Presented at Royal Geographic Society, with IBG, Annual International Conference. 31st August to 2nd September 2011
(Re-)Imagining ‘Return Migration’: Language, Concepts and Contexts.
1. The Modern Kikokusei.
Returnee Experience & Returnee
English Usage In Japan.
(Re-)Imagining ‘Return Migration’: Language, Concepts & Contexts.
RGS - IBG Annual International Conference 2011.
Carol Begg
Kanda University of International Studies
carol-b@kanda.kuis.ac.jp
2. Introduction
Japan
Returnee/Kikokusei
The Returnee Problem
Study
19
3. Japan
• Relationships orientated
Interdependence / Amae
• Vertical Society / Tate Shakai
• Both are...
...nurtured & practiced
throughout formal education
“...a complex web of mutual obligations
...indicated through verbal & and responsibilities...”
non-verbal communication. (Rohlen, LeTendre, 1996: 119),
18
4. Japan
• “Personhood” & Individual Agency
Understanding that conforming to the group
leads to harmony and happiness for group
Group Harmony
members
• Kejime, the ability to read & adjust to the
onus of any social situation
This is considered a sign of maturity
• Difference
Wa
Inside vs. Outside / Uchi vs. Soto
17
5. • The word entered the Japanese lexicon
in the 1970s
Returnee / Kikokusei Kikokushijo
帰国生 帰 国 子 女
return country girl
boy/child
• Criteria differ across governmental
departments & educational facilities
• Only commonality is the lack of agency
in the sojourn
16
6. Returnee / Kikokusei
帰国生
• Acquire the communicative
norms of the host country/
countries
Eye contact
Direct/Indirect styles
• Perceived fluency & native-like
pronunciation
• International perspective, critical
of ‘home’ country
15
7. The Returnee Problem /
帰国生 問題
• Social
“Can’t read the air”
Relationships & Language
• Education Expectations
English Ability
Japanese Ability
Different learning styles
• Nationality / Labels
Kanno - differentiated reintegration & assimilation
14
8. The Returnee Problem /
帰国生 問題
• Perception of Returnees & Changes "When Japanese leave Japan, their
membership is suspended.
Every year they are away, re-entry as
Ambassadors members of the group ... becomes more
difficult.
It is particularly difficult if after reentry they
Victims betray their exposure to foreign ways, which
reminds others of the severing
of bonds.
Re-entry raises questions of identity that can
Privileged Elite be silenced only by strict conformity and
virtual denial of the foreign experience."
Ching Lin Pang. 2000: 171
Assets / Problems?
13
9. The Returnee Problem /
帰国生 問題
• Educational programmes 1980s
• Readjustment - Japanese society
• Remedial - Japanese Language
‘peeling off the foreignness'
ひらがな (gaikoku hagashi)
カタカナ
漢字
Romanji
12
11. The Study
Aims
What role(s) does English play for Returnees?
What does it mean to the individual?
How is it perceived collectively?
Is English ability more symbolic or practical?
10
12. Website & Online
questionnaire
English &
日本語
1
Former Students
Returnee Schools
Multiple choice / Likert scale
Social Networks
Sentence completion
2
18+ Participants self-labelled
Researcher as removed Anonymous
as possible Voluntary Open-ended questions
for qualitative responses
The Study Method
9
13. Usage
• Usage Groups
15%
RL2 5%
JL2
NL2
80%
• Native Users
Native User as Optimal 5% Native-like proficiency
22%
for Improvement is important
Agree Agree
Disagree Disagree
78%
95%
8
14. Identity
• For me English is... • For Kikokusei English is...
... a necessity. One key factor that sets
... part of who I am
us apart from other students.
... one of the parts of my identity.
When I speak English, I feel like I
am different from me speaking
Japanese
... it is part of who I am. English
helps me express the other part of
me that I cannot express in
Japanese.
7
15. Internationalism & Transformation
• For me English is...
... a thing that connects me with other cultures.
... a language that completely changed my life by letting me see the whole
wide world.
... a language tool and something which keeps me international than being
national. Whenever I speak English, it is a great chance to express my
ideas which could not be expressed in my mother-tongue
6
16. Utility & Advantage
• Exams & Education
English is just a tool to pass entrance
exams for universities for kikokusei....
they can take exams much easier than
normal high school students have to
take.
• Jobs & International Business
For me, English is a capital to
surpass my competitors in different
occasions of society. Ability to speak
English is highly valued in Japanese
society, but not all English learners
can obtain that.
5
17. Identity Maintenance
• Returnees have their identity constantly challenged.
• Dichotomised notions of identity are misplaced & detrimental.
• Their identity is unique as Kikokusei (Sasagawa, Toyoda & Sakano).
• Accuracy of language vs. Intra-language, code-switching, code-mixing
4
18. Third Culture Kids / Global Nomads
• Labels admit & exclude
• Internationalism - Cosmopolitanism
• Transnational - Transcultural
• Something unique to the individual
3
19. Current Study
• International Exposure
• Value of English vs. Third
Language
• Non-native teachers as L2 role
models
• Ownership of English
2
20. Thank you for listening.
carol-b@kanda.kuis.ac.jp
References:
Ching Lin Pang., 2000. Negotiating Identity in Contemporary Japan: The Case of Kikokushijo. London:
Kegan Paul International.
Kanno, Y., 2000. Bilingualism and Identity: Stories of Japanese Returnees. International Journal of Bilingual
Education and Bilingualism. Volume 3:1, pp. 1 - 18.
Kanno, Y., 2002. The Development of Bicultural Identities: Japanese Returnees' Experiences. The Language
Teacher. Vol. 6
Kanno, Y., 2003. Negotiating Bilingual and Bicultural Identities: Japanese Returnees Betwixt Two Worlds.
University of Washington: Washington
Rohlen, T P., LeTendre, G K., Eds. 1996. Learning and Teaching in Japan. United States of America:
Cambridge University Press.
Sasagawa, S., Toyoda, H., Sakano, Y., 2006. The Acquisition of Cultural Values in Japanese Returnee
Students. International Journal of Intercultural Relations. Vol. 30. pp. 333-343.
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