NJROTC Naval Science II Meteorology

1. CHAPTER 1
OUR ATMOSPHERE

2. The atmosphere consists of five
principal layers.
THE TROPOSPHERE
THE STRATOSPHERE
THE MESOSPHERE
THE THERMOSPHERE
THE EXOSPHERE
39,600 MILES
322 MILES
20 MILES
20 MILES
20 MILES
THE
EARTH

3. Our atmosphere is a mixture
of different gases.
oxygen
nitrogen
argon 1%
21%
78%

4. Scattered within the atmosphere is about
1 percent water vapor, called humidity.

5. Equatorial
Polar
Polar
The amount of water vapor is greater in
equatorial regions than in polar regions.

6. Virtually all of the
Earth’s weather
(tempestuous air
ocean) occurs
within the first
3.5 miles of our
atmosphere.

7. Tumultuous; turbulent
Tempestuous

8. About 99% of the
atmospheric
gases lie below
20 miles.
20 MILES
Troposphere

9. Beyond 45 miles, only
helium and hydrogen
exist in minute amounts.
322 MILES
11 MILES
20 MILES
20 MILES

10. 18,000
372
50
30
11 miles
Chemosphere
(Ozone)
The tropopause lies between the
troposphere and the stratosphere.

11. 18,000
372
50
30
11 miles
Tropopause
The chemosphere (ozone layer) lies
mainly between the stratosphere and
mesosphere.

12. 18,000
372
50
30
11 miles
Chemosphere
(Ozone)
Tropopause
500
Ionosphere
The ionosphere is the whole area
encompassing the mesosphere
and the thermosphere.

13. What element or gas makes up the
majority of the Earth’s atmosphere?
a. Nitrogen
b. Oxygen
c. Argon
d. Carbon dioxide

14. The troposphere extends to a height
of about 11 miles above the equator,
some 7.5 miles in the temperate zones,
and only about 5 miles above the poles.
THE
EARTH 11 MILES
THE TROPOSPHERE

15. The lowest layer of the atmosphere,
within which there is a steady drop
in temperature with increasing
altitude and within which nearly all
cloud formations occur and weather
conditions manifest themselves
Troposphere

16. Nearly all clouds are in the
troposphere,
so it is here that weather occurs. Air
heated by the Earth rises, in a process
called convection.

17. In the troposphere,
the air automatically
changes about 5½°
for each 1,000 feet
traveled vertically.
This is called
adiabatic warming
or cooling.
Troposphere
85 °F (Sea level)
56 °F

18. Swift movement of cold air masses
about the vast Antarctic continent is
a major factor in determining the
world’s weather.

19. New
Zealand South
America
Antarctica

20. Located in the area between 20,000 and
40,000 feet is the jet stream. It is most
prominent above the extra tropical and
Arctic tropopause overlap.
Jet Stream

21. The jet stream was discovered in WW II,
when B-29 bombers flying about 4 miles
high, found great assistance from
westerly winds of up to 300 mph.

22. It has been found that jet streams are
the strongest over Japan and the New
England states.
Summer Jet Stream

23. The stratosphere lies just above the
tropopause and extends to an altitude
of about 30 miles, characterized by little
vertical change in temperature (a fairly
constant -40 to -50 °F). There is almost
no weather here due to the thin air and
few clouds.
THE
EARTH
30 MILES
THE STRATOSPHERE

24. Modern commercial airlines seek to fly
in the stratosphere when not using the
jet stream because there is so much
less air resistance. This makes for
better fuel mileage, little turbulence,
and flight at top speeds.

25. 18,000
372
50
30
11 miles
500
The ionosphere is an area of electrically charged
ions lying above the stratosphere. It begins 30 -
40 miles up and extends to about 500 miles.

26. Disturbances from the Sun can
cause
changes in the ionosphere’s form.
These magnetic and electrical storms
cause the Northern Lights.

27. The ionosphere
will reflect radio
waves of certain
frequencies.
By determining the
best frequencies
and times of day to
transmit messages,
communications are
greatly enhanced.

