1. History of
Instructional Design
Part One
EDUU566
Based on Reiser & Dempsey, 2006 & Reiser, 2001
Carla Piper, Ed. D.
Course Developer
2. What is Instructional Design?
• Involves the analysis of learning and
performance problems
• Includes design, development, implementation,
evaluation and management of instructional and
non-instructional processes and resources
• Intended to improve learning and performance in
a variety of settings including educational
institutions and the workplace
• Uses systematic instructional design (ISD)
procedures and employ a variety of instructional
media to accomplish their goals.
(Reiser, 2001 p. 57)
3. History of Instructional Media
• Primary physical means of instruction prior
to the 20th Century
– The teacher
– The chalkboard
– The textbook
• Influence of technology
– the use of media for instructional purposes
– the use of systematic instructional design
procedures or instructional design
4. World War II
Psychologists and Educators
• Conducted experimental research
• Developed training materials for the military
• Influenced the types of training materials that
were developed
• Based on their work on instructional principles
• Examined research and theory on instruction,
learning, and human behavior
5. American Institutes for Research
• Established after WWII
• Started seeing training as a system
• Developed a number of innovative analysis, design, and
evaluation procedures
• Programmed instruction movement (mid-1050s through
the mid-1060s)
• Major factor in the development of the systems
approach.
6. B.F. Skinner
• Wrote article called: The Science of
Learning and the Art of Teaching (1954)
• Believed that increasing human learning
could increase if instructional materials were
effectively designed.
• Programmed instructional materials should:
– present instruction in small steps
– require overt responses to frequent questions
– provide immediate feedback
– allow for learner self-pacing
• Learner would receive positive
reinforcement with the feedback they
received
More on Skinner
• TIP Theories – Operant Conditioning
7. Programmed Instruction
• Data regarding the effectiveness of
the materials were collected
• Instructional weaknesses were
identified
• Materials were revised accordingly
• Trial and revision procedure
provided formative evaluation B.F. Skinner’s
Teaching Machine for
• Still found in current instructional Programmed Instruction
design models.
More on Programmed Instruction
8. Robert Mager
• Preparing Objectives for Programmed
Instruction (1962)
– now in its third edition
• Describes how to write objectives that include
– a description of desired learner behaviors
– the conditions under which the behaviors are to be
performed
– the standards (criteria) by which the behaviors are
to be judged
• Current instructional designers still require
these three elements in course objectives
• TIP Theories – Criterion Referenced Robert Mager
Instruction
• How to Write Learning Objectives -
http://depts.washington.edu/eproject/objectives.htm
9. Benjamin Bloom
• Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives (1956)
• Various types of learning
outcomes within the
cognitive domain
Evaluation
– Objectives could be
Synthesis
classified according to type
of learner behavior Analysis
described Application
– A hierarchical relationship Comprehension
exists among the various Knowledge
types of outcomes
10. The Criterion-Referenced Testing Movement
of the 1960s
• Norm-referenced tests common before the early 1960s
– spread out the performance of learners
– bell curve - determine the norm or average scores in a
population
– some students do well on a test and others do poorly
• Criterion-referenced tests
– determine how well an individual can perform a particular
behavior or set of behaviors
– Individual performance not compared to the performance of
others
• Glaser (1963) used criterion-referenced measures
– assess student entry-level behavior
– determine the extent to which students had acquired the
behaviors an instructional program was designed to teach
12. The Systems Approach – 1970s
• U.S. Military developed instructional design
model for training
• Instructional improvement centers were created
in higher education
– To help faculty use media and instructional design
procedures to improve the quality of their instruction
• Marks the beginning of graduate programs in
instructional design
• Professional organizations formed – Educational
Technology and Research Development
• Current ASAT Website – Army Automated
Systems Approach
20. Don Clark’s ADDIE Timeline
http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/history_isd/addie.html
21. Don Clark’s ADDIE Backwards Design
http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/ADDIE/ADDIE_backwards_planning_model.html
22. 1980s – Computer-based Instruction
• Applied principles of cognitive psychology in the
instructional design process
• Increasing interest in the use of microcomputers
for instructional purposes
• Instructional design professionals turned their
