind the name of a brand which
MSFT for Microsoft
in turn calls to mind an associated
perception
representamen name slogans FDR’s “Happy days are here again”
most brand names and symbols
jingles Wrigley’s “Double your pleasure; double your fun”
can be converted to property by
represent
applying to a government to establish
tag lines Nike’s “Just do it”
In this model, a brand manager (or steward) trademark ownership;
brand
is responsible for any item which comes into
contact with customers. By controlling all once the government approves a
trademark application, a trademark sounds anthems The Star-Spangled Banner
the touch points, the manager tries to ensure object interpretant
that customers have a great experience. owner may prevent other people
from using the trademark without auditory icons Intel Inside TV ad signature
product experience perception
permission AOL’s “You’ve got mail”
To complete the framework of the model, the
Dolby THX’s “sonic boom”
set of terms related to brand must be linked
telephone dial tone
to the set of terms related to experience.
Perception, common to both sets, is the link.
theme music Henry Mancini’s Pink Panther theme
name
signifier representamen
a brand name is a signifier;
signifiers are those things
brand we hear or see that bring to
mind the signified
can be
product experience perception
most products or aspects
of a product can also serve
as signifiers of the brand
name existing words things
(or ideas)
describing products
analogies for products
superlatives and qualities
Digital, Huggies, Newsweek
Oracle, Pampers, Sprint
All, Best, General, Paramount,
unrelated to the product Apple, Camel, Frog, Thrasher
people surnames Dell, Ford, McDonald’s
(often founders) first names Aldus, Ben & Jerry’s
groups Quaker Oats, Roman Meal
places specific spot Parliament, Wall Street Journal
(often of origin) city or town Calistoga, Corning
region Eastern, Great Plains
represents
country British Airways
continent North American Van Lines
larger still Global, World, Universal
coined words analogous Ampex, Compaq, Navistar
arbitrary Formica, Kodak, Xerox, Unix
abbreviations contractions Fiberglas, Intel, Mobil, Wal-Mart
acronyms Alcoa, Nabisco, NYNEX, Texaco
through observation and analysis,
initials CBS, KFC, IBM
user experiences can form the basis
for improving products and may even
hybrids Bell Atlantic, Union Pacific
shape the stewards’ goals and values
sign
brands are signs; signs
are the combination of a
signifier and a signified;
one cannot be thought of
without the other
imagine can be by
stewards promise brand measured
brand stewards hold the brand in trust, brand stewards shape products brand promise is brands can grow out of: perceptions of a brand can be measured audiences may be segmented
in terms of
both for the financial owners and also by managing marketing and the audience expectation of a brand products and aggregated to give an overall view; based on:
for the emotional owners – those development which may include that is desired by the brand’s stewards; Coke, Frisbee perceptions can also be correlated to demographics
people who experience the brand these steps: services various audiences psychographics
sometimes thought of as Amazon, Citigroup technographics
a brand steward is anyone associated perceive audience brand identity organizations interests
with the development or sale of a product, understand needs GE, Harvard, Baptists attitudes
including: analyze options celebrities usage of a product
what’s delightful real people
senior management what’s viable Elizabeth Taylor 4
builds
rental car companies
guides
brand managers what’s buildable fictional characters position category
defines the set of competing brands Avis, Budget, Hertz, National, Thrifty, etc.
product managers choose direction Mickey Mouse measures of a brand
marketing managers
engineers
define big idea or concept
design
signified events
Rose Bowl
in relation to other relevance of the category “do I need a car for a short time?”
brands whether it matters to me
designers prototype
our perception of a brand –
factory workers test
the experiences and expectations ranking within the category leading brand, competes on quality
salespeople iterate
we associate with it – are its compared to other brands Hertz
customer support people build
signified
sales partners release
major brands
the signified is co-created Avis, National
can teach
by both brand stewards who
object provide products (and messages interpretant commodity brands, compete on cost
about them) and individuals who Thrifty, Budget, etc.
experience the products
differentiation for example, Apple, Dell, and Gateway
degree of similarity to other brands are computer brands;
Apple is less like Dell;
Dell is more like Gateway
delivers shapes
product experience shapes perception reach extent of recognition unaided recognition
percent of people in a given geography “name the brands you associate
measures of a brand with rental cars,” first and later mentions
in terms of numbers
of people affected aided recognition
“have you ever heard of Hertz?”