28. THE
EARTH
30 MILES
THE MESOSPHERE
11 MILES
The lowest level of the ionosphere, the
mesosphere, extends from 30 - 50 miles
above the Earth. Temperatures range
from a high of 32 °F to a low of minus
100 °F.

29. The region between the ionosphere
and the exosphere, extending from
about 30 - 50 mi. above the surface
of the Earth
Mesosphere

30. THE
EARTH
322 MILES
THE THERMOSPHERE
The thermosphere is the highest layer
of the ionosphere. The principal radio
reflecting layers are here. Temperatures
in the thermosphere may reach 1,700 °F
at 300 miles up.

31. The region of the upper atmosphere
in which temperature increases
continuously with altitude,
encompassing essentially all of the
atmosphere above the mesosphere
Thermosphere

32. Starting below and extending into the
ionosphere is the chemosphere (ozone
layer). It begins at about 15 miles up
and shields the Earth from the harmful
ultraviolet rays of the Sun.
18,000
372
50
30
11 miles

33. The layer of the upper atmosphere
where most atmospheric ozone is
concentrated, from about 8 - 30 mi.
(12 - 48 km) above the Earth, with
the maximum ozone concentration
occurring at an altitude of about
12 mi. (19 km.)
Ozone Layer
(Chemosphere)

34. The ozone layer is being depleted by
luorocarbons used as propellants for aerosol cans
and refrigerants used for air conditioning systems.

35. The exosphere
begins about 500
miles above the
Earth’s surface
and continues
out about 18,000
miles. Only light
hydrogen and
helium atoms
exist because of
intense cosmic radiation.
Temperatures may range from 4,500 °F
to near absolute zero.
18,000

36. Located within the exosphere are intense
radiation areas called the Van Allen
Radiation Belts.
Van Allen Radiation Belts

37. The inner belt is located about 400 -
3,400 miles above the Earth. It contains
high-energy protons.
Van Allen Radiation Belts
Inner
Belt

38. Van Allen Radiation Belts
Outer
Belt
The outer belt is located 8,000 - 40,000
miles above the Earth. It contains high-
energy electrons.

39. Manned space
missions are
intentionally flown
well below the
lower limits of the
Van Allen Belts,
and satellites
operating in these
regions must be
shielded against
the radiation
encountered there.

40. The weight of the atmosphere varies with the
amount of water vapor present, the
temperature, and the height above the Earth’s
surface. A barometer measures variations in
atmospheric pressure.

41. Generally employed
for use at sea, the
mercurial type
barometer consists
of an accurately
calibrated glass tube
filled with mercury.
It is used at shore
activities to check
aneroid barometers
for accuracy.
Mercurial Barometer

42. Vacuum Chamber
Lever
Spindle
Pointer
Aneroid Barometer
The aneroid, or dry
barometer, contains
a small metallic cell
that atmospheric
Pressure increases
and expands when
Pressure decreases
moving a needle
that points to a
graduated scale.

43. Barometers can be graduated in either
inches of mercury or millibars. Millibars
are normally used on weather charts.

44. The metric unit of measurement for
air pressure
A centimeter-gram-second unit of
pressure equal to one thousandth
of a bar or 1000 dynes per square
centimeter, used to measure air
pressure
Millibar

45. The average atmospheric pressure at
the Earth’s surface is 29.92 inches,
or
1,013.2 millibars.

46. An air mass is a large body of air with
the same temperature and humidity. It
generally takes on the characteristics of
the surface over which it forms but has
different characteristics.

47. It takes more heat to warm water
temperatures than soil temperatures.

48. In seawater, heat is absorbed to depths
in excess of 80 feet.

49. Only a few inches of topsoil will
absorb radiation. This means oceans
are slower to warm up and cool down
than landmasses.