attention to producing computer-based
instruction
• Began to develop new models of instructional
design to accommodate the interactive
capabilities
• ERIC Digest – Roblyer (1989)
23. Robert Gagne
• The Conditions of Learning (1965 currently in 4th
edition)
• Described five domains or types of learning
outcomes
– verbal information
– intellectual skills
– psychomotor skills
– attitudes
– cognitive strategies
• Each require a different set of' conditions to
promote learning
• TIP Theories – Conditions of Learning
24. Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction
1. Gain attention (reception)
2. Inform learners of objectives (expectancy)
3. Stimulate recall of prior learning (retrieval)
4. Present the content (selective perception)
5. Provide "learning guidance" (semantic
encoding)
6. Elicit performance (responding)
7. Provide feedback (reinforcement)
8. Assess performance (retrieval)
9. Enhance retention and transfer
(generalization). Tip Theories
26. The 1990s - Constructivism
• Constructivist theory of learning and instruction
• The instructional principles require learners to:
– solve complex and realistic problems
– work together to solve those problems
– examine the problems from multiple perspectives
– take ownership of the learning process (rather than
being passive recipients of instruction)
– become aware of their own role in the knowledge
construction process
• Designers create "authentic learning tasks that reflect
the complexity of the real-world environment in which
learners will be using the skills they are learning”
27. 1990s Developments
• New electronic • Rapid prototyping
performance support – developing a prototype product in
systems the very early stages
– information base with – going through a series of rapid
essential work tryout and revision cycles until an
information acceptable version of the product is
– intelligent coaching produced
and expert • CAD –Computer-aided Design
advisement systems
– customized support
tools that automate
and simplify job tasks
• Increased interest in
using the Internet for
distance learning
28. Cognitive Information Processing (CIP) Theory
• Memory is basis for information processing
• Three stages of memory
– Sensory
• perceive organizations in patterns in environment
• recognize and code patterns
– Short term
• hold information briefly
• try to make sense of information
• make connections with information in long term memory
– Long term
• enables learner to remember
• Helps learner apply information to real-life applications
• The importance of feedback
– Provides learner with knowledge about the correctness of his/her
response or adequacy of performance
– Allows learner to correct response or improve performance
Reiser (2006), p. 38
29. CIP and Stages of Memory
http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/cogsys/infoproc.html
31. Books Papers
Office
Schema Theory Chairs Laptop
Desk
• “Knowledge presented in long term memory as packets
of information called schemata” (Reiser, 2006, p. 39).
• Schemata –organize information in categories in
“systematic, predictable ways”
• Automated schemata free learner’s working memory
capacity
• Roles and scripts for interpreting the world and making
predictions about environment (Widmayer, 2007).
• Each individual’s schema is unique and dependent on
experiences and cognitive processes.
32. Cognitive Load
• Working memory needs to be kept to a minimum of “7
chunks of information at the same time”
• Goal is to facilitate the changes in long term memory
• “Need to group or chunk information in smaller portions
so working memory is not overloaded and information
can be passed to long term memory more efficiently
allowing learning to occur”
33. Situated Learning Theory
• Learning occurs in a community Individual
of practice (Wenger)
Information
• Relies on social and cultural
aspects of learning
• Students in community of
Passive Active
practice
– Enter as individual newcomer and
begin to engage in the practices of
the community
– Become old timers in the community
and refine practices Experience
– Sustain the interconnected Social
community and become effective
and valuable leaders
http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/situated.htm
34. Need for Instructional Designers
• Distance learning programs
– need for high quality Internet based instruction
– can not simply be on-line replicas of the instruction
delivered in classrooms
• Trend toward knowledge management
– identifying, documenting, and disseminating explicit
and tacit knowledge within an organization in order to
improve the performance of that organization
– database programs, groupware, and intranets allow
organizations to "manage" (i.e., collect, filter, and
disseminate) knowledge and expertise
35. Resources
• Survey of Instructional Design Models (1997) -
http://www.ericdigests.org/1998-1/survey.htm
• Instructional Design Models
• TIP Theories
• Wikipedia
• Reiser, R.A. (2001). History of Instructional
Design (Website)
• Reiser & Dempsey (2006). Trends and Issues in
Instructional Design and Technology.