brand stewards have goals for their brands product is used here in a broad sense brand building begins at any the experience people have with the experience may brand perception is
often, an important goal is to influence and incorporates the traditional four point of contact with a potential a product shapes their perception frustrate, satisfy, or delight the audience expectation frequency of exposure
perception of a brand in a way that induces Ps of marketing: product, price, customer of a brand achieved by the brand’s stewards; number of impressions per unit time
placement, and promotion
purchase leaving any contact to chance direct experience while experience shapes perception sometimes thought of as frequency of use
joining creation of the product creates a risk of a poor experience considering a purchase perception also shapes experience brand image e.g., average visits per week
develop
adoption designing the product visiting a point of sale
function and behavior purchasing a product likewise an individual’s values, goals, duration of use
skin and form setting up the product needs, and expectations also shape e.g., average length of visit
goals for brands may be expressed in interface using the product perception of experience;
documentation maintaining the product for example, market share
business plans estimating packaging displaying the product in a blind taste test Pepsi beat Coke percent of use within a category
sales manufacturing the product in a labeled test Coke beat Pepsi
market share assembly process indirect experience
profitability quality control what friends say
return on investment providing customer service what experts say
guarantees and return policies what competitors say reputation emotional attributes affinity identify with at the highest level,
positioning statements which describe phone centers what the stewards say trust prefer affinity results in a passion brand
product benefits web sites e.g., ads, PR measures of a brand respect like / accept or lifestyle brand
unique selling propositions how others use the product in terms of attributes ignore where the brand becomes
desired brand attributes price of the product e.g., buy, display, etc. that people assign to it reject a means of self expression
desired brand personality setting the suggested retail price (SRP) how others react e.g., Nike or Catholicism
creating volume discounts a product may be related to to display of the product
creating special offers more than one brand: rational attributes value of product
consistency of experience
placement of the product
(controlling the distribution process)
opening direct showrooms
Sony
under a homogeneous master brand
employed where products change
frequently and must work together
IBM
individuals personality
(tone or character)
clarity of the brand’s purpose
described along dimensions
such as
Nike Microsoft young vs mature
opening a web site Sony individuals compare their needs
feminine vs masculine
opening a store-within-a-store with their expectation of one or
small vs large
Ralph Lauren in a mixed brand family more brands in a category;
quiet vs loud
placing signage which may indicate confusion about strategy playful vs serious
setting up merchandising displays for example, General Motors’ brand family they decide which brand most
setting franchise standards Buick closely matches their needs;
training salespeople Chevrolet
GM Truck if there is a match, they may
promotion of the product Saturn other brand measure taxonomies: Brand Attributes Brand Asset Valuator
purchase (alternatives to position, reach, reputation) relevant strength
influence
through public relations activities
press releases in a heterogeneous brand system join appealing relevance
analyst briefings employed for commodities to increase adopt differentiated differentiation
launch events shelf space and sales use consistent stature
by creating and running paid advertising for example, Proctor & Gamble makes display quality knowledge
TV both Tide and Cheer but does not identify good value esteem
radio them as coming from P&G if there’s not a match,
print they may look for new options - from G2, - from Young & Rubicam
outdoor as a co-brand or modify their expectations Gaynelle Grover
online simple co-brand
by developing word-of-mouth American Airlines MasterCard
through other viral activities an ingredient brand
Intel Inside on a Compaq Computer
a provenance brand
Appellation Margaux Controlée
Made in Japan
an endorsement brand
Underwriters Laboratories
a compatibility brand
MacOS
external systems
acknowledgements: partial list of sources: external systems play a role in
shaping individual’s
Ric Grefe, Director of the AIGA, suggested 1
this project after discussions at the AIGA Joseph Novak and Bob Gowin values
“Advance for Design” special interest group Learning How to Learn, 1985 goals
5 6
meeting in Santa Fe in the summer of 1999. needs Maslow’s list of human needs Malinowski’s list of human needs and responses
2 expectations
I distributed early versions at the Design Ferdinand de Saussure physiological metabolism — commissariat
Management Institute Branding Conference Course in General Linguistics, 1959 (external systems also affect brand safety and security reproduction — kinship
in the summer of 2000 and then distributed stewards) belongingness and love bodily comforts — shelter
more finished versions at the summer 2000 Charles Sanders Peirce esteem safety — protection
Advance for Design meeting in Telluride. Philosophical Writings of Peirce, 1986 cultural systems such as cognitive movement — activities
The AIGA published that version in its language aesthetic growth — training
journal, Gain, in the fall of 2000. Umberto Eco political systems self-actualization health – hygiene
A Theory of Semiotics, 1979 economic structures
Many people have contributed to the ideas available technologies
presented here. I am especially indebted to 3
Gaynelle Grover Chuck Byrne the physical environment
Peter Russert “Kinetic Identity,” Print Magazine, natural resources
John Cain May/June 1987 weather
Clement Mok disasters
David Brown 4
Chris Pullman Jack Trout and Al Ries,
Judy Logan Positioning: The Battle for Your Mind,
Lynn Carpenter 1993
Paul Pangaro
Beverly Volz 5
Abraham Maslow
Motivation and Personality, 1954 March 25, 2001
I hope that you find the model useful.
I invite feedback. You can reach me via 6 Copyright ©
email at info@dubberly.com. Bronislaw Malinowski Dubberly Design Office
A Scientific Theory of Culture 2501 Harrison Street, #7
- Hugh Dubberly and Other Essays, 1944 San Francisco, CA 94110
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