50. In winter, the United States is swept
by continental air masses from the
cold Arctic.
Winter
Air Masses

51. In summer, we are swept by warm,
moist maritime air masses.
Summer
Air Masses

52. When warm and cold air masses touch,
the boundary between them is called a
front.

53. A warm front is formed when a
warm air mass moves over a cold
air mass.
Warm Front

54. A cold front is formed when a
cold air mass moves under a
warm air mass and pushes the
warm air up.
Cold Front

55. A front between warm and cold air
masses that is moving very slowly,
or not at all
When a warm or cold front stops
moving, it becomes a stationary
front.
Stationary Front

56. Violent frontal weather systems can
be predicted from a chart showing
atmospheric pressures.

57. Weather charts usually illustrate barometric
pressures as millibar reading points. The lines
on the above map, drawn through points of
equal pressure, are called isobars, which
never join or cross.

58. Isobars give a rough indication of the
amount of wind in an area. The closer
the bars, the stronger the wind in that
area.

59. The weight of the atmosphere varies
from place to place depending on
which of the following?
a. Wind, temperature, pressure
b. Temperature, height, wind
c. Water vapor, temperature,
height
d. Water vapor, pressure, wind

60. Weather is the condition of the
atmosphere, expressed in terms of its
heat, pressure, wind, and moisture.

61. It is heat, and the transfer of heat, that
causes the weather. Without it there
would be no winds, varying air
pressures, storms, rain, or snow. All
weather changes are caused by
temperature changes in different parts
of the atmosphere.

62. Fundamental natural laws determine
weather changes:
• Warm air is lighter
in weight and can
hold more water
vapor than cold
air.
• Cold air is heavier
and has a tendency
to flow toward the
rising warm air.

63. Fundamental natural laws determine
weather changes:
• As air moves, wind
is created. This is
beginning of the
complex forces that
cause the changing
weather.

64. The Sun is our principal source of
energy:
• It bombards the Earth with 126 trillion
horsepower each second.
• Its energy waves, or radiation, travel
at 186,300 miles per second (speed
of light).

65. Solar energy is referred to as insolation,
Incoming Solar Radiation.
About 43% of the radiation reaching our
planet is changed into heat.

66. • Clouds reflect back 75% of sunlight.
• Earth’s average cloudiness is 52%.
• About 36% of the total insolation never
reaches Earth.
Clouds and other atmospheric influences
absorb some of the incoming radiation,
but they reflect much of it.

67. Dense forests absorb 95% of insolation.

68. Water reflects 60 - 96% of insolation,
depending on the angle the light hits the
surface.

69. In effect, the Earth’s
cloud cover acts like
the glass of a
greenhouse. It lets
short solar rays
pass through; the
Earth absorbs the
ones that get
through, then
re-radiates long
heat rays.

70. Long heat waves
cannot all get
through the
atmosphere
because they are
absorbed by water
vapor, so they
stay within the
“greenhouse” in a
continual cycle.
Atmosphere
Earth
Heat

71. Without atmosphere, the Earth would be
like the Moon with boiling temperatures
during the day and sub-freezing
temperatures during the night.

72. The Navy and most
civilians in America
use thermometers
with a Fahrenheit
(F) scale.
Steam Point
Ice Point 32°F
212°F
Fahrenheit

73. Noting, pertaining to, or measured
according to a temperature scale in
which 32° represents the freezing
point and 212° the boiling point
Fahrenheit

74. Temperatures in
meteorology and
most other sciences,
however, are usually
expressed according
to the Celsius (C)
scale.
Boiling
Point
Freezing
Point
Celsius
0°C
100°C

75. Pertaining to or noting a temperature
scale in which 0° represents the
freezing point and 100° the boiling
point of water
Celsius

76. There are 5 °C temperature for every
9 °F.
Formula: C = 5/9 (F - 32)
Since 32 °F is equivalent to 0 °C, to
change a Fahrenheit reading to
Celsius, you subtract 32° and then
multiply the remainder by 5/9.

77. What is the temperature in Celsius
if it is 59 °F?
First subtract 32 from the
F temperature
Then multiply the number by 5/9
to get the C temperature

78. What is the temperature in Celsius
if it is 59 °F?
- 32 °
59 °
27 °
27 °
5
9
= 15 °CX

79. Conversion Formula
This process is reversed to convert
Fahrenheit to Celsius.
Formula: F = 9/5 C + 32°

80. What is the temperature in
Fahrenheit if it is 15 °C?
First multiply the C temperature
by 9/5
Then add 32 to the product to
get the Fahrenheit temperature

81. + 32 °
27 °
59 °F
15 °
9
5
= 27 °X
What is the temperature in Fahrenheit
if it is 15 °C?

82. If you compare these
thermometers, you will
note that the top of the
column of alcohol is in
the shape of a curve
called a meniscus. The
accurate reading for an
alcohol thermometer is
at the bottom of this
curve; for mercury it is
at the top.
Alcohol in Glass
Mercury in Glass

83. A crescent or a crescent-shaped
body
The convex or concave upper
surface of a column of liquid, the
curvature of which is caused by
surface tension
Meniscus

84. Heat causes evaporation of millions of
tons of water daily.

85. A process called transpiration causes
additional huge amounts of water to
enter the air from the green leaves of
plants.

86. The passage of water through a plant
from the roots through the vascular
system to the atmosphere
Transpiration

87. As warm, moist air rises, it expands and
cools, eventually reaching its saturation
level (100% relative humidity) and causes
the vapor to condense into a liquid.
Water
droplets form in the clouds, and
precipitation occurs.

88. Falling products of condensation in
the atmosphere, as rain, snow, or
hail
Precipitation

89. This hydrologic cycle of evaporation,
condensation, and precipitation is
continually in process.
Precipitation
on Land
Evaporation
from Land Evaporation
from Ocean
Precipitation
on Ocean
Moisture
over Land

90. Since warm air can hold more moisture
than cold air, relative humidity goes up
when air with a given amount of water
vapor cools, and drops when that air is
heated.

91. When air is cooled to its dew point temperature,
small water droplets condense on objects and
dew is formed.

92. The temperature to which air must
be cooled, at a given pressure and
water vapor content for it to reach
saturation
The temperature at which dew
begins to form
Dew Point

93. Relative humidity is
measured using a
psychrometer, an
instrument for determining
the atmospheric humidity
by the reading of two
thermometers, the bulb of
one being kept moist and
ventilated
Psychrometer

94. Sling psychrometers are often used aboard
ship to speed up the process of getting
accurate wet and dry-bulb readings.
Sling Psychrometer

95. A.1. TRUE
Q.1. TRUE or FALSE. The harsh
Russian winter weather was a
factor that helped defeat Hitler
in World War II.

96. A.2. Galileo
Q.2. Who invented the
thermometer?

97. A.5. A general view of the weather
Q.5. What does synoptic
meteorology mean?

98. A.6. As observational tools
Q.6. How do meteorologists use
satellites?

99. A.7. Meteorology
Q.7. What name is given to the
science of weather?

100. A.8. A crude hygrometer
Q.8. What was the first
meteorological instrument to
be developed?

101. A.9. An ocean of air immediately
above the Earth’s surface
Q.9. What is the troposphere?

102. A.10. The transitional zone between
the troposphere and the near
void of the stratosphere
Q.10. What is the tropopause?

103. A.11. The consistent temperature
change due to change in
altitude
Q.11. What is adiabatic warming and
cooling?

104. A.12. A current of air that moves
swiftly from west to east
around the Earth
Q.12. What is a jet stream?

105. A.13. Mercurial and aneroid
Q.13. In the Navy, what two types of
barometers are used?

106. A.14. Exosphere
Q.14. What is the topmost layer of
the atmosphere?

107. A.15. Mesosphere
Q.15. What is the lowest level of the
ionosphere?

108. A.16. Thermosphere
Q.16. What is the highest level of the
ionosphere?

109. A.17. When warm and cold air
masses touch, the boundary
between them is a front.
Q.17. What is a front?

110. A.18. A large body of air with the
same temperature, humidity,
and pressure
Q.18. What is an air mass?

111. A.19. The chemosphere or ozone
layer
Q.19. Which layer shields the Earth
from the Sun's harmful
ultraviolet rays